Experimental Investigation of a Thermal Oil Dual-Media

Thermocline for CSP Power Plant

A. Bruch
1
, J.F. Fourmigu
1
and R. Couturier
1

1
CEA/INES, Laboratoire des Systmes Thermiques (LETh), BP 332, 50 avenue du Lac Lman, F-73377 Le-Bourget-du-lac, France.
Tel : (+33)4 38 78 29 14, arnaud.bruch@cea.fr
Abstract
The thermal response of a thermal oil dual-media thermocline storage system is studied experimentally in
charge and discharge modes. The tank is filled with a mixture of rock and sand used as storage material. The
tank is instrumented with more than 250 thermocouples to accurately investigate the propagation of the
thermal front. The results obtained both in charge and discharge show that no significant inhomogeneities or
by-pass exist in the rock-bed and that the heat transfer in the thermocline storage tank is mainly one-
dimensional. An almost constant outlet temperature can be maintained for a long period during discharge
making the dual-media thermocline storage adapted to the behavior of component such as gas turbine used in
CSP power plants. A comprehensive, transient, one-dimensional numerical model has been developed and
compared with the experimental results. An accurate matching between the numerical and the experimental
data has been obtained. These experimental and numerical results confirm that dual-media thermocline
storage is controllable and predictable and can be used as efficient storage solution for CSP plant.
Keywords: thermal energy storage, thermocline, rock-bed, thermal oil, CSP, numerical simulation.
1. Introduction
Among alternative power generation technologies, concentrating solar power (CSP) based on inexhaustible
and clean solar energy is considered to be one of the most promising candidates for substitution of
conventional power generation technologies. However, the sunshine resource is only available in daylight
hours and is strongly influenced by meteorological phenoma such as clouds. In addition, an important peak of
electricity consumption is often reported at the end of the afternoon, when solar irradiation is dropping. Thus,
thermal energy storage (TES) system which stores the solar energy for later use appears to be an essential
component for CSP technologies viability. Thermal energy storage (TES) systems offer the potential to
increase the effective use of electricity production equipment and may help correcting the mismatch between
the supply and the demand of energy ([ 1 ]). Thermal storage systems allow in particular to dispatch
electricity without fuel back-up and to extend or to delay the electricity production period. It permits to store
solar thermal energy during low electricity demand to meet the peak demand independently of the solar
resource ([ 2 ]).
The most commonly used TES in CSP plants is based on the use of two tanks storing a heat transfer fluid
(molten salt in general) at a low temperature and at a high temperature, respectively. This technology has
already been deployed with success in several CSP power plants, proving its reliability ([ 1 ]). An alternative
TES solution, the dual media thermocline, which is based on a single storage tank and the use of inexpensive
solids as filler materials, offers significant financial advantages over the two-tanks systems ([ 3 ], [ 4 ]). This
storage is characterized by a thermal gradient separating the hot fluid and the cold fluid and a low cost filler
material (mainly rocks such as quartzite [ 5 ]) used to replace the higher cost heat transfer fluid (thermal oil
or molten salt) used as primary storage medium.
Only few experimental data on dual-media thermocline using liquid heat transfer fluid are reported in the
literature. The concept was first demonstrated and validated with a 170 MWhth tank on the Solar One pilot
central receiver ([ 6 ]) with rocks and thermal oil. A smaller-scale 2.3 MWhth thermocline using molten salt
as heat transfer fluid was tested later by Sandia ([ 2 ]). In both studies, typical thermocline profiles
characterized by a thermal gradient separating the hot fluid and the cold fluid were observed, but the
experimental temperature measurements exhibit significant scattering. Mawire et al. ([ 9 ],[ 8 ])
experimentally investigated the thermal response of a single-tank rock/oil thermocline at a lab-scale using a
small tank of 30 cm high. Most of the studies available in the literature on the dual-media thermocline are
based on numerical approach to evaluate the behavior of such storage system and the influences of the
different operating parameters ([ 9 ], [ 10 ]). The validation of the numerical model is mainly based on the
data of [ 2 ] even if very few experimental data are available.
Despite these studies reported in the literature, the thermal behaviour and the effectiveness of dual-media
thermocline under various operating conditions are not well understood. Thus, a dedicated experimental test
loop and a numerical model that is capable to predict the thermal behaviour of a thermocline TES and that is
validated with experimental data for a large range of operating parameters are needed as a guideline for later
design for CSP power plants. This work presents experimental results obtained on a specific rock/oil
thermocline test loop and comparisons with the results of a numerical model.
2. Experimental set-up
To carefully investigate and evaluate the dual-media thermocline behaviour and performances at a
representative scale, a specific experimental installation has been built and exhaustively instrumented. An
overview of the flow loop is presented in Figure 1. The experimental set-up consists of a tank storage and
two fluid loops to simulate the charging and discharging components. The storage tank is filled with silica
rocks and silica sand mixture to minimize the void fraction of the packed bed. Non-pressurized thermal oil is
used as heat transfer fluid, with a maximum operating temperature of 300C. In charging mode, the system
integrates an electric boiler to drive the heat transfer fluid at constant temperature and flow rate to the top of
the storage tank. To discharge the system, the heat transfer fluid is taken from the top of the tank, passes
through a forced air cooler and returns to the bottom of the tank. An additional mode, based on a partial by-
pass of the cold oil exiting the air cooler, is added in the discharging mode. It allows dissociating the nominal
operating conditions in the charging and discharging modes, i.e. temperatures taken at the top of the storage
and at the inlet of the air cooler can be different. This situation corresponds to the specific case of a CSP
power plant where the storage temperature is higher than the maximum operating temperature of the turbine.
Flow rate and inlet temperature in the storage are finely controlled and measured. With the calibration and
the automation of the system, uncertainties less than 1% and 1C, respectively, are obtained.
Electrical heating
A
i
r

c
o
o
l
e
r
Q
1
0
1
Q201
P
2
0
1
VR100/200-1
VR100/200-2
VR102
Thermocline
tank
V
R
2
0
1
VR202
Q
2
0
2
Charging mode Discharging mode
Q
P
VR
P101
Mass flow meter
Pump
Regulation valve

Figure 1 : Experimental test loop.
The thermocline tank consists in a cylindrical stainless steel tank of 1 m diameter and 3 m high surrounded
by a dome top and a dished bottom used as fluid distributors. The tank has been insulated to reduce the
thermal heat losses. Special interest has been paid to different aspects of the tank geometry to increase
thermocline stability and efficiency. These topics have been patented. A mixture of silica gravel and silica
sand has been used as filler material by using a mass proportion of 20% of sand and 80% of gravel.
Preliminary tests showed bed void fraction of about 0.27-0.3. Special attention has been paid on the tank
filling to obtain the most homogeneous and isotropic rock-bed. The temperature distribution in the storage
tank was carefully investigated using about 250 K-type thermocouples (TC) whose positions are
schematically illustrated in Figure 2. The temperature measurements are made both in the rock and in the
heat transfer fluid. The different TC positions allow to accuratly follow the thermocline through the tank and
to investigate the perturbations in the axial and transverse temperature distributions. The thermocouples were
calibrated in the range 0-350C with a precision of 1C.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8 9
10
11
12
13
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8 9
10
11
12
13
0
.2
5
0
.
4
5

4
10
5 6 8
9
5 6 8
9
7

Level 1
Level 2
Level 3
Level 4
Level 5
Level 6
Level 7
Level 8
Level 9
Level 10
Level 10
Level 12
z (m)
0.12 m
0.37 m
0.62 m
0.87 m
1.12 m
1.37 m
1.62 m
1.87 m
2.12 m
2.37 m
2.62 m
2.87 m
1 m

Figure 2 : Implantation of the thermocouple in the gravel (left, red) and in the oil (left, blue). Cross-
section of the storage tank illustrating the temperature measurement planes (right).
The ranges of the main operating parameters are listed in the Table 1. The inlet velocity U
inlet
is the fluid
velocity calculated at the inlet tank temperature and based on the effective fluid cross section in the rock bed
(i.e. taking into account the bed porosity). The inlet Reynolds number is the corresponding Reynolds number
based on the rock size as characteristic length.

Mass flow
(kg/h)
T
inlet

(C)
U
inlet

(m/s)
Re
inlet

Charge 2500 300 <3.7 mm/s 150
Discharge 2500 200 3.3 mm/s 100
Table 1 : Global ranges of the operating parameters.
3. Numerical model
A numerical model based on two energy equations (for the thermal oil and the rock bed, respectively) have
been developed.
The following assumptions have been used to simplify the analysis:
i) the fluid flow and the heat transfer are considered only in the tank axis direction, thus the governing
equations are one-dimensional. This induces a transversal homogeneity of the oil and rocks
temperatures.
ii) the distributors are not included in the computational domain and conditions of uniform velocity and
temperature are considered at the inlet of the storage tank. This condition is equivalent to a storage
tank with well-designed distributors.
iii) the rock bed is considered as a continuous, homogeneous and isotropic porous medium.
iv) the properties of the rock bed are independent of the temperature
With the above assumptions and taking into account the heat conduction in the oil and in the rock bed and the
heat losses from the storage to the external ambient, the governing equations can be written as follows.
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
c f v
c
c
c
c c
ext f f c v
f
f
f f
f f
T T h
z
T
k
t
T
Cp
T T H T T h
z
T
k
z
T
U
t
T
Cp
+

=
(

2
2
2
2
1 : bed rock Solid
: Oil

where is the rock bed porosity and the subscripts f and r refer to heat transfer fluid and rock-bed,
respectively.
The energy equations of the heat transfer fluid and the solid fillers are coupled by the volumetric heat transfer
coefficient h
v
(expressed in W/m
3
.K) corresponding to the convection between the oil and the rock bed. This
parameter is calculated using the correlation of [ 11 ]:
( ) [ ]
2
3 / 1 6 . 0
Pr Re 1 . 1 2 1 6
p
f f f
v
D
k
h
+
=


with D
p
the rock characteristics length.
The thermal heat losses through the tank wall are taken into account with a global heat transfer coefficient
calculated as follows:
conv th cyl th
R R H
, ,
1 1 1
+ =
where R
th,cyl
is the thermal resistance of the insulation layer and R
th,conv
is the thermal resistance due to
convection with ambient. The external heat transfer coefficient with the ambient is calculated using the
correlation of [ 12 ] for incompressible fluid flow on a flat plate.
The variations of the oil properties with temperature are expressed as follows:
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) [ ]
3
2
2
2 3
10 773 . 10 0481 . 2 .
118294 . 0 00000015 . 0 000033 . 0 0 .
496005 . 1 785 0000008970 . 0 003313 . 0 .
62 . 1020 000321 . 0 614254 . 0

+ =
+ =
+ =
+ =
T Log Exp s Pa
T T K m W k
T T K kg kJ Cp
T T m kg

The model consists of a finite difference representation of the above equations. All the parameters such as the
tank geometry, the bed filling characteristics, the initial vertical temperature distribution, the charging and
discharging conditions etc.. can be specified independently. The tank was divided into equal horizontal slices,
typically 0.02 m thick. The time step was typically 30s. Grid and time-step independence have been verified.
4. Results
4.1. Preliminary experimental study of the characteristics of the thermocline
A preliminary study has been performed to investigate the thermal response of the storage tank to thermal
loads and to qualify the validity of the temperature measurements. This study was performed in discharge
mode from a fully charged tank. The inlet Reynolds number was set at Re
inlet
=9. The results are presented
using dimensionless variables defined as:
( )
( )
tank
*
tank
tank
*
arg arg
arg *
H
z
z
S
m
U with
U
H
t
t
T T
T T
T
e disch e ch
e disch
=
=
|

\
|
=

&

where t is the time, z is the axial position in the storage tank, m& is the mass flux, S
tank
is the tank cross
section and H
tank
is the tank height.
The typical results presented in Figure 3 clearly show smooth temperature profiles, with no experimental
scattering. Only small temperature differences, less than 5C, are observed between the rock temperatures
and the corresponding oil temperatures. When compared with the calibration uncertainty of 1C, this
indicates a good heat transfer coefficient in the storage tank. The comparison of the longitudinal temperature
profiles obtained at different radial and azimuthal positions in the storage tank presented in Figure 4 (see
Figure 2 for description of the different positions) shows only minor temperature differences too. At a given
axial position, the discrepancies in the temperature measurements are less than 8C, indicating that no
significant by-pass or non-homogeneity exist in the rock bed. The influence of the mass flux on these
characteristics (not presented in details here) has been investigated: at the highest mass fluxes, the maximal
temperatures differences between rock and oil reach 15C and the maximum transversal non-homogeneity
15C. This is related to two opposite influences in the rock bed: the higher the mass flux, the higher the heat
transfer coefficient and thus the smaller the oil/rock temperature difference. At the same time, higher mass
flux induces shorter residence time and higher influences of bed inhomogeneities, which result in higher
oil/rock temperature differences.
This allows one to validate the hydraulic distribution in the storage tank and the 1D-like behavior used as a
main assumption in the numerical model. As a consequence, only axial temperatures will be considered
throughout the rest of this work.
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
z*
T
*
Rock temperature
Oil temperature
t
*
=0.48
t
*
=0.72
t
*
=1.2
t
*
=1.45
t
*
=1.93

Figure 3 : Comparison of the rock and oil axial temperature profiles at different t
*
.
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
z*
T
*
R7
R5
R9
R13
R1
t
*
=0.73

Figure 4 : Comparison of different longitudinal temperature profiles at t
*
=0.73. RX refers to the TC
installed in the rock at the position X defined in Figure 2.
According to the very good agreement between the different thermocouples measurements, this preliminary
study can be considered as an in-situ validation of the instrumentation installed inside the storage tank. It
has to be finally mentioned that the missing points in graphs of the Figure 4 correspond to dead TC linked
with rock-bed movements in the tank.
4.2 Experimental behaviour during discharge process
Figure 5 shows the dimensionless axial temperature profiles as a function of the dimensionless axial position
during discharge process from a fully charged tank. The inlet Reynolds number of the cold oil entering into
the tank from the bottom is fixed at Re
inlet
=9. Typical thermocline profiles are observed on Figure 5: a
thermal gradient, or thermocline, running vertically from the bottom to the top of the storage tank, appears
clearly. As the discharge proceeds, the hot fluid is moving out of the tank and the bottom is filled with cold
fluid. Moreover, it appears that the themocline region is expanding with the discharging time, as observed
experimentally by [ 2 ] and numerically by [ 11 ] and [ 13 ]. Results presented in Figure 5 confirm the
validity and the reliability of the instrumentation installed in the storage tank to follow the thermocline front
during charge/discharge process.
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
z*
T
*
t*=0
t*=0.24
t*=0.48
t*=0.73
t*=0.97
t*=1.2
t*=1.45
t*=1.7
t*=1.93
Thermal front

Figure 5 : Dimensionless fluid temperatures in the storage tank during the discharge process.
As shown in Figure 6, the oil outlet tank temperature is almost constant during most of the discharge. The
measured temperature drop is less than 10C during about 3h and less than 15C during about 3.4h. From this
moment, the temperature gradient, or thermocline, is moving out of the tank and the outlet tank temperature
is decreasing sharply and quickly: the temperature drop reaches 55C after 4.2 h. It should be noted here that
a slight time lag exists between the rock bed temperature and the outlet tank temperature as can be seen at a
given time from Figure 5 and Figure 6. This is due to the dome top fluid and it does not impact significantly
the experimental results. In Figure 6, the dimensionless energy E
*
is calculated as the ratio of the extracted
energy and the maximum energy that can be stored in the tank at the used temperatures levels. Due to almost
constant mass flux, inlet and outlet temperatures, the dimensionless energy E
*
extracted from the tank
evolves almost linearly during the whole discharge. A slope reduction is observed at the end of the discharge
as the result of the diminution of the outlet temperature. The useful energy (i.e. from nominal turbine
temperature to minimum temperature turndown of the turbine) extracted from the tank was approximately
230 kWh
th
.
These results confirm the ability of our dual-media thermocline tank to match the requirements of a CSP
power plant storage system. A constant discharging temperature and discharged heat duty are of main interest
in CSP plants to ensure proper functioning and more particularly when a turbine is used for electricity
production, as the efficiency of such system notably decreases with the temperature or load variation.
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0.0 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.1 1.3 1.6 1.9
t*
E
*
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
T
*
Discharged energy
T inlet storage
T outlet storage

Figure 6 : Dimensionless inlet and outlet tank temperatures and dimensionless extracted energy during the
discharge process.
4.3. Oil tests
The time-evolution of the heat transfer fluid quality is of main interest in dual-media thermocline as oil and
rocks are in direct contact under thermal loads. The question was to know if oil degradation was observed
due to interaction with the rock-bed. Oil samples have been taken regularly on the installation and main
properties (such as flash point, viscosity, acidity etc) have been measured and compared to reference
samples. The cumulated test time is about 1000 h. Measurements were made following standard test methods
for the evaluation of the thermal stability of organic heat transfer fluids, such as ISO3104, ISO 2719 or
ASTM 6743. Comparisons were performed with both fresh oil and reference heated oil (i.e. in conditions
where the oil thermal degradation is supposed to be normal, according to the oil supplier. This allows to
determine the specific degradation due to rock/oil inetraction). When compared to heated oil in stainless steel
autoclave, no degradation of the thermal oil was observed, indicating that no significant oil/rock interaction
exists in the storage tank.
4.4 Numerical simulation
The numerical temperature profiles obtained with the model previously presented have been compared with
the experimental data. The comparison has been performed on a charge following the discharge previously
presented. The hot fluid enters the top of the tank at an inlet Reynolds number of Re
inlet
=38. The initial
temperature distribution in the rock-bed is represented in Figure 7 by the purple crosses. Two cases are
considered: in the first one (dashed line in Figure 7), only the rock-bed is considered as storage medium. In
the second case (solid line in Figure 7), the metal wall is taken into account and added as additional storage
medium by increasing the rock density. The equivalent density of the rock is also calculated by:
( )
sto r
wall wall
r equivalent r
V Cp
Cp M
int,
,
1
*

+ =
where M
wall
and Cp
wall
are the total mass and the specific heat of the wall and V
int,sto
is the internal volume of
the storage tank. The experimental measurements are represented using the different symbols. Results from
Figure 7 show that, when the metal wall is not considered in the calculations, the numerical thermocline
moves trough the tank faster than the experimental one. When the wall contribution is added, the numerical
evolutions are slowed due to additional storage medium and an accurate matching t is obtained with
experimental data.
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
z*
T
*
t*=0 t*=0.8 t*=1.6
t*=2.4 t*=3.2 t*=4
Without wall contribution
With wall contribution

Figure 7 : Comparison between the numerical and experimental results in a case of charge.
5. Conclusion
An experimental test loop of dual-media thermocline storage has been built with an exhaustively
instrumented storage tank. More than 250 thermocouples were installed in the tank to follow the propagation
of the heat wave and to investigate potential transversal or axial thermocline destabilization. The results
exhibit smooth typical thermocline profiles, with no experimental scattering. The reliability of the
temperature sensors has been proven, as well as their capability to allow an accurate investigation of the
thermocline behavior. In the nominal ranges of the operating parameters, heat transfer and fluid flow appears
to be mostly one-dimensional. This validates the hydraulic distribution in the storage tank and illustrates the
lack of significant by-pass or non-homogeneity in the rock bed. Only small temperature differences were
observed between rock and oil, indicating a good heat transfer in the tank. The thermocline evolutions were
observed to be quite controllable and reproducible, both in charge and discharge mode. In discharge mode, an
almost constant tank outlet temperature and discharged heat duty were obtained for more than 3 h (for a total
energy extracted of 230 kWh
th
), which confirms the ability of a thermocline storage to be installed in a CSP
power plant and to be coupled with devices such as gas turbine. A comprehensive, transient, one-dimensional
model for a dual-media thermocline using liquid heat transfer fluid has been developed and validated on the
experimental data obtained in the present study. When the contribution of the wall metal is taken into account
as an additional storage medium, an accurate matching is obtained with experimental data. This indicates that
the behaviour of a thermocline storage is predictable and that the developed model can be used as a guideline
for a large scale design. Measurements performed on the thermal oil flowing through the storage tank in
direct contact with the rock bed in cyclic operations show no specific properties modifications, when
compared to oil heated in dedicated stainless steel autoclaves. This indicates that no specific oil/rock
interaction, which could lead to oil alteration, exists in the tank.
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