The Effects of Appearance-Related Commentary on Body Dissatisfaction,

Eating Pathology, and Body Change Behaviors in Men

Elizabeth Schuster, Charles Negy, and Stacey Tantleff-Dunn
University of Central Florida
Appearance- related commentary can be positive or negative. Such commentary has been shown to
negatively affect the mental health and well-being of women in a well-documented body of research.
There is limited research on this topic pertaining to males. The purpose of this study was to investigate
the effects of weight and shape based, appearance-related commentary in men. Results indicated that men
who reported receiving positive commentary were more likely to experience positive outcomes, report
less body dissatisfaction, and report engaging in more appearance-change behaviors (specifically,
behaviors having to do with exercise and muscle building). Men who reported receiving negative
commentary were more likely to experience eating pathology and body dissatisfaction and report more
dieting, hair-related, and genital focused behaviors. It appears that men are affected by negative,
appearance-related commentary in a similar fashion as women, but that they may respond to positive
commentary in ways consistent with the intentions of the comments.
Keywords: appearance-related commentary, teasing, body image, eating disorders, self-objectification
Empirical studies have found that appearance-related commen-
tary generally has negative effects on individuals body image,
eating behavior, and psychological well-being (Calogero & Her-
bozo, 2009; Thompson, Heinberg, Altabe, & Tantleff-Dunn,
1999). Although first posited in relation to womens body-esteem,
men have become increasingly objectified in the media and cul-
ture, possibly leading to an increase in male self-objectification
(Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997; Martins, Tiggemann, & Kirkbride,
2007). A little over a decade ago, Sobieraj (1996) found that 50%
of commercials aimed at women contained messages about phys-
ical attractiveness, whereas few targeted men. This has changed
dramatically with advertisements now targeting men to buy prod-
ucts and services previously aimed at women (e.g., NutriSystem
for Men). Such advertisements promote standards of attractiveness
for men and solutions for men who currently fail to meet such
standards. Although objectification theory was discussed origi-
nally in terms of women, mens bodies are increasingly dismem-
bered, packaged, and used to sell everything from chain saws to
chewing gum (Kilbourne, 1999, p. 33). The social effect of this is
similar to what has been found with the objectification of women;
the body becomes an object to be viewed and judged by others.
As objectification was explored further, researchers learned more
about the negative outcomes for high self-objectification in men
(Fredrickson, Roberts, Noll, Quinn, & Twenge, 1998; Morry &
Staska, 2001). Research has demonstrated that, compared to women,
the consequences of self-objectification for men may be somewhat
different, although similarly detrimental (Martins et al., 2007). For
example, exposure to and internalization of the medias representation
of the ideal male body has been shown to cause self-objectification as
well as muscle dissatisfaction in men (Agliata &Tantleff-Dunn, 2004;
Morry & Staska, 2001). As the objectification of male bodies has
increased in the media and in interpersonal relationships, so has the
number of ways in which men try to alter their appearance in response
to such pressure. Harvey and Robinson (2003) argue that the abun-
dance of fitness centers, purchase of exercise equipment, use of
anabolic steroids, and participation in both invasive and noninvasive
cosmetic procedures may reflect mens attempts to achieve Western
appearance ideals for men. In women, the difference between current
and preferred body shape and size is positively associated with body
dissatisfaction and other negative consequences such as restrained and
disordered eating behaviors (Stice, 2002). With the escalating objec-
tification of men in our society, disturbed eating behaviors and other
appearance change behaviors are becoming more common among
men as well (Harvey & Robinson, 2003; Morry & Staska, 2001).
Although we acknowledge that women may be more vulnerable
to appearance-related commentary and the effects of objectifi-
cation due traditional social patterns, investigating the way that
men experience and internalize appearance commentary may
facilitate our understanding of this phenomenon and our ability
to intervene in ways that are relevant to men.
Appearance-Related Commentary
Most theoretical literature pertaining to appearance-related com-
mentary defines it as either appearance-related/weight-related teas-
ing or appearance-related feedback, or some combination
(Schwartz, Phares, Tantleff-Dunn, & Thompson, 1999; Thompson
& Smolak, 2001). The main difference between the two phenom-
This article was published Online First September 26, 2011.
Elizabeth Schuster, Charles Negy, and Stacey Tantleff-Dunn, Clinical
Psychology, College of Sciences, University of Central Florida.
This article is based on data presented at the 111th annual conference of
the American Psychological Association, Washington, DC. (August,
2011).
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Elizabeth
Schuster, Department of Psychology, University of Central Florida, P.O.
Box 161390, Orlando, FL 32816. E-mail: eschuster@knights.ucf.edu
Psychology of Men & Masculinity 2011 American Psychological Association
2013, Vol. 14, No. 1, 7687 1524-9220/11/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/a0025625
76
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ena is that teasing is usually a negative experience in which the
teaser is directly and negatively criticizing some aspect of an
individuals appearance. By contrast, appearance-related feedback
can be either positive or negative. Appearance-related feedback
may not involve the direct teasing of an individuals physical
appearance, rather, it involves statements, opinions, attitudes, and
even gestures related to ones physical appearance. Much evidence
suggests that standards of physical attractiveness can be directly
and indirectly promoted through negative commentary (Schwartz
et al., 1999; Thompson & Smolak, 2001). A smaller body of
literature also suggests that even positive commentary can lead to
negative consequences in terms of body image, eating behaviors,
and self-esteem. For the purposes of this research, we define
appearance related commentary as either positive or negative
appearance-related feedback made about individuals physical ap-
pearance given the evidence of its potentially harmful effects
(Calogero & Herbozo, 2009; Schwartz et al., 1999).
Comments about appearance are prevalent in society. Cash
(1995) found that commentary about womens physical appear-
ance is a fairly common occurrence, with 46% of participants in
his study reporting being teased moderately often. Garner (1997)
found that 44% of women and 35% of men reported that comments
made about their appearance helped to shape their body image
when they were younger. Additionally, Fabian and Thompson
(1989) found such appearance commentary to be linked to other
clinically relevant concerns such as eating disturbances and de-
creased psychological well-being.
In accordance with empirical research, it appears that men and
women experience different consequences when exposed to
appearance-related commentary. For women, body image and psy-
chological well-being are correlated negatively with appearance-
related commentary (Barker & Galambos, 2003; Furman &
Thompson, 2002; Keery, Boutelle, van den Berg, & Thompson,
2005; Schwartz et al., 1999), particularly negative appearance-
related commentary. Women tend to exhibit more concern about
their weight and become more active in their efforts to lose weight
in response to negative appearance-related messages relative to
men (Neumark-Sztainer et al., 2002).
In studies on men, the results have been less consistent com-
pared to results of similar studies with women. Extant literature on
this topic has demonstrated links between negative appearance-
related commentary and body image disturbance and negative
mental health outcomes in men. For example, Gleason, Alexander,
and Somers (2000) found that negative appearance messages pre-
dicted body dissatisfaction. Teasing has been established as both a
significant risk factor and a strong predictor of body dissatisfaction
in adolescent boys (Barker & Galambos, 2003; Leone et al., 2011).
Additionally, Schwartz et al. (1999) found that appearance-related
commentary from parents was a significant predictor of poor
psychological functioning in men. By contrast, some studies have
found no significant correlation between appearance commentary
and body satisfaction for men (Phares, Steinberg, & Thompson,
2004; Schwartz et al., 1999).
In terms of specific sources of commentaries, scant research
exists on this topic as it relates to male body concerns. Ricciardelli,
McCabe, and Banfield (2000) examined the influence of the role of
the commenter on adolescents boys body image and body change
methods. Comments from mothers (rather than from fathers) were
found to exert a greater influence over boys body image. The
majority of these messages were positive; mostly compliments and
praise (e.g., Youve got a good body; Youve got pretty big
muscles and Youre tall and have pretty good legs). Similar
positive messages were received from female friends. Boys who
reported receiving positive messages from mothers and female
friends demonstrated higher levels of body satisfaction. Interest-
ingly, in the same study, commentary from fathers, brothers, and
male friends was shown to be more significant in influencing body
change methods. Boys viewed their fathers, brothers, and male
friends as having a more important influence on their exercise and
eating patterns relative to mothers, sisters, and female friends.
Commentary from fathers, brothers, and male friends included
more behaviorally based statements (e.g., Youre looking skin-
ny; You could bulk up some and Are you eating enough
protein?). However, for approximately half of the boys in this
sample, comments from these significant people were not viewed
as important. More research is needed to determine why some
males are more sensitive than others to diverse sources of
appearance-related comments.
The preponderance of results in both theoretical and empirical
studies suggests that men may be affected by negative appearance
messages differently than women or in ways that may have not
been identified by current methodology. Moreover, investigations
of men and body image have typically focused on weight loss and
drive for thinness, constructs that have not been found to relate
closely to males body image concerns.
Need for Approval and Self-Esteem
Previous research has found need for approval and self-esteem
to be pivotal variables in the understanding of body image, eating
behavior, and overall psychological well-being (Furnham & Cal-
nan, 1998; Moulton, Moulton, & Roach, 1998; Ricciardelli &
McCabe, 2001; Williamson & Hartley, 1998). In theoretical re-
search, need for approval seems to be a significant motivator for
eating disordered behaviors and levels of body satisfaction (Ki-
yotaki & Yokoyama, 2006; Moulton et al., 1998). Garfinkel and
Garner (1982) suggested that individuals with eating disorders
possess a great need for approval from others and a need to please
others with their actions in order to maintain a sense of positive
self-worth. Mukai, Kambara, and Sasaki (1998) found that need
for approval is related to body dissatisfaction, above and beyond
eating disordered tendencies in college-aged women. Although
these claims have not been investigated in men, the literature on
need for approval demonstrates that men also want and seek
approval from others (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; McCormick,
Brannigan, & LaPlante, 1984). Similarly, self-esteem is correlated
with body image, eating pathology, and other behaviors performed
to change ones appearance for both men and women (ODea &
Abraham, 2000). Tiggemann (2005) suggested that self-esteem is
directly related to and in some cases based on feelings about
appearance, which is consistent with other theoretical findings in
this area (Button, Sonuga-Barke, Davies, & Thompson, 1996).
Crocker, Luhtanen, Cooper, and Bouvrette (2003) propose that
appearance is a separate facet of self-esteem. Other studies (e.g.,
Button et al.; ODea & Abraham, 2000) have shown that preex-
isting self-esteem seems to predict later eating concerns, disorders,
and body image problems in both men and women.
77
EFFECTS OF APPEARANCE-RELATED COMMENTARY
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Appearance Change Behaviors and Strategies in Males
Dissatisfaction with body shape, size, or weight is fairly perva-
sive. For women, such dissatisfaction is so common that it has
been referred to as a normative discontent in theoretical litera-
ture (Rodin, Silberstein, & Striegel-Moore, 1985). More recently,
research has focused on men who also experience dissatisfaction
with their bodies (Cohane & Pope, 2001; McCreary & Sasse,
2000; Pope, Olivardia, Borowiecki, & Cohane, 2001). Studies
have shown that men typically desire to be leaner and more
muscular (Hildebrandt, Langenbucher, & Schlundt, 2004; McCabe
& Ricciardelli, 2004; Morrison, Hopkins, Rowan, & Morrison,
2004; Muth & Cash, 1997; Pope, Phillips, & Olivardia, 2002;
Yelland & Tiggemann, 2003). Therefore, it seems that for both
men and women, body weight and body shape are central themes
of body image. However, researchers may have too narrowly
defined the attitudes and behaviors associated with male body
image as a result of the generalization of concepts taken from
literature on female body image.
Recent empirical research has demonstrated that there are other,
unique facets that may comprise male body image besides leanness
and muscularity concerns (Leone et al., 2011; Schooler & Ward,
2006; Tiggemann, Martins, & Churchett, 2008). Tiggemann et al.
(2008) found that among men, ideal body part ratings differed from
perceived actual body part ratings, resulting in dissatisfaction for
those parts. They also found that, on average, men desired to be
leaner, more muscular, have a fuller head of hair, have less body hair,
be taller, and have a larger penis. Schooler and Ward (2006) inves-
tigated the aspects of sweat, body hair, and odors in relation to male
body image and found that men who were relatively uncomfortable
with these body aspects had less body esteem and engaged in riskier
sexual behaviors and were likely to become emotionally and com-
municatively withdrawn compared to men who were more comfort-
able with those body aspects. Leone et al. (2011) found that desiring
the physique of another male and difficulty coping with criticism may
also be unique contributors of male body image.
Regarding hair, body hair removal (or depilation) has become more
accepted by men. Boroughs and Thompson (2002) reported that 90%
of men in their sample removed hair from their torso/abdomen, 85%
removed hair from their chest and groin, and 20% removed hair from
their upper back. Moreover, they found that many men reported
feeling anxious when they were unable to remove hair before social
events. In terms of head hair, the literature has shown that both men
and women rated a full head of hair as more desirable than bald or
thinning hair (Tiggemann et al., 2008). More importantly, men who
were going bald or currently bald identified themselves as less attrac-
tive and reported more self-consciousness and stress (Cash, 2001).
Penis size is another area that may influence male body image.
In one study, which included 25,000 male participants, 45% of
men were dissatisfied with the size of their penis and reported that
they wish it were larger (Lever, Frederick, & Peplau, 2006).
Similarly, Morrison, Bearden, Ellis, and Harriman (2005) found
that most men are more dissatisfied with the lengths of their
penises than with other body parts, such as shape, hair, or odor.
If men are increasingly dissatisfied with their physical appear-
ance, it is reasonable to infer that they may be increasing the
amount of time and the number of behaviors they do in order to
address their perceived shortcomings. For example, men under-
went 1,120,803 cosmetic procedures in 2008, which is a 9.7%
increase from the year 2000. Pectoral implant surgery has in-
creased 203% from 2007. The most performed procedure for males
in 2008 was nose reshaping, followed by eyelid surgery, liposuc-
tion, breast reduction, and hair transplantation, respectively
(ASPS, 2008).
To further support the theoretical notion that men may be
influenced increasingly by objectification, the emergence of
beauty products on the market that are specifically targeted to men
have notably increased. Popular and previously female-dominated
brands like Clinique and Shieshedo have introduced products
specifically for male image concerns, including skin care, hair
removal products, and wrinkle treatments. In 1997, men purchased
over 3.5 billion dollars worth of beauty products, a large increase
from the previous decade during which there were fewer male
cosmetic products on the market (Pope et al., 2002). As such,
the rise in both cosmetic surgery procedures for men and the
purchase and use of male beauty products suggest that concerns of
male body image outside the realm of leanness and thinness are
becoming more customary among contemporary men.
Current Study
Because men are being diagnosed with body image and eating
problems more frequently, it is important to understand the mech-
anisms by which appearance-related commentary influence mens
body image and associated behaviors (Carlat, Camargo, & Herzog,
1997). There has been little research attempting to discover what
strategies men are currently using to alter their bodies and other
facets of their appearance, and no research addressing the role of
appearance-related commentary in mens active attempts to
change their appearance. The current study addresses this gap in
the literature and may help to explain why men have increased
their appearance/body-change behaviors. This study represents an
extension of previous research by examining the extent to which
appearance-related commentary predicts body image disturbance
and eating pathology in men while also examining other, less
studied variables such as appearance change behaviors (e.g., hair
removal, genital enhancement, and diet behaviors).
Hypotheses
It was hypothesized that men who received relatively more
positive and negative appearance commentary would have higher
levels of body dissatisfaction, eating pathology, and appearance
change behaviors. Additionally, it was hypothesized that need for
approval and self-esteem, two variables found to be related to
several of the study variables, may account for observed differ-
ences between men who report high and low levels of appearance-
related commentary on the number of appearance-change behav-
iors, eating pathology, body dissatisfaction, and compulsive
exercise. Need for approval and self-esteem were treated as po-
tential covariates that might influence relations being examined in
the current study.
Method
Participants
Based on convenience sampling, participants were 454 male
undergraduate students from a large southeastern university in the
78
SCHUSTER, NEGY, AND TANTLEFF-DUNN
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U.S. Men were recruited from psychology courses and through the
universitys online-based research recruitment program. During
psychology-based classes, students are encouraged to participate in
ongoing research and are able to sign up for studies via an online
database. Participation in this study was voluntary but was re-
warded with extra credit. It was open to all male undergraduate
students (estimated to be approximately 1,500 male students).
Participants had a mean age of 20.6 years (SD 3.6). Regarding
ethnicity, 293 (64.7%) self-reported as non-Hispanic White, 70
(15.6%) as Hispanic/Latino, 45 (9.9%) as African American, 21
(4.8%) as Asian American, and 22 (4.9%) as other. Regarding
class standing, 163 (35.9%) self-reported as holding a freshman
status, 100 (22%) as sophomore status, 119 (26.2%) as junior
status, and 72 (15.9%) as senior status. Normality of the data was
checked using exploratory functions in SPSS. In a descriptive
analysis of items for all measures, and taking into account the
skewness and kurtosis indices, the data set appears similar to a
normal distribution. Data were discarded from any participant who
failed to respond to more than 5% of all questions (Tabachnick &
Fidell, 2007). As a result, data from 27 participants were not
included for analysis.
Materials
Participants completed an in-person or online research packet
consisting of the following measures:
VCOPAS. The Verbal Commentary on Appearance Scale
(Herbozo & Thompson, 2006) is a 21-item measure that assesses
the frequency and effect of physical appearance-related commen-
tary. It consists of three subscales: negative weight and shape,
positive weight and shape, and positive general appearance. Only
the first two subscales were used in this study. The negative weight
and shape subscale measures body-related comments that are con-
sidered to be negative (e.g., offensive) whereas the positive weight
and shape subscale measures body related comments consisting of
positive content (e.g., flattering). Sample items include I wish I
had a body like yours (positive weight/shape) and Have you
considered going on a diet? (negative weight/shape). Respondents
were asked to provide a frequency rating by indicating how often
they were the recipient of each listed comment using a 5-point
rating scale from never to always. Unless participants respond
never to a comment, they also are asked to indicate how positively
or negatively they experienced each comment using a 5-point scale
from very positive to very negative. Higher scores on the frequency
ratings reflects higher occurrence of receiving those particular
types of comments. In contrast, higher scores on the effect ratings
reflect more negative responses to those comments. Items from
this scale were developed based on an analysis of the previous
literature (e.g., Rieves & Cash, 1996; Tantleff-Dunn, Thompson,
& Dunn, 1995) of physical appearance-related comments reported
by females. Several measures of appearance feedback and body
image were used to determine convergent validity (e.g., The Feed-
back on Physical Appearance Scale, Tantleff-Dunn et al., 1995;
Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire, Brown,
Cash, & Mikulka, 1990; Eating Disorder Inventory-Body Dissat-
isfaction Subscale, Garner, 1991; and Fear of Negative Appear-
ance Evaluation Scale, Lundgren, Anderson & Thompson, 2004).
A social desirability indicator was included to test for response
bias.
The VCOPAS was originally created and normed on women.
For the purpose of this study, the authors of the scale were
contacted and permission to modify several items to make them
more applicable to men was granted. As a result, three items were
modified accordingly. For example, an original item that was
gender specific for women was you are pretty. This item was
modified to make it more appropriate for men and was presented
as you are handsome for participants of this study. Based on the
current sample of men, the subscales obtained Cronbachs alpha
reliability estimates of .84 (positive weight/shape) and .82 (nega-
tive weight/shape). The VCOPAS has not yet been used in a study
with men so descriptive information from previous studies with
men is not available. Based on the current sample, the means for
positive and negative weight/shape were 13.6 and 18.9, respec-
tively (SDs 4.4 and 6.5, respectively).
Eating Disorder Inventory-3. The Eating Disorder
Inventory-3 (EDI-3; Garner, 2004) consists of eight subscales that
assess traits, behaviors, and attitudes typically associated with
eating disorders, with higher scores reflecting greater eating pa-
thology. Three of the subscales of the EDI-3 were administered in
the current study: Drive for Thinness (7 items measuring an
extreme desire to be thinner and an intense fear of weight gain);
Bulimia (8 items measuring the tendency to engage in bouts of
uncontrollable overeating [e.g., binge eating]); and Body Dissat-
isfaction (10 items measuring dissatisfaction with ones overall
shape and size of the body). Sample items include: I think my
stomach is too big and I exaggerate or magnify the importance
of weight. For our study, we combined the Drive for Thinness and
Bulimia subscales to create to measure a single construct of
eating pathology. Based on the current sample of men, the
Eating Pathology and Body Dissatisfaction subscales obtained
Cronbachs alpha reliability estimates of .92 and .87, respectively.
Pritchard (2010) found a mean of 19.2 (SD 16.4) in a sample of
232 men. The mean and standard deviation found in the current
sample were 32.6 and 16.9, respectively.
Measure of appearance change behaviors/ strategies for
men. This measure was created specifically for our study in an
effort to gain a better understanding of the different behaviors and
strategies employed by men to alter their appearance. The measure
consists of items pertaining to the frequency of behaviors in the
following six categories: aerobic exercise, behaviors geared to-
ward increasing muscle mass (i.e., strength training, protein or
supplement use, and steroid use), dieting behaviors (i.e., following
a commercialized or self-started weight loss diet), head hair main-
tenance/enhancement (i.e., use of hair growth products, use of
prescription medications to cease or reverse hair loss, transplant
surgery, wearing a toupee or hat to cover bald spots, or hair
transplant surgery), body hair removal/enhancement behaviors
(i.e., trimming, shaving, waxing, or plucking of eyebrows, torso,
back, and pubic regions) and genital enhancement behaviors (i.e.,
prescriptions medications to establish or maintain and erection and
use of penis stimulating creams or pumps). As a means to provide
preliminary support for the construct validity of this measure, we
note that it correlates with other scales used in the current study.
For example, participants mean eating pathology score (as mea-
sured by the EDI-3 subscales) correlated positively with the diet-
ing questions on the new measure (r .48). Participants need for
approval scores and their scores on the Rosenberg Self-Esteem
Scale also correlated positively with the total number of appear-
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EFFECTS OF APPEARANCE-RELATED COMMENTARY
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ance change behaviors they performed (rs .39 and .42, respec-
tively). The six domains (aerobic exercise, muscle-building behav-
iors, dieting behaviors, behaviors related to head hair, behaviors
related to body hair, and behaviors related to genitals) and accom-
panying items were developed on the basis of previous literature
identifying possible body image concerns and problem areas spe-
cific to men (Cohane & Pope, 2001; Leone et al., 2011; Schooler
& Ward, 2006; Tiggemann et al., 2008). Participants were in-
structed to rate the frequency with which they engaged in these
behaviors: (e.g., never, once a month, daily, etc.). Sample items
include questions such as How often do you diet?, How often
do you use prescription medication to establish or maintain an
erection?, and How often do you pluck, shave, or wax your body
hair? Based on a subsample of men in this study (n 113), this
scale was found to have a testretest reliability estimate of .84. The
mean number of behaviors performed was 24.3 (SD 13.6).
Need for approval. To assess participants need to be ap-
proved by others; they completed the Martin-Larsen Approval
Motivation Scale-short form (MLAM-sf; Martin, 1984). The short
form is based on the original, 21-item MLAM (Larsen, Martin,
Ettinger, & Nelson, 1976) that was designed to assess respondents
desire to receive positive evaluations and social approval from
others. The MLAM-sf contains five counterbalanced statements to
which participants respond using a 5-point Likert-type scale, with
response options ranging from Strongly Disagree (1) to Strongly
Agree (5). Higher scores reflect a higher need for social approval
or acceptance. A sample item is In order to get along and be liked,
I tend to be what people expect me to be. Construct validity for
the MLAM-sf was demonstrated by its inverse correlations with
global and social self-esteem and positive correlations with self-
monitoring and a measure of inadequacy (Martin). Based on the
present sample of men, this scale obtained a Cronbachs alpha
reliability estimate of .98. This scale was normed on a sample of
men (Larsen et al., 1976) and is widely used in the field with men
(Hebert et al., 1997; Martin, 1984). The mean score of participants
in the current study was 27.1 (SD 5.7).
Rosenberg self-esteem scale. To assess participants self-
esteem, they completed the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE;
Rosenberg, 1979). This is a 10-item scale to which respondents
indicate their agreement to the statements using a Likert-type
response scale. Scores range from 030, with scores below 15
suggesting the presence of low self-esteem. Scores are tabulated by
reverse scoring items 3, 5, 8, 9, and 10 and then adding the scores
for a total. A sample item is I take a positive attitude toward
myself. The RSE attempts to measure a persons global self-
concept and has been found to have testretest reliability (2-week
interval) of .85 (Rosenberg). Based on the present sample of men,
this scale obtained a Cronbachs alpha reliability estimate of .73.
This scale is extensively used in the field, and has high internal
consistency, test-retest reliability and strong convergent validity
with college-aged men (Rosenberg, 1989; Shevlin, Bunting, &
Lewis, 1995). Samples from other studies with college-aged males
report similar means and standard deviations. Schmitt and Allik
(2005) reported a mean of 32.2 and a standard deviation of 5.01 in
996 college-aged men. Similarly, Martin-Albo, Nunez, Navarro,
and Grijalvo (2007) reported a mean of 32.5 (SD 3.9) in a
sample of 124 college-aged men. The mean score of participants in
the current study was 23.2 (SD 9.3).
Procedure
Prior to data collection, this study was reviewed and approved
by the institutional review board where the study took place.
Participation was voluntary. Men who completed the packets in
person were administered the questionnaires during class. Men
who completed the questionnaires online received the same set of
questionnaires. Both the online and the in person packets took
approximately 30 minutes to complete. All participants received
extra credit in their respective courses for their participation.
Results
Data Analytic Strategy
Our approach to the data was twofold: Initially, and prior to
formal hypothesis testing, zero-order correlation analyses were
performed on the data to determine if study variables correlated in
expected directions. After the correlations were established, we
elected to create groups of men that could be characterized, rela-
tively unambiguously, as most positive appearance-related com-
mentary received, least positive appearance-related commentary
received, most negative appearance-related commentary re-
ceived, and least negative appearance-related commentary re-
ceived. We believe this latter approach to the data illuminates
more effectively, and renders more detectable, potential differ-
ences between men who engage in the target behaviors versus men
who do not.
Toward this goal, we divided participants into quartiles based on
the samples mean and standard deviation on the specific VCOPAS
scale. Specifically, those who scored greater than 1 standard deviation
above the mean VCOPAS positive weight and shape subscale formed
the most positive appearance-related commentary received group
(n 86). They represented 19% of the entire sample and their mean
VCOPAS score 19.7 (SD 1.7). Those who scored less than 1
standard deviation of the mean VCOPAS positive weight and shape
subscale score formed the least positive appearance-related commen-
tary received group (n 90). They represented 19.8% of the sample,
and their mean VCOPAS score 7.2 (SD1.6). These groups were
also created for the negative weight and shape VCOPAS subscale.
Again, those who scored greater than 1 standard deviation above the
mean VCOPAS negative weight and shape subscale score formed the
most negative appearance-related commentary received group (n
81). They represented 17.8% of the entire sample and their mean
VCOPAS score 29.1 (SD 3.6). Those who scored less than 1
standard deviation of the mean VCOPAS negative weight and shape
subscale score formed the least negative appearance-related com-
mentary received group (n 89). They represented 19.6% of the
sample, and their mean VCOPAS score 10.6 (SD 1.1). Data
from men falling within the middle two quartiles were not included in
the data analyses.
Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was performed
for each comparison made. To control for Type I error due to
multiple comparisons, a Bonferroni adjustment was made to the
alpha level for eight total comparisons. The new alpha level is .006
(.05/8). Subsequently, multivariate analysis of covariance
(MANCOVA) was performed to determine if need for approval
and self-esteem would account for any observed differences be-
tween the comparison groups on the types of appearance-change
80
SCHUSTER, NEGY, AND TANTLEFF-DUNN
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behaviors, amount of eating pathology, and level of body dissat-
isfaction.
Correlation Analyses
Table 1 shows the zero-order correlations between study vari-
ables using data from all participants (n 454). Positive weight
and shape commentary from the VCOPAS significantly correlated
with body dissatisfaction (r .24), the frequency of aerobic
exercise (r .37), muscle building behaviors (r .19), body and
head hair behaviors (rs .11 and .20, respectively), and genital
behaviors (r .17). Negative weight and shape commentary from
the VCOPAS significantly correlated with eating pathology (r
.44), body dissatisfaction (r .41), the frequency of dieting
behaviors (r .14), head hair behaviors (r .27), and genital
behaviors (r .20).
Hypothesis 1 Testing
It was hypothesized that men who received more frequent
positive appearance-related commentary and negative appearance-
related commentary would have higher levels of eating pathology,
body dissatisfaction, compulsive exercising, and appearance
change behaviors from such commentary relative to those who
received less.
In the first MANOVA, the independent variable (IV) was group
membership (top and bottom quartiles of the sample in terms of
frequency of positive weight and shape-related appearance com-
mentary received). The dependent variables (DVs) were eating
pathology (as measured by the combined scores of the drive for
thinness and bulimic symptoms subscales of the Eating Disorder
Inventory-III), body dissatisfaction, and the following appearance
change behaviors: aerobic exercise, muscle building behaviors
(i.e., strength training, androgenic-anabolic steroid use, and protein
supplement use), dieting, head-hair enhancement, body hair re-
moval/enhancement, and genital enhancement. Table 2 shows the
means and standard deviations on the DVs obtained by the two
participant groups. Group membership was associated with a sig-
nificant effect on the DVs (using Wilks Lambda, F(8, 156) 6.9,
p .001, partial
2
.39). Univariate tests indicated that men
who received the most frequent, positive weight and shape based
appearance commentary reported significantly higher levels of
aerobic exercise (M 2.9, SD 1.0) compared to those who
received the least positive commentary (M1.4, SD .1.1), F(1,
167) 34.6, p .001, partial
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.22 and reported significantly
more behaviors geared toward building muscle (M .95, SD
.92) relative to those who received the least positive commentary
(M .41, SD .80), F(1, 167) 7.9, p .005, partial
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.08.
Contrary to prediction, men who received the most frequent,
positive weight and shape based appearance commentary reported
significantly less body dissatisfaction (M 1.5, SD .82) than
those who received the least commentary (M 2.0, SD .80),
F(1, 167) 16.2 p .001, partial
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.09. There was no
significant difference between groups on eating pathology, dieting
behaviors, head-hair enhancement, body hair removal/enhance-
ment, or genital enhancement behaviors.
In the second MANOVA, the IV was group membership (the
top and bottom quartiles of the sample in terms of frequency of
negative weight and shape based appearance commentary re-
ceived). The DVs remained the same as in the previous
MANOVA. Table 3 shows the means and standard deviations on
the DVs obtained by the two participant groups. Group member-
ship was associated with a significant effect on the DVs, F(8,
151) 12.9, p .001, partial
2
.41. As predicted, univariate
tests indicated that men who received the most frequent, negative
weight and shape based appearance commentary reported signifi-
cantly more eating pathology (M2.8, SD .76) relative to those
who received the least negative commentary (M .6, SD .61),
F(1, 159) 77.4, p .001, partial
2
.34, reported significantly
more body dissatisfaction (M 3.2, SD .71) relative to those
who received the least negative commentary (M1.4, SD .70),
F(1, 159) 70.7, p .001, partial
2
.31, reported significantly
more dieting behaviors (M 2.6, SD 1.0) relative to those who
received the least negative commentary (M .54, SD .95), F(1,
159) 9.4, p .001, partial
2
.28, reported significantly more
hair grooming and maintenance (M .80, SD .69) relative to
those who received the least negative commentary (M.47, SD
.36), F(1, 159) 13.2, p .001, partial
2
.08, and reported
more genital enhancement behaviors (M .86, SD .79) relative
to those who received the least negative commentary (M .48,
SD .57), F(1, 159) 12.4, p .001, partial
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.07. There was
no statistically significant difference between groups on the fre-
quency of their aerobic exercise behaviors, muscle building be-
haviors, and body hair removal/enhancement behaviors.
Table 1
Correlation Matrix of Study Variables
Positive weight/shape Negative weight/shape
Commentary Commentary
1. Eating Pathology .055 .436

2. Body Dissatisfaction .241

.411

3. Aerobic Exercise .370

.061
4. Muscle Building .187

.064
5. Dieting .066 .142

6. Hair Maintenance/Enhancement .114

.267

7. Body Hair Removal/Enhancement .196

.060
8. Genital Enhancement .168

.20

p .01.

p .006.

p .001.
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EFFECTS OF APPEARANCE-RELATED COMMENTARY
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Hypothesis 2 Testing
It was hypothesized that need for approval and/or self-esteem
may account for the observed differences between the comparison
groups on the types of appearance-change behaviors, amount of
eating pathology, and level of body dissatisfaction.
In the first MANCOVA, the IV was group membership (the
top and bottom quartiles of the sample in terms of positive
weight and shape based appearance-related comments re-
ceived). The MANCOVA was performed comparing groups on
the study DVs on which they previously had been found to
differ: body dissatisfaction, aerobic exercise, and muscle build-
ing behaviors (i.e., strength training, androgenic-anabolic ste-
roid use, and protein supplement use). Need for approval and
self-esteem were treated as the potential covariates. Group
membership continued to be associated with a significant effect
on the DVs, F(8, 159) 6.9, p .001, partial
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.26. The
three DVS continued to differ significantly, even when need for
approval and self-esteem were accounted for, suggesting that
neither need for approval nor self-esteem accounted for the
differences between the groups in terms of positive weight and
shape based commentary received.
In the second MANCOVA, the IV was group membership
(the top and bottom of the sample in terms of negative weight
and shape based appearance-related comments received). The
DVs were those variables that had been found previously to
differ based on frequency of commentary: eating pathology,
body dissatisfaction, dieting, head hair maintenance/enhance-
ment, and genital enhancement behaviors. Need for approval
and self-esteem were treated as the potential covariates. Group
membership continued to be associated with a significant effect
on the DVs (F(5, 153) 18.7, p .001, partial
2
.38). The
three DVs continued to differ significantly, even when need for
approval and self-esteem were accounted for, suggesting that
neither need for approval nor self-esteem accounted for the
observed group differences.
Table 2
Positive Weight and Shape Commentary SubscaleMean Differences and Effect Size Between
Groups
Variable
Top 25% Bottom 25%
F
2
M (SD) M (SD)
1. Eating Pathology .82 (.66) .90 (.71) .548 .00
2. Body Dissatisfaction 1.5 (.83) 2.0 (.79) 16.2

.09
3. Aerobic Exercise 2.7 (1.1) 1.7 (1.1) 34.6

.17
4. Muscle Building .94 (.92) .56 (.80) 7.9

.05
5. Dieting .71 (1.1) .53 (.80) 1.4 .01
6. Hair Maintenance/Enhancement .55 (.53) .49 (.38) .90 .01
7. Body Hair Removal/Enhancement 1.1 (.89) .80 (.89) 5.7 .03
8. Genital Enhancement .66 (.67) .42 (.47) 6.5 .04
Note. 1.) Eating Pathology (combined Drive for Thinness and Bulimic Symptoms subscales from the EDI-III).
2.) Body Dissatisfaction subscale of the Eating Disorder Inventory-III (EDI-III). 38.) Items from the Appear-
ance Change Behavior Questionnaire.

p .006.

p .001.
Table 3
Negative Weight and Shape Commentary SubscaleMean Differences and Effect Size Between
Groups
Variable
Top 25% Bottom 25%
F
2
M (SD) M (SD)
1. Eating Pathology 2.8 (.76) .58 (.61) 77.4

.33
2. Body Dissatisfaction 3.2 (.71) 1.5 (.70) 70.7

.31
3. Aerobic Exercise 2.0 (1.1) 2.2 (1.2) 1.1 .01
4. Muscle Building .91 (.87) .72 (.84) 2.1 .01
5. Dieting 2.6 (1.0) .55 (.97) 9.4

.28
6. Hair Maintenance/Enhancement .79 (.70) .48 (.36) 13.2

.08
7. Body Hair Removal/Enhancement 1.3 (.96) .96 (.82) 5.1 .03
8. Genital Enhancement .86 (.79) .48 (.57) 12.1

.07
Note. 1.) Eating Pathology (combined Drive for Thinness and Bulimic Symptoms subscales from the EDI-III).
2.) Body Dissatisfaction subscale of the Eating Disorder Inventory-III (EDI-III). 38.) Items from the Appear-
ance Change Behavior Questionnaire.

p .006.

p .001.
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Post-Hoc Power Analysis Results
A post hoc power analysis using G*Power 3.0.10 (Faul, Erd-
felder, Lang, & Buchner, 2007) indicated that with a maximum of
two independent variables (IVs) and eight dependent variables
(DVs), all F test comparisons reported above had adequate power
( 90%) to have achieved a small effect size (using
2
.03,
assuming an of .006). The MANCOVAs were also reported to
have adequate power, with a maximum of two independent vari-
ables and either three or five dependent variables. Thus, our
sample size appears to have been adequate to address our research
questions.
Discussion
It was hypothesized that individuals who receive more frequent
positive weight and shape focused commentary and negative
weight and shape focused commentary would have higher levels of
eating pathology, body dissatisfaction, and appearance change
behaviors including aerobic exercise, behaviors geared toward
increasing muscle mass (e.g., strength training, protein or supple-
ment use), dieting behaviors (e.g., following a commercialized or
self-started weight loss diet), head hair maintenance/enhancement
(e.g., use of hair growth products to cease or reverse hair loss),
body hair removal/enhancement behaviors (e.g., trimming, shav-
ing, or waxing), and genital enhancement behaviors (e.g., prescrip-
tions medications to enhance erections or the use of penis stimu-
lating creams or pumps). The data supported the hypothesis.
Overall, men in this study reported receiving similar amounts of
positive appearance-related commentary relative to women in
other studies (Calogero, Boroughs, & Thompson, 2007; Calogero
& Herbozo, 2009; Cash, 1995; Keery et al., 2005). Approximately
2/3 of the sample reported receiving positive commentary on
moderate to frequent basis. In terms of negative appearance-related
commentary, the men in this sample reported somewhat less neg-
ative commentary with approximately 1/3 receiving it on a mod-
erate to frequent basis. Women in other studies have reported
higher levels of negative commentary relative to positive commen-
tary. It is possible that women are more likely to interpret body and
appearance messages as negative relative to men. It is also possi-
ble, given the normative discontent of womens bodies in soci-
ety, that women are more likely to discuss and critique more
negative aspects of one anothers bodies as compared to compli-
menting different features or appearance components.
Men who reported receiving relatively high levels of positive,
weight and shape focused appearance commentary reported en-
gaging in higher levels of aerobic exercise and behaviors intended
to build muscle mass compared to those who received relatively
low levels of positive appearance-related commentary. Exercise
has been studied extensively as an appearance change method for
men, and can sometimes manifest as a maladaptive behavior in
men with body image disturbance and eating pathology (Brehm &
Steffen, 1998; Morgan, 2008). Men who receive positive
appearance-related commentary may be more likely to begin a
workout regimen, maintain a current workout regimen, or increase
their current regimen after receiving such commentary. It is also
possible that men who work out look better and, therefore, invite
positive appearance-commentary. It may be that men are inspired
to keep their physique as is, leading them to exercise more, or it
may be that receiving positive commentary functions as a source
of extrinsic reward, driving men to workout harder and longer to
continue being praised. Because motivation to exercise was not
assessed in this study, our data do not clarify the motivational
reasons behind compulsive exercise. Men who achieve a sense of
extrinsic reward from receiving appearance praise may be more
inclined to begin or continue altering their appearance as a way to
continue receiving positive attention from others.
Contrary to prediction, men who reported receiving more pos-
itive appearance-related commentary reported having higher body
satisfaction. This prediction had been made primarily based on
findings among women. Women tend to experience a decrease in
body satisfaction and may develop a body image disturbance when
they receive positive or negative commentary on their appearance
(Calogero & Herbozo, 2009; Schwartz et al., 1999; Thompson et
al., 1999; Thompson & Smolak, 2001). Some researchers (e.g.,
Herbozo & Thompson, 2006) have suggested that this occurs,
regardless of connotation, because womens bodies are objectified
in more westernized cultures and women are socialized to believe
that they ought to change their bodies in response to others
comments. Calogero and Herbozo (2009) found that women re-
ported increased body dissatisfaction in association with receiving
positive comments. Their research supports the notion of compli-
mentary weightism, a phenomenon that seems to occur when
positive appearance-related comments are interpreted negatively
and have detrimental consequences for womens level of body
satisfaction (Calogero & Herbozo, 2009). It is both interesting and
hopeful that perhaps men receiving complimentary feedback on
their physical appearance may internalize this feedback less than
women and that it may actually serve to bolster their body satis-
faction. Or, men may take the comments at face value, as compli-
ments. Positive comments may reinforce their positive self-
appraisals and motivate them to look their best. The current results
seem to suggest that men may be better able to accept compliments
about their body without construing such praise as negative or
harassing.
Consistent with the hypothesis, men who reported receiving
relatively high levels of negative appearance-related commentary
reported engaging in significantly more dieting behaviors, hair
maintenance/enhancement behaviors, genital enhancement behav-
iors, and reported more eating pathology and body dissatisfaction.
These results are similar to those obtained with women for whom
negative appearance-based commentary tends to lead to maladap-
tive practices, thoughts, and outcomes (Herbozo & Thompson,
2006; Schwartz et al., 1999). These results suggest that for many
individuals, irrespective of gender, they interpret the commentary
as criticism and consequently the feedback has a powerful, detri-
mental effect on their self-image. This potentially could lead to
engagement in an array of behaviors that range from helpful (e.g.,
moderate dieting) to dysfunctional (e.g., excessive dieting). It is
interesting to note that exercise behaviors, which can be consid-
ered positive and healthy for men to participate in, did not differ
significantly in terms of negative commentary received. Instead,
men with higher levels of negative commentary experience re-
ported engaging in more inappropriate and potentially harmful
behaviors like dieting, eating pathology including binging, purg-
ing, and calorie restriction, and risky prescription drug use to
prevent hair loss. The extant research in this area is clear on this
point in that negative commentary directed toward ones physical
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appearance generally leads to harmful or maladaptive outcomes
(Fabian & Thompson, 1989). As most of this research has been
examined with women, it is important to recognize that these
effects are generalizable to men and even to boys (e.g., Phares et
al., 2004).
It also was hypothesized that need for approval and self-esteem
may account for the observed differences between the amount of
positive, weight and shape based commentary received and the
type of appearance-change behaviors participated in, level of eat-
ing pathology, and amount of body dissatisfaction, given that these
variables have been implicated in previous studies in this area of
research (Furnham & Calnan, 1998; Moulton et al., 1998; Ric-
ciardelli & McCabe, 2001; Williamson & Hartley, 1998). The data
did not support this hypothesis. Men in the comparison groups
continued to differ on the DVs even when accounting for need for
approval and self-esteem. It was originally hypothesized that one
or both of these variables may account for the differences between
groups because similar findings have been reported for women
(Calogero & Herbozo, 2009). Calogero and Herbozo (2009) found
that the perceived distress of positive appearance comments was
associated with body esteem, a critical component of womens
self-esteem. They also found that self-esteem acted as a partial
mediator of the relation between positive appearance-commentary
and body dissatisfaction. Their research revealed that women
reported more body dissatisfaction overall in association with
positive appearance commentary, not appearance criticisms or
negative comments. For men, the same variables do not seem to be
related to the reasons why men differ in their levels of body
dissatisfaction and pathological eating behaviors or in the type and
frequency of different appearance-change behaviors. It could be
that other variables that were not included in this study may
underlie these relations, or that the link between commentary and
these dependent variables is stronger compared to these relations
for women who report receiving higher levels of positive
appearance-related commentary.
Need for approval and self-esteem also did not account for
group differences between men reporting high versus low levels of
negative commentary. The genders may differ as a result of so-
cialization practices regarding womens and mens value in soci-
ety. Women, more so than men, are valued for their appearance
(Buss, 2006; Friend, 1987; Reboussin, Rejeski, & Martin, 2000). If
women feel that their appearance is not valued even by receiving
negative appearance-based commentary, their self-worth may de-
crease because appearance is what they have learned to value in
themselves. By contrast, mens value is more competency based
(Broverman, Vogel, Broverman, Clarkson, & Rosenkrantz, 1972;
Cockburn, 2009; Foschi, 2000). Men can be valued or feel accom-
plished through a variety of mechanisms, including intelligence,
wealth, and success. As such, it may be that men feel they can be
attractive through a variety of means, whereas women more
strongly value their physical attractiveness to feel successful. If
this were the case, men may not be as influenced by how others
view or comment on their body because it is not as important how
they look; they still have other avenues through which they can
feel successful or content. Perhaps it is also the case that there are
other, more important factors besides appearance that men are
valued for, and these may be protective factors for men.
Limitations
Continued research in the area of mens reactions to appearance-
related commentary is important to better understand the complex
relations between the variables of focus in this study as well as
additional variables with an eye toward improving mens health
and well-being. One limitation of our study was not having in-
cluded myriad variables that may play a role in explaining the
relations between others comments and mens reactionary behav-
iors (e.g., exercising, dieting, grooming, etc.). Although this list is
not exhaustive, such variables might include the specific source of
comments (e.g., family members, classmates, strangers, etc.), self-
ratings of attractiveness, subjective values placed on physical
appearance, and an array of personality or clinical variables such
as autonomy, optimism, general symptoms of distress (e.g., symp-
toms of anxiety, somatization), and so on.
Another limitation was not examining the current sample in
terms of drive for muscularity, a well-researched construct related
to male body image concerns. Additionally, this study was a cross
sectional design and does not answer questions of causality. Also,
although the sample was diverse, participants all attended the same
university which may diminish external validity. Finally, BMI was
not assessed in this study. Since BMI may potentially confound the
scores of the EDI, this should be addressed in future research.
Thus, there are rich theoretical implications of the present results
amenable to further empirical study.
Strengths and Future Research
The results obtained from this study may have important clinical
implications as well as implications for preventative measures.
Therapists working with men struggling with eating or body-image
concerns should assess and evaluate the extent to which their
clients receive diverse types of commentary from others about
their appearance and how the men tend to react to such commen-
tary. Cognitive strategies used to identify, critically examine, and
challenge others comments and mens reactions to such comments
may prove fruitful as forms of intervention. In particular, psychoedu-
cational programs designed for women that address appearance-
related comments, teasing, and body image concerns (e.g., OBrien &
LeBow, 2007; Stice, Rohde, Gau, & Shaw, 2009) should be adapted
for use with men and at younger ages with boys (i.e., prevention).
Since risk factors for body image dissatisfaction, eating pathology,
compulsive exercise, and consequences from other appearance-
related behaviors occur at an early age, prevention of these prob-
lems ideally should begin in childhood or adolescence. Prevention
is vital to lessening the burden of significant impairment, inpatient
hospitalizations, suicide, and mortality that often accompany such
problems (Stice, Shaw, & Marti, 2007). Additionally, few people,
especially men, seek treatment for an eating disorder or other body
image related problem. If they do, research has indicated that
treatment is effective in less than half of cases (Stice et al., 2007).
Our findings suggest that certain types of appearance-related
commentary may be beneficial for boys and young men or may
provide some type of resiliency effect. Future research is needed in
this area. Current prevention programs have been created and
studied with girls and women. These include various media liter-
acy programs held in schools and afterschool programs and online
courses such as Student Bodies which combines a cognitive
84
SCHUSTER, NEGY, AND TANTLEFF-DUNN
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behavioral curriculum and a student discussion group (Winzelberg
et al., 2000; Yager & ODea, 2008). One idea that may prove
useful is to include family and peer members of young boys and
men in an educational training on appearance-related commentary.
With some psychoeducation on the positive and negative conse-
quences of appearance-related commentary, family members may
be better able to prevent impairing body image problems and
eating disorders. If the extent to which support members provide
feedback shown to be positive and resiliency-enhancing and to
which men react nonconstructively to others appearance-related
commentary can be minimized, maladaptive behaviors, such as
compulsive exercising, excessive dieting, pathological eating be-
haviors and so on, as well as negative psychoemotional reactions
such as the development of poor body image, may ultimately be
reduced.
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Revision received July 29, 2011
Accepted August 2, 2011
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