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There was one attempt though, in mid 20th century by some
scholars, to adopt a literary idiom closer to the spoken standard.
Significantly, among the leading figures in this campaign were
some of the most erudite scholars in contemporary times, one
was Rcv Yakkaduwe Praj narama, a senior teacher 111
Vidyalankara Piri vena and another was Professor Senarath
Paranavitana, the doyen of Sri Lankan archaeology. But, in spite
of the prestige of these scholars the movement did not gather
momentum and by about the 1970's it was virtually dead. The
classical literary form in Sinhala reigns supreme and the Sinhala
diglossia continues. In the contemporary context of inter-ethnic
conflict in Sri Lanka, Sinhala national identity will hold on more
and more persistently to a heritage of the pat such as the
classical literary idiom.
Conclusion: The comparison between Greek and Sinhala
diglossic situations would reveal how powerful a classical literary
heritage can be in making decisions on some of the most vital
aspects of social activity such as education and administrative
functions. The persisting strength of puristic attitudes towards
language proves that language is not a mere medium of
communication
,
and that it stands strongly as a treasured
patrimony and an indispensable badge of identity. The particular
form of the language one believes as the true representation of
ones national identity is considered to be something worth
fighting for and even dying for. Such sentiments can become
sharpened and intensified by the socio-historical circumstances in
which the language conununity is placed.
(1978) 'The I deological Pinnacle of Sinhalese Language Nationalism:
The Career of Cumaratunga and the Hela Identity" Ceylon lournal of
Historical alld Social Studies, VII, 2: 1-16.
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Version
Ratna Handurukande
The legend of Visvantara, said to be that of the last birth on earth
of the Bodhisattva in which the Perfection of Generosity (dana
paramiti reached its culmination, is the best-known of all the
former birth-stories of the historical Buddha Gautama. Its
popularity among both the Theravada Buddhists of the Souther
countries and the Mahayanists of the North is attested by many
versions of the story extant in different languages and its

numerous representatIOns 11 alt.
The oldest known version of the legend, also said to be the
longest and fullest literary version, is in Pali, the sacred language
of the Theravada Buddhists in which their scriptures were
written. Viggo Fausboll's edition of the Pali text of the story, the
Vessantara Jataka, was published in London in 1896, and
reprinted by the Pali Text Society, also in London, in 1964,2
Cf ego S. Lienhard (1980) Die legend vom Prinzen Vis vall tara. Eine
Nepalesische bilderrolle mrs der Sammiung des museums/r fndische
kunst, (Berlin): The introduction (: 9-13) & the bibliography (given on:
253-254) (1980) Verofentlichungen des Museums fiir Indische kunst,
5, (Berlin); and the references given by Dieter Schlingloff (1987)
Studies in the Ajanta Paintings (New Delhi): Chapter 15, note 29.
Fausb611, V. , (1877-1896) ed. The latakatthavaT}1na: the lataka
together with its commentary, being tales of the anterior births of
Gotama Buddha for thefirst time edited in original pali. vols. I-VI,
211
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while W. H. D. Rouse' s English translation was publ i shed i n
Cambridge in 1907.
1
The story i s the last bei ng no. 547 i n
Fausboll's edition of t he lataka and its commentary
2
R. Spence
Hardy gave a summary of the story under the title ' the Vessantara
Jataka ' in hi s book, A manual of Buddhism in its moder
development: translaled Fom the Sinhalese mss published i n
London i n 1860
3
M alalasekara' s synopsi s of the stOlY appears
under the title ' Vessantara Jataka' in hi s Dictionary oj Pali
Proper names, frst published in London in 1938.
4
A sccond Engl i sh translation of the Pali Vessanlara lataka made
by Margaret Cone incorporating a few suggestions from her co
author, Richard Gombrich, was printed in their book, The Pelfecl
Generosity of Prince Vessantara, a Buddhist epic published i n
Oxford.s I n a prefatory note i n thi s publ i cation, the authors state
that Rouse' s translation of 1907 is neither accurate nor attracti ve.
Al l the points at which they have devi ated from Fausbol l ' s
printed text are gi ven i n Appendi x II of thi s work. Cone' s
translation of the Vessantara lataka i s i ll ustrated by unpubl i shed
paintings from Sinhala temples, being the photographs taken by
Gombrich on a vi si t to Sri Lana (Ceylon) i n 1969-70. A
documentation of the Si nhala versi ons of the legend and
references to it in Sinhala l iterary sources i s desirable.
s
(London), vol. Vi (1896): 479-596. Reprinted by the Pali Text Society
in 1964.
Cowell, E. B., & Rouse, W. H. D., translated (1907) The Jataka vol.
VI (Cambridge): 246-305. Cowell, E. B., ed. (1990). The first Indian
edition of The Jataka or storics of the Buddha 's formcr births (6 vats ill
3 parts) (Delhi) vol VI: 246-305 contain the translation of the
Visvantara story, reprinted in Delhi, 2004.
The Jataka collection is conventionally said to contains 550 stories but
has in fact only 547.
(London: Williams and Norgate): 116-124.
Volumes I, I London 1937, 1938, reprinted in London 1960: 944-947.
(1977): 3-96.
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The story of Vessantara in barest outline given in the introduction
(: xv-xvi) of the Cone and Gombrich publication is as follows:
Prince Vessantara, the son and the heir of Safaya, king
of the Sivi s and of queen PhusatT, lives i n the capi tal with
hi s wife MaddI and their small son and daughter. His
munificence is unique. He has a magic white elephant
which ensures adequate rainfall, but he gives it away to
Brahmin emissaries from another ki ngdom. The citizens
are enraged and force Safjaya to banish hi m. MaddI
chooses to share his exi le with the chi l dren. Before
leaving he gives away all his possessions, making the
'gif of the seven hundreds. ' After a long journey the
family reaches a mountain glen, where they settle down.
A vile old Brahmin called Jujaka, harried at home by a
young wife who demands servants, arrives to ask hi m for
hi s chi ldren and Vessantara gives them while Madil is
away gathering food. Next morning Sakka, the king of
the gods, fears that Vessantara may yet gi ve away his
wife and be left al l alone; he, therefore, disguises hi mself
as a Brahmin and asks her from Vessantara. On receiving
her, he gives her back immediately (As he now has her as
a gift, Vessantara is no longer entitled by convention to
di spose of her). Jijaka and the children come to
Sanjaya' s court where Sanjaya ransoms hi s grandchi l dren
and Jujaka dies of overeating. Ful l of remorse, Sanjaya
takes his retinue to the mountain and invites Vcssantara
and Madil to return. The family is reunited, Vessantara
becomes king and all live happily ever after.
The vrsions of the Vessantara lafaka found in Pali, Burmese,
Chinese, Khotanese, Sanskrit, Sinhalese, Sogdian, Tibetan and
Toeharian are listed by Cone and Gombrich i n the bibliography
of their publ i cation. The Sanskrit versions listed are those in
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Aryasura's J iitakamCl i, K$emendra 's Avadinakalpalati, and
Somadeva' s Kathisaritsigara, while a note appearing on page
xxxvi i i of the introduction indicates that the authors were aware
of a Sanskrit version found at Gi lgit edited i n Berl i n. This
probably i s a reference to Kabita Das Gupta's edition of the
Visvantariivadina, information about which i s gi ven below:
A number of manuscripts found beneath a stUpa situated ncar
Gilgit (Kashmir) in Indi a in 1931 are referred to as Gi lgit
manuscripts. Kabita Das Gupta presented the Sanskrit text of the
Visvantarivadina, from a facsi mi l e edition of a manuscript
found in the Gi lgit collection i n New Delhi, accompanied by an
Engl i sh translation of it and the Tibetan text from the
Sa1J1ghabhedavastu of the Mllasarvistividavinaya, preceded by
an Introduction, as the di ssertation for a doctoral degree at the
Freie University in Berl i n in January 1977.
1
She al so added three
appendices to her study, viz.
I. Avadinakafpafatii of K$emendra (A. D. 1052) Chapter 23: (a)
Sanskrit text and (b) an Engl i sh translation of i t.
II. A catalogue of Stereotype Phrases and
I I I. Sanskrit text of the Sa1]1ghabhedavastu (extracts from
Gnoli's edition, which she says was avai lable to her only after the
completion of the press-copy). Here, Das Gupta states that the
Visvantarivadina appears on pages 119-133 of part I I of Gnoli 's
edition.
2
An entry in her bi bli ography indi cates that a German
Gupta, K. D. , (1977) Visvantarivadina, Eine Buddhistische Legende
Edition eines Textes auf Sanskrit Lind aujTibetisch Eingeleitet lind
iibersetzt. Inauguraldissertation zur erlangung des Doktorgrades dem
Fachbereich Altertumswissenschaften der Freien Universitat Berlin.
Gnoli, R., ed. With the assistance of T. Venkatacharya (1977) The
Gilgit manuscript o{rhe Sa11ghabhedavastu Serie Orientale Roma vol.
xlix (Rome) part l, (1977) Part II (1978).
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translation of the Pali Vessanlara Jataka was published It1
Leipzig in 1916.
1
In a discussion on the Uddilla (summary) under the keyword
'Jujjuka', J. Panglung states that ' there arc obviously four
verSlOns of the Visvantara Jataka of the MSV
(Mulasarvistividavinaya) which can be traced back to versions I
and I I I. ' The version refelTed to as Visvantara IV, he says 'has
come down to us in Sanskrit and is included in Lokesh Chandra' s
facsimi l e edition of the Gilgit manuscripts. ' He adds that this was
the version publ i shed by Kabita Das Gupta in Berlin under the
title Visvantarivadina. He fUliher states that ' Visvantara IV is
identical with Visvantara I I I: the verbatim (as far as this can be .
said of a translation) addition of the Jujjuka episode of
Visvantara-Jataka II.
,
2
Hi sashi Matsumura's edition of the Visvantarivadina was
submitted as one of four avadinas preserved among the Gilgit
Buddhist manuscripts, supposed to be of the ffth to sixth century
A. D., for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy ro the Australian
National University in October 1980.
3
The other stories included
in the thesis are the Miindhitivadina, Mahisudarsanivadiilla
and the Candraprabhivadi ina. Matsumura gives the text of two
Tibetan translations of the Visvantarivadiina found in the
SaFghabhedavastu and the Bhaiajyavastu of the
Dutoit, .I., (1916) latakas translated in Gennan Bd. 6. (Leipzig).
Panglung, 1., (1979) 'Uddana' in Tibetan STudies in honollr of H
Richardson, (Oxford): 229-230. 1 U indebted to Professor Deieter
Schlingloff of the University of Munich for sending me the relevant
p
ages of Panglung' s paper.
Matsumura, H. , (l980) Four Avadinasfi'ol1l the Gilgif manuscripts. A
thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy to the
Australian National University: 119-158.
215
Ratna Handurukande
M/lasarvastivadavinaya.
'
The i ntroducti on to the thesi s contains
i nformation about the texts of the Gil gi t avadana and the
l anguage used in the Gilgit manuscripts. Here Matsumura says
that the stories of Visvantara found in the Saiighabhedavastu and
the Bhaisajyavastu are almost the same and agree with the
versi ons he edited almost verbatim. He also draws attention to
Raniero Gnoli's edition of the Saiighabhedavastu which was
publ i shed shortly after he had fini shed hi s tentative edition and
mentions that he noted all the di fferences between Gnoli's text
and his own edition and discussed the i mportant problems.
Matsumura makes no reference to Kabita Das Gupta's edition of
the VisvantaravadanG. On col l ating the Das Gupta and
Matsumura editions, I found that the text presented by both is the
same with only a few variants.
Cone and Gombri ch refer to two manuscripts of a Sanskri t
Vi.vantaravadana found i n the library of the Tokyo University.
2
Matsumura al so draws attention to unpublished manuscripts of
Visvantara-Jataka (lavadana) l isted by Matsunami in his
Catalogue of the Sanskrit manuscripts kept in the To/yo
Universit library. These manuscripts were brought from Nepal
to Japan by Professor Junjir6 Takakusu (1866-1948) and
Reverend Ekai Kawaguchi (J 866-1945).
3
,
,
Ibid: 272-333.
Cone_ M. , & Gombrich, R. F., (1977) The Perfect Generosity of Prince
Vessantara. A Buddhist Epic, Translated from the Pali and illustrated
by unpublished paintings f'om Sinhalese temples (Oxford): introd. :
77`111.
Matsunami, S., (1965) A Catalogue of the Sanskrit Manuscripts in the
Toko University Library, Suzuki Research Foundation, (Tokyo). The
Manuscripts noted by Matsumura (introduction p. 1xxxviii) are
Matsunami nos. 29 (3) III, 375, 376. Of these 29lII and 376 have the
same text.
216
The Legend of Vis van tara -An Unpublished Version
I had di rect access to two manuscripts of the Visvantaravadana
refelTed to earlier and kept in the Tokyo University l i brary during
a period of study leave spent at that University in 1972-1973.
'
Later during a vi si t to Berli n in 1990, I was able to compare my
transcript of the text based on the Tokyo manuscripts with micro
film copies of four manuscripts from Nepal flmed under the
Nepal-German Manuscript Preservation Project and kept i n the
State l ibrary in Berlin.
2
The text is in prose interspersed with a
few verses. There are 33 verses in my transcript. I have
tentatively divided the prose transcript into 67 paragraphs of
unequal length based on the content of the story.
I give below a condensed version of the story of Visvantara as
narrated in the unpublished manuscripts refelTed to earlier based
on my tentative edition, al so unpublished as yet, to honour
Emeritus Professor Merlin Peris for whom motifs in Jataka
stories have provided a fascinating feld of study.
Once, the Blessed one was residing at SravastT, in the
monastery of AnathapilQ.ada in the Jetavana Grove,
together with a large number of monks, gods, men and
others, whert' a god, Upo$adha by name, rose from hi s
seat, kelt on the ground, folded his hands respectflly
and said, 'I used to enjoy listening to your discourses at
the time you resided in the penance-grove of Varlka.
Today, r wish to hear yet another story of the past.' 'Very
good', said the Blessed One, 'Listen to this story, which
is as follows.
,
ibid nos. 29 (3) III & 376.
Orientabteilung, Staatsbibliothek Preussische Kulturbesitz. Reel Nos.
D 641 1 1; D 28/14; A 1 24/10; A 228112 (A-5).
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In the past, an i l lustrious ki ng called Sivi ruled over the
city of Vi darbha together with his viltuous wife,
SaIl1jayanT. They had a son, whose power, heroism and
feats of strength I shal l now proclaim.
After the birth of prince Visvantara, Sivi, the father-king,
had a ceremony performed on a l arge scale, at the
conclusion of which the citizens of Vidarbh a rej oiced
saying, 'Ah! This prince is fortunate, virtuous and
blessed with auspicious characteristics. We are l ucky
indeed.' The prince grew up like the waxing moon in the
bright half of the month. On his coming of age, King S ivi
sent his son to accomplished teachers and preceptors, and
the prince mastered philosophy and the sciences with
ease.
Aware of the righteousness and the pious inclinations of
prince Visvantara, the father-king was apprehensive of
his becoming king afer him. However, he summoned his
ministers and citizens, sought their advice and sent
messengers far and wide, to woo a maiden for the son. In
one kingdom, there was a princess, Madl' by name,
blessed with an abundance of al l desirabJe features. The
messengers addressed MadrT's father and said, ' Give
your daughter, 0 great king, as a bride for prince
Visvantara.' 'V cry good, messengers, very good,' the
father said and gave away the maiden happily. Madll was
brought and presented to king Sivi at a royal assembly.
The king was c.clighted, wedding celebrations were hel d
and the maiden was given to prince Visvantara at an
auspicious time on an auspicious day. There was j oy and
j ubilance all around, and king Sivi's mind was at ease,
thinking that the future of the kingdom was secure.
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In course of time, a son was bor to prince Visvantara
and princess Madl'. The boy was handsome, lovely to
look at and pleasi ng. King Sivi rejoiced with the hope
that his grandson would assuredly bring great rewards.
The newly-born prince was called JalinT at the suggestion
of the counsellor-ministers. Two or three years passed
and Madl' gave birth to a daughter who was named
K!;I).ajinT. At this time, there was peace in the kingdom
of Vidarbha where there was an abundance of food at al l
times and an exuberance of spirit among all its citizens.
One day, prince Visvantara said to himself, 'I live in a
kingdom enj oying worldly pleasures. But this kind of life
is not what r cherish.' He went to the father and said, his
hands folded in reverence. '0 king, I live in great
comfort, through your kindness. However, listen to what
I have to say today. Be so gracious as to help me in my
effort to promote the welfare of the world. ' Moved to
tears, the father spoke. ' Son, royalty and sovereignty,
wealth, treasures and citizens, they are yours, are they
not?' 'But all these things are impermanent,' sai d the
son, ' everything in this wretched world is impermanent.
At the time of death, it is only the glory of one' s actions
that follow a person, not kith and kin, wealth and
possessions. Therefore, I wish to give away the wealth in
your kingdom to mendicants, receive their blessings and
move towards the goal of emancipation. '
Amazed on becoming aware of the son's inclination to
practise generosity, king Sivi thought that this was what
ha
.
d been destined by fate and said, 'Son, satisfy your
desire for giving, in whatever manner you wish.' Bowing
low in reverence to the father, Visvantara went to his
own palace and requested the ministers and the citizens
to prepare an alms-hal l . They put up a spacious hall in
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which they placed a variety of offerings such as bowls
ful l of gold, silver and jewel s, fne eloth and garments,
sixty-four kinds of rice, elephants, horses and chariots
and plants like sugar-cane. Then the mendicants came;
frst the regents of the eight directions followed by hosts
of poor men, brahmins, heretics and wandering ascetics.
They received whatever they wanted. Some accepted the
gifts and went away. Others continued to stay. There was
a festive air in the city of Vidarbha. Showers of blessings
were conferred on Vi svantara, who remained content,
givi' ng gifs each day.
Then, decreed by fate, as it were, suppliants seeking alms
stopped coming. The prince thought, 'The wealth in my
father's treasuries increases each day. How am I to spend
it without making offerings? I shall go to the stable, bring
the excel lent elephant so dear to my father, load it with
wealth and go in search of needy persons.' He went to
villages and cities in other regions but came back
disappointed, for none were in want.
At this time, an enemy-king who had repeatedl y tried to
conquer the kingdom of Vidarbha and failed to do so
because of the power of king Sivi's excellent elephant,
heard about prince Visvantara's boundless generosity. He
promptly dispatched five brahmins to ask for the elephant
as a gift. They approached the donor prince and said, ' Of
wealth and possesio!1s we have an abundance. We need
only one gift and that is the noble elephant, your
conveyance. ' The prince gave the el ephant without any
hesitation and the brahmins went away jubilant.
The ministers and citizens of Vidarbhi were disturbed
and angry, seeing the precious elephant, the source of
their fottune, being given away to the enemy king. They
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complained to
S
ivi, '0 great king, Your Majesty is
recognized as the ruler of this kingdom. But, how is it
that there is no investigation of what is going on here?
Our jewel of an el ephant is being gifted. The stability of
the kingdom is at risk now. Today he gave away the
el ephant. Tomorrow he might give us all, the citizens, as
gifts. It is not for us to say, "Do this, do that". The
responsibility lies with you. We suggest that you send
away your son to the penance-grove called Vanka. ' The
king remained sil ent, ful l of grief at the thought of
banishing his son. He offered to give an answer to the
suggestion, later, on the fourth day. Feeling uneasy, the
king and the queen lamented profsely. Later, they sent
the chief minister to summon the prince. The minister
went to the prince's palace, but did not have the heart to
give him the news. He stood silent seeing the joyful
Visvantara repeating to his wife and children the words
of praise and blessings of those who received gifs.
Prince Visvantara knew the reason for the minister' s
visit. Firm in mind, he thought: 'the time has come for
me to leave the city today. ' He went to his parents who
were exceedingly distressed, restrained his own thoughts,
smil
e
d a while, admonished them and said, '0 father,
why do you grieve like this? I did not give away wealth
and possessions to destroy the city or its citizens. It is
with the intention of saving the whole world hom SOlTOW
that I practised generosity. The armies of Mara, the Evil
One, cannot hinder my good deeds of liberality. r wish to
go to a penance-grove on the mountain Varika, as is the
wish of the ministers and there lead a life of religious
austerity.' Fut1her, Visvantara requested the father to rule
his kingdom righteously, practising generosity, imparting
moral instructions to the citizens and refraining from
punishing, beating or imprisoning them. Then he stood
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up without delay and worshipped the lotus-feet of the
parents, after recei vi ng their consent for hi s departure to
the hermitage. Next, he went to hi s own palace, called his
wi fe and chi l dren, and spoke to MadrI in a soft sweet
tone: ' Madri, I shall go to the mountain Vanka to lead a
l i fe of contemplation and austerity to release the world
from al l SOI1OW. Practi si ng the perfection of generosi ty is
not possi ble without renouncing possessions and getting
rid of desire, anger, greed, i gnorance and i l lusion. I shall
retur soon after fulfill ing the perfection of generosity.
There is much wealth in the treasuries and store-houses
of my fami l y. Spend it wi sely, look after our son and
daughter and live in comfort.'
On hearing the deci si on of prince Visvantara to go to a
penance-grove, his wi fe MadrI was most di sturbed. She
wept profusely, fel l at his feet and said, 'How ri ght is it
for you to go away under the pretext of releasing the
world from sorrow, discarding all feelings of love for
me? Does it not occur to you that 1 wi l l give up my l i fe i f
you abandon me? There i s no doubt about i t . What then
will be the pl i ght of our children? Your departure may
help the attai nment of the perfecti on of generosity, but it
wi l l also cause the death of two children and that of a
woman as wel l . Bear this i n mind and act accordingly.
Moreover, 0 lord, how can you go to the forest leaving
the two chi ldren whom you fondled pl acing them i n your
lap? Do not go alone, I beseech you. We wi l l come with
you. ' Wi shing to di ssuade MadrI, prince Vi svantara
spoke about the sorrows and perils of l i fe in the forest:
'Madri , how can women l i ve in the forest? There wi l l be
many inconveniences there. Onl y some kind of fuit will
be avai lable as food and leaves as gannents. Moreover,
there wi l l be danger to l i fe from beasts like lions, tigers
and bears. Li sten to me, stay back and l i ve in comfOlt
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and take good care of our children.' MadrT said, 'r shal l
tal k about the pleasant aspects of l i fe in the forest
di sregarding the disadvantages you detai led. 0 lord, the
serene joy found in the wi lderess far excels that found
in palaces. It is true that a variety of dishes are served in
the royal apartmcnts, but, wi ll not living on fruits and
roots bring greater contentment? Wi l l not the songs of
the birds and the dance of the peacocks give us immense
happiness? Sl eeping on cool slabs of stone will be as
good as lying on couches covered with si l ken cloth. And
i t will be so lovely to see our children adorn themselves
with garlands of beautiful fragrant flowers. I foresee the
forest to be a place of pleasing prospects.'
On hearing MadrT's praise of the positive side of l i fe in
the forest and seeing her determination to accompany
him, Prince Vi svantara had a chariot loaded with
whatever wealth was lef in the palace and invited her to
joi n him. Delighted, Madr sat in the chariot with the son
and daughter on either sidc. And then, the time of their
departure was marked by a mighty earthquake. The earth
trembled, shook violently, quivered in agitation and
roared aloud. Aware of the reason for this miracle,

mendicants came from al l over, lamenting over the

departure of their beloved prince. Full of compassion,
Prince Vi svantara consol ed them and gave them gi fts and
explained the reasons for his decision, bade them
farewell and went forth to the forest.
On the way to the mountain region of Valika, Prince
Visvantara related many religious epi sodes to MadrT and
to the residents of the cities and vil lages they happencd to
go past. One day they met four brahmins who looked
weary, apparently afer a long journey. Being asked who
they were, they said in a faltering tone: '0 great king,
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you have won fame as a gi ver of all things. We heard that
you had lef for a penance-grove and came looking for
you. Ah! How lucky we are to have met you. 0 king, we
do not need any wealth right now, but we are too tired to
walk back to our homes. Be pleased, therefore, to give us
the four white horses hamessed to your chariot, so swift
in speed.' ' Take them, take them brahmins,' the prince
said delighted at the opportunity of offering a gift. The
brahmins took away the horses and the king and queen
were about to go on foot, when suddenly there appeared
four red deer who started drawing the chariot to the
amazement of MadrT. Visvantara said, ' We gifted the
horses with a good heart and the deer have come to help
us. That is the effect of generosity.'
As the Vi svantara family reached another region in their
onward j ourney, another five brahmins appeared on the
scene. ' May it be well with you great king,' they said, 'it
is known the world over that Visvantara is righteous and
generous. We are in need of your chariot.' ' Good, good,
take it at will.' The brahmins pronounced words of
blessing and went away with the chariot. The royal pair
started walking, Visvantara carrying the son lalinT and
MadrT daughter $l)ajinT. The red deer seeing that they
served no purpose anymore went back to their abode.
o sooner the royal group arrived at Vanka, Visvakarma,
the all-creative divine architect, made a leaf-hut for them,
while gods swept the road and sprinkled scented water.
Flowering trees and trees full of fruit bent low and forest
dwellers stood on either side, bowing to him, desirous of
listening to religious discourses.
At the penance-grove, Visvantara said to his wife, '0
Madri, I came here to lead a life of austerity, practising
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the perfection of generosity. I will do so while you look
after the children.' Madl' was most pleased with this
arrangement. The moment Prince Visvantara began his
holy life on the mountain Vailka, the heavens echoed the
joyful cries of hundreds and thousands of gods who had
assembled to witness the momentous event. Heavy
showers of divine flowers fell and the sound of celestial
music resounded in the air.
Life began at the hermitage. MadrT used to go to the
forest each day to collect fruits and fowers while
Visval1tara stayed 011 in the leaf-hut, rapt in
contemplation. However, before long, an incident took
place to disturb the peace of the hermitage. Sakra, the
lord of gods, wishing to test the veracity of Vi svantara's
religiosity, disguised himself as an old brahmin, covered
himself with a tom cloth, and came to him slowly,
leaning on a staff Moved with compassion on seeing the
brahmin, whose blood-soaked and foul-smelling body
was full of wounds, the sage asked him the reason for his
arrival. '0 king, your magnanimous generosity is known
the world over. I went to Vidarbha from far, looking for
you. People there directed me here. I have alfthe wealth I
need. Ol d age is my only problem.' 0 royal sage, I wish
to have your two children and nothing else as a gift. I
shall give them to my wife, a brahmin woinan, who has
no children of her own. She will look after them.'
Visvantara said, 'Rest assured that I will give them to
you, 0 brahmin, for I have resolved to give them away
when the occasion arises. But right now, their mother is
away, gone to fetch flowers and fruits. Bear with me,
therefore, for a while.' The brahmin retorted angrily, ' It
seems to me that you are a man of mere words. How can
you practise the perfection of generosity like this? If you
wish to become a Buddha, give me your children at once,
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or else I wi l l go back to my abode. ' Visvantara thougbt,
'My wi fe MadrT is most generous and devoted. I wanted
her to be present and participate in the noble act of giving
away our precious chi ldren. But how can r make this
brahmin understand such a frame of mind. ' Thereafter,
he heaved a long si gh, fel l at the mendicant's feet and
said, 'Oh 10, brahmin, once my mi nd is made up there i s
no going back. Accept the chi ldren at once. But let the
mother see them for the last time before you take them
away.' 'Very wel l' said the brahmi n, and remained silent.
The chi l dren were gifed ceremoni ously when there took
pl ace the usual miracles l i ke earthquakes. The brahmin
blessed the sage and was about to depart when
Vi svantara reminded hi m pol itely about hi s request to let
the mother see them. 'That i s a chi ldish desire. Do you
not real ize that the mother wi l l make a bi g commotion
here, true to the unsteady nature of a woman's mind?
Then you wi l l not be able to abide by your deci si on. The
chi ldren are under my control now and I shall take them
home. '
As they were l ed away, prince JaiinT and princess
Ktl).ajinT tumed back, l ooked at their father and wept
pitifully. Enraged, the brahmin bound them with a forest
vine, thrashed them and led them on. The "rother and
si ster talked to each other as they went. '0 Krl)jini,
what can we do about our present p li ght? We are reaping
the fruits of bad deeds of the past. This wicked brahmin
wi l l cause us pain. But do not shed tears or do anything
rash. ' '0 brother, there is no doubt about it. We are i n the
hands of a demon who wi l l ki l l and eat us the moment we
move out of si ght of our father. ' As the brahmin
tightened hi s grip of their hands, Jal i nT endorsed what the
si ster said. ' 'You are right. Thi s certainly is a demon. He
basn't even a wee bi t of kindness. I wonder whether the
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The Legend of Visvanlara -An Unpublished Version
power of our parents' merit can help us save our l i ves.
Wi shing to make the father aware of the situation,
KlI;ajinT spoke as loud as she could. 'Father, you
mistook a demon for a brahmin. Our l ives are in great
danger. When our mother comes back iaden with baskets
of flowers and fruits for us, do not mi slead her, tell her
the whole truth. Give her a wooden elephant and a
wooden horse as son and daughter and so console her.'
The brahmin took them to a distant region beating them
merci lessly all the way.
Meanwhi le MadrT, who wandered around in the forest as
usual col l ecting what she needed for the day's meals, felt
uneasy all of a sudden, for she saw many bad omens. The
bi rds had ceased to sing. The sky appeared desolate. At
one moment, hosts of serpents crossed her path, Next,
foresters and beasts hindered her. 'What could be the
reason for these inauspicious incidents? Has some
calamity taken place in the penance-grove? Are my
children safe?' Engrossed in such thought, she hun-ied
overcoming many obstacles and reached the leaf-hut in
the hermitage. The si lence there was ominous. Missing
the usual chatter of the children, she called them. 'Where
could they be? Normal ly they would be here by now
hugging me, perched on my lap. ' She went to her
husband Vi svantara, fel l at hi s feet and said, 'I do hope
that no mi sfortune has befal len my chi ldten. I saw many
bad omens as I gathered fruits in the forest and I rushed
back afraid of disasters they may have portended. ' The
king maintained a stony si lence. Madrl wept and
lamented, broken-hearted, crushed by grief, beating her
chest, her hair in disarray. Then she fainted through
intense pain. Moved with compassi on, Vi svantara then
raised her, held her hands and said, 'Do not be frightened
Madri. Get lip and pull yoursel f together and act with
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RaIna Handurukande
courage. ' On her becoming calm and composed, he
acquainted her with the day' s event and spoke of many
similar deeds of the past related to the practice of the
perfection of generosi ty.
The brahmi n who took away the children went to the
kingdom of Sivi and placed them before hi m saying,
' Here are your grandchildren, your maj esty. Do accept
them. ' Amazed, ki ng Si vi did so with great deli ght, fed
them and made them comfortable. Then he offered food,
drink and money to the brahmin who blessed the king
and went away in a good frame of mind.
Sakra decided to test Visvantara once again. He came to
his leaf-hut in the gui se of a brahmin as before, and said,
'I have heard marvellous stories of your boundless
generosity. 0 sage Vi svantara, I am an old brahmi n,
living alone, cooking my own meals. Therefore, be
pleased to gi ve youi' devoted wi fe as a companion for
me. ' The pri nce looked at Madri's face. She read hi s
thoughts i mmediately and said to herself, ' Today, I shall
help my husband complete the perfection of generosity,
which cannot be achieved wi thout giving away wi fe ad
children. The ri ght moment has come. A mendicant has
arrived. Why delay now?' She smiled serenely and said,
her hands folded in reverence, 'Why have you not said a
word to the brahmin? You have never fai l ed to meet the
desires of suppliants? 0 lord, hand me over to thi s
brahmin with the sale intention of fulfilling the
perfection of generosity.' Prince Visvantara responded,
delighted at heart, and with eyes full of tears,
' Wonderful, 0 Madri, wonderful. You are ri ghteous
i ndeed, for, you are most generous yourself, a willing
partner in my practice of generosity. Birth after birh I
have done extremely difficult tasks and so have I done on
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The Legnd of Visvantara -An Unpublished Version
this occasion too. Through the power of this meritorious
deed, may we meet again on the path of emancipation! '
' Do look after yourself in my absence. Be firm i n your
resolve and may your attempts result in success !' Madr]
said so, circumambulated the sage three times, cast a last
look at hi m and left with the brahmin, who was most
pleased with the gift he received. The brahmin, who was
in fact god Sakra in disguise, proceeded slowly out of
kindness, engaging Madr in righteous conversation.
Eventually, they reached the city of Vidarbha. The
brahmi n took Madr! to king Si vi and said, ' Here is MadrI
who spent all this time in the hermitage on mount Vanka,
living on fruits and roots, missing her children very
much. Through compassion for her, I explained matters
to king Visvantara and brought her here. Find out for
yourself whether she is your daughter-in-law or not. '
Then giving up the guise of a brahmin, Sakra went to his
heavenly abode.'
King Sivi, hi s counsellors, mini sters and the citizens of
Vidarbha were amazed. They asked '0 Madri, how have
you been? What happened all this time? We hope all i s
well with you. ' ' I am all rigQt by the grace of my parents
in-law,' she said, ' but I am deeply worried about my
children. ' ' Have no fear, Madri, they are here with us. '
So said ki ng Sivi . The prince and princess were brought.
Madr! welcomed them warmly, placed them on her lap,
one on each si de, gazed at their faces, heaved a sigh of
relief and spoke anxiously. ' Father, who brought them to
your palace? Oh! how I wept and wailed not finding
them in the hermitage on my return from the forest. How
I tried to get some news from your son Visvantara. But
he did not utter a word until I fainted through grief. Only
when I gained my senses he told me that he had sent
them off in the custody of an old brahmi n. ' ' Words fai l
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Ralna Handurukanoe
me Madr i , What am I to say? An ol d wretch brought
them here, Who knows whether it was a brahmi n or evi l
Mara, the god of death? Imagine our son Vi svantara
being i nsensitive to al l thi s. How did he have the healt to
give away hi s good wi fe and the innocent chi ldren beside
giving up the responsi bi l ity of kingshi p? ' Madr said,
' But through the grace of the gods, we have had a happy
reunion and the fami l y tradi ti on wi l l also last. ' MadrT
then gave a detailed account of l i fe in the mountainous
region of Vanka, after l i stening to whi ch the mini sters
and citizens spoke in prai se of Vi svantara' s acts of
charity. King Si vi too was appreciative of the son' s great
deeds performed with difculty with the noble motive of
saving the whol e world from sorrow. The newl y reunited
fami l y l i ved happily, engaged i n accumulating merit
always remembering Vi svantara.
One day, the sage Vi svantara, who continued to l ive in
the penance-grove at Valka, rose fom his seat after a
session of medi tation, reci ted the names of the past
Buddhas fxi ng his mind on the attainment of supreme
enl i ghtenment, radiated thoughts of fri endl i ness on al l
beings and set out for t he city of VidarbM. There, t o hi s
surprise and del i ght, he saw the whole fami l y assembl ed
i n the palace. After thi s fortunate reuni on, they l ived
happi l y, doing vi rtuous deeds, recal ling the names of past
Buddhas and ful fl l ing the perfection of generosity whi ch
fnal l y l ed them to the path of emancipati on.
The unpublished version of the Vi svantara legend, a
summary of the content of which has been given above,
needs to be compared with the Pal i and other versions i n a
future study.
23 0
The Relationship between Plato' s Theory of
Knowledge and his Theory of Education in the
RepUblc.
Leela A. Kobbekaduwa
Plato' s Republic addresses the question of how l earning can lead
to the realization of a 'just' human society. The ultimate goal of
learing for Plato is the acquisiti on of knowledge of the Form of
Good. Pl ato uses much of the Republic t o develop his theory of
knowledge. The purpose of thi s bri ef arti cle i s to analyze the
relationship between Pl ato' s theory of knowledge and hi s theory
of education, as expressed in the Republic. I write this article for
thi s fel i citation volume to pay my humble tribute to Professor
Merlin Peris for his enduring schol arship and sustained research
in the field of Classical Languages.
Section one of thi s articl e wi l l furi sh some relevant introductory
comments. Section two wi l l deal with Plato' s theory of
knowledge and hi s theory of education. I n section three I wi l l
attempt a criti cal analysis of the relationship which exists
between his theory of knowledge and hi s theory of educati on.
I
In the Republic Plato outlined hi s pl an for the ideal state. He
speculates on the character of the state in which the best or the
most "just" order i s established, where the highest social
harmony i s combined with the highest individual harmony. Since,
23 1