CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION At the time of world war the military had found difficulties in tracing the enemies and their activities. This difficulty had lead to the invention of RADAR. To face new challenges in the present day situation in Military applications unmanned systems are more accurate, flexible and reliable. One such system is the MICROCONTROLLER BASED UNMANNED ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE WITH RADAR USING RF IDENTIFICATION. RADAR (Radio detection and Ranging), a remote detection system, is used to locate and identify objects. Radar signals bounce off objects in their path and the Radar system detects the echoes of signals that return. RADAR can determine a number of properties of a distant object, such as its distance, speed, direction of motion and shape. It can detect objects out of range of sight and works in all weather conditions, making it a vital and versatile tool for many industries. A radar system starts by sending out electromagnetic radiation, called the Signal. The signal bounces off objects in its path. When the radiation bounces back part of the signal returns to the Radar system; this echo is called the Return. The Radar system detects the Return and depending on the sophistication of the system, simply reports the detection or analyzes the signal for more information. RFID or Radio Frequency identification is a technology that enables the tracking or identification of objects using IC based tags with an RF circuit and antenna, and RF readers that "read" and in some case modify the information stored in the IC memory. Radio frequency identification (RFID) is a general term that is used to describe a system that transmits the identity (in the form of a unique serial number) of an object wirelessly, using radio waves. RFID technologies are grouped under the more generic Automatic Identification (Auto ID) technologies.
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
The RF tags could be divided in two major groups: Passive tags: The power to activate the tag microchip is supplied by the reader through the tag antenna when the tag is in the interrogation zone of the reader, as is the timing pulse. Active RFID tags: Active RFID tags have a battery in them and are therefore more capable in terms of range and data handling. FREQUENCY USE: There are four commonly used frequencies: Low frequency (LF) 125/134.2 kHz High frequency (HF) 13.56 MHz Ultra high frequency (UHF) (including 869 and 915 MHz) and Microwave (at 2450 MHz, a band familiar to ISPs).
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
CHAPTER II BLOCK DIAGRAM The block diagram and its brief description of the project work are explained in block wise and this block diagram consists the following blocks. AT THE TRANSMITTER END: Code generator 2051 Micro controller RF transmitter AT THE RECEIVER END: RF Receiver Signal Amplifier Micro controller unit Power supply AT THE CONTROL UNIT: Micro controller unit Motor driver Stepper Motors Firing indicator RADAR Gun RS232 driver &pin PC Accessories
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TRANSMITTER SECTION:
FIG 2.1
POWER SUPPLY UNIT:
FIG 2.2
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
RECEIVER SECTION:
FIG :2.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF CONTROL SECTION:
FIG 2.4
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
DESCRIPTION OF BLOCK DIAGRAM TRANSMITTER UNIT: RF TRANSMITTER: This block generates a continuous frequency of 100MHz, which is used to form a permanent link between the transmitter and receiver, and this is known as carrier frequency. The output serial port is fed to this RF radio transmitter. This is a frequency modulated radio transmitter. The radiating power of the transmitter is 20mw, and it is designed using 2N3904 high frequency switching transistor.
RECEIVER UNIT: POWER SUPPLY: Power supply unit provides +5V regulated power to the system. It consists of two parts Rectifier and Monolithic IC voltage regulators. Here the step down transformer of voltage ratio 230V/9-0-9V steps down 230VAC primary to 909V secondary and gives the secondary current up to 500mA, to the Rectifier. The output voltage of the rectifier then regulated to +5V using LM7805. RF RECEIVER: The RF receiver is designed with IC CXA1619BM/BS, which is AM/RF Radio receiver IC, operates at a local oscillator of 88 - 108MHz and is tuned with the transmitter. This IC consists of built in RF amplifier, a double balanced mixer, local oscillator, a two stage IF amplifier, a quadrature demodulator for a ceramic filter and an automatic frequency control. The built in RF amplifier, a part from the amplification of received RF signal, it also reduces the Noise figure, which could other wise be a problem because of the large band widths needed for RF. It also matches the input impedance of the radio receiver with the antenna. SIGNAL AMPLIFIER: Here a differential amplifier in series with a voltage follower constructed by using a Darlington pair. amplified to TTL level for follower constructed
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
DESCRIPTION OF CONTROL SECTION: MICRO CONTROLLER UNIT: The AT89C51 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with 4K bytes of Flash programmable and erasable read only memory (EPROM). The device is manufactured using Atmels high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-standard MCS-51 instruction set and pinout. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C51 is a powerful microcomputer which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications. FEATURES: Compatible with MCS-51 Products 4K Bytes of In-System Reprogrammable Flash Memory . Endurance: 1,000 Write/Erase Cycles Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz Three-level Program Memory Lock 128 x 8-bit Internal RAM 32 Programmable I/O Lines Two 16-bit Timer/Counters Six Interrupt Sources Programmable Serial Channel Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes PC BLOCK: The PC is having various I/O peripherals such as parallel port, serial (COM) port, USB port, modems etc. For our project we have taken serial (COM) port because in monoplex mode of communication, only one wire is sufficient. Here we can transmit single wire information, so we have chosen this port.
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
A ninepin D type connector is placed at the rear panel of the PC through which we take data using an interfacing cable. For taking commands and transmitting the data, C language is used. A user friendly menu is created for better operation RS232: The MAX232 family of line drivers/receivers is intended for all EIA/TIA-232E and V.28/V.24 communications interfaces particularly applications where 12V is not available. These parts are especially useful in battery-powered systems, since their low- power shutdown mode reduces power dissipation to less than 5W. the features of these I.C. are Superior to Bipolar, Operate from Single +5V Power Supply, Meet All EIA/TIA-232E and V.28 Specifications, Multiple Drivers and Receivers, 2-State Driver and Receiver Outputs. MOTOR DRIVER: For driving of motor coils, we used IRF540 MOSFET, which are having low on- state resistance so that the dissipation is less, fast switching and low thermal resistance. This MOSFET is driven by BC547 transistor. For each motor four MOSFET sections are required. MOTORS: Unipolar stepper motors are used for moving the vehicle, because the driving circuit is simpler and yet it works well. It consists four windings and there are two driving methods are there. One is full step and other is half step. Full step moves 1.8 and half step moves 0.9. The torque for full step driving is more compared to half step driving. FIRING INDICATOR: A red LED is used along with a buzzer, which is driven using BC547 transistors. Whenever a fire command given, LED blinks once and buzzer beeps.
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
CHAPTER III CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
FLIGHT SECTION:
Fig:3.1
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RECEIVER SECTION:
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
Driver Circuit Fig 3.2
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
CHAPTER IV PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
In this system we are simulating the RADAR function with optical beam. We are providing an IR transmitter and receiver in place of RF transmitter and receiver. If any object, reflecting the IR rays back to receiver can be detected. The IR transmitter and receiver are placed on a rotating antenna to detect angle of the object. And we are placing an Rfid tags at each plane of our origin. A gun is placed along with radar. If our flight passes in front of radar, it sends its address through Rfid tag. The Rfid reader reads this code and sends to micro controller. If the code is matched, the gun will not fire. If some other planes pass, they are not able to produce the code, so as a result the gun aims at that plane and blasts it. LED and buzzer are interfaced to simulate firing. The scanning process can be seen in PC. A micro controller is used to supervise all these functions. All the peripherals like, stepper motor, RS232, IR transmitter and receiver, RF transmitter and receiver are interfaced to micro controller. Micro controller rotates the stepper motor in specified angles and gets the feed back from IR receiver in that position. This information is sent to PC via serial port to indicate the object at that particular angle in the monitor. Then another micro controller reads the RF digital code and sends the status to PC. If that code is not matched, PC sends back signal to micro controller to blast it. Then micro controller rotates the gun using another stepper motor and fires. RF receiver receives the signals using single Arial and gives demodulated o/p. This o/p signal is further conditioned using LM358 op-amp. The o/p of the receiver is very low, so its level is amplified using a Darlington pair. The o/p is fed to micro controller (AT89C51). The micro controller receives the serial data and accordingly drives the stepper motors and buzzer. Here we used uni-polar stepper motors, which will have four windings. Each winding is driven with MOSFET (IRF540) for better switching and lesser power dissipation. BC547 transistors are used to drive the MOSFET, because controller o/p is in the range of +5V and MOSFET is operating in the range of +12V. Full step mode is used for driving the stepper motor. In this mode, the rotating angle per step is 1.8 and torque is high.
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
CHAPTER V DESCRIPTION OF MAIN COMPONENTS POWER SUPPLY:
Fig 5.1Power supply
Power supply unit provides 5V regulates power supply to the systems. It consists of two parts namely, 1. Rectifier 2. Monolithic voltage regulator Rectifier: Here the step down transformer 230-0v/9-0-9 and gives the secondary current up to 500mA, to the Rectifier. The Transformer secondary is provided with a center tap. Hence the voltage V1 and V2 are equal and are having a phase difference of 180 0 . So it is anode of Diode D1 is positive with respect to the center tap, the anode of the other diode d2 will be negative with respect to the center tap. During the positive half cycle of the supply D1 conducts and current flows through the center tap D1 and load. During this period D2 will not conduct as its anode is at a negative potential. During the negative half cycle of the supply voltage, the voltage on the diode D2 will be positive and hence D2 conducts. The current flows through the transformer winding, Diode D2 and load. It is to be noted that the current i1 and i2 are flowing in the same direction in load.
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
The average of the two current i1 and i2 flows through the load producing a voltage drop, which is the D.C. output voltage of the rectifier. Using capacitor filters the ripple in the out waveform can be minimized. The voltage can be regulated by using monolithic IC voltage regulators. Monolithic IC voltage regulator: A voltage regulator is a circuit that supplies a constant voltage regardless of changes in load currents. Although voltage regulators can be designed using op-amps, it is quicker and easier to use IC voltage regulators. Furthermore, IC voltage regulators are versatile and relatively inexpensive and are available with features such as programmable output, current/voltage boosting, internal short-circuit current limiting, thermal shutdown and floating operation for high voltage applications. Here we are using 7800 series voltage regulators. The 7800 series consists of 3- terminal +ve voltage regulators with seven voltage options. These ICs are designed as fixed voltage regulators and with adequate heat sinking can deliver output currents in excess of 1A. Although these devices do not require external components, such components can be used to obtain adjustable voltages and currents. For proper operation a common ground between input and output voltages is required. In addition, the difference between input and output voltages (Vi Vo) called drop out voltage, must be typically 1.5V even during the low point as the input ripple voltage. Further more, the capacitor C i is required if the regulator is located an appreciable distance from a power supply filter. Even though Co is not needed, it may be used to improve the transient response of the regulator. Line regulation is defined as the change in output voltage for a change in the input voltage and is usually expressed in milli volts or as a percentage of Vo. Temperature stability or average temperature coefficient of output voltage (TCVo) is the change in output voltage per unit change in temperature and is expressed in either milli volts/C or parts per million (PPM/C). Ripple rejection is the measure of a regulators ability to reject ripple voltage. It is usually expressed in decibels. The smaller the values of line regulation, load regulation and temperature stability the better the regulation.
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
8 BIT MICROCONTROLLERS - AT89C51 The Micro controller is used for interface with FM receiver and stepper motors and it gives proper stepping pulses for vehicle movements, by receiving serial data from FM receiver. INTRODUCTION: Looking back into the history of microcomputers, one would at first come across the development of microprocessor i.e. the processing element, and later on the peripheral devices. The three basic elements-the CPU, I/O devices and memory-have developed in distinct directions. While the CPU has been the proprietary item, the memory devices fall into general-purpose category and the I/O devices may be grouped somewhere in-between. The AT89C51 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with 4K bytes of Flash programmable and erasable read only memory (PEROM). The device is manufactured using Atmels high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-standard MCS-51 instruction set and pinout. The on- chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C51 is a powerful microcomputer, which provides a highly flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications. The AT89C51 provides for 4k EPROM/ROM, 128 byte RAM and 32 I/O lines. It also includes a universal asynchronous receive-transmit (UART) device, two 16-bit timer/counters and elaborate interrupt logic. Lack of multiply and divide instructions which had been always felt in 8-bit microprocessors/micro controllers, has also been taken care of in the 89C51- Thus the 89C51 may be called nearly equivalent of the following devices on a single chip: 8085 + 8255 + 8251 + 8253 + 2764 + 6116. In short, the AT89C51 has the following on-chip facilities: 4k ROM (EPROM on 8751) 128 byte RAM32 input-output port lines Two, 16-bit timer/counters Six interrupt sources and On-chip clock oscillator and power on reset circuitry -16-
ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
INTERNAL BLOCK DIAGRAM:
Fig 5.2 AT89S51 internal block diagram
SALIENT FEATURES: The 89C51 can be configured to bypass the internal 4 k ROM and run solely with external program memory.
For this, its external access (EA) pin has to be grounded, which makes it equivalent to 8031. The program store enable (PSEN) signal acts as read pulse for program memory. The data memory is external only and a separate RD* signal is available for reading its contents.
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
Use of external memory requires that three of its 8-bit ports (out of four) are configured to provide data/address multiplexed bus. Hi address bus and control signals related to external memory use. The RXD and TXD ports of UART also appear on pins 10 and 11 of 8051 and 8031, respectively. The UART utilizes one of the internal timers for generation of baud rate. The crystal used for generation of CPU clock has therefore to be chosen carefully. The 11.0596 MHz crystals; available abundantly, can provide a baud rate of 9600. The 256-byte address space is utilized by the internal RAM and special function registers (SFRs) array which is separate from external data RAM space of 64k. The 00- 7F space is occupied by the RAM and the 80 - FF space by the SFRs. The 128 byte internal RAM has been utilized in the following fashion: 00-1F: Used for four banks of eight registers of 8-bit each. The four banks may be selected by software any time during the program. 20-2F: The 16 bytes may be used as 128 bits of individually addressable locations. These are extremely useful for bit oriented programs. 30- 7F: This area is used for temporary storage, pointers and stack. On reset, the stack starts at 08 and gets incremented during use.The list of special function registers along with their hex addresses is given: Addr .
AT89C51 SFR AT89C51 SERIAL PORT PINS: PIN ALTERNATE USE SFR P3.ORXD Serial data input SBUF P3.ITXD Serial data output SBUF P3.2INTO External interrupt 0 TCON-1 P3.3INT1 External interrupt 1 TCON- 2 P3.4TO External timer 0 input TMOD P3.5T1 External timer 1 input TMOD P3.6WR External memory write pulse --------- P3.7RD External memory read pulse ---- AT89C51 serial port pins The two internal timers are wired to the system clock and prescaling factor is decided by the software, apart from the count stored in the two bytes of the timer control registers. One of the counters, as mentioned earlier, is used for generation of baud rate clock for the UART. It would be of interest to know that the 8052 have a third timer, which is usually used for generation of baud rate.
The reset input is normally low and taking it high resets the micro controller, in the present hardware, a separate CMOS circuit has been used for generation of reset signal so that it could be used to drive external devices as well.
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU WRITING THE SOFTWARE: The 89C51 has been specifically developed for control applications. As mentioned earlier, out of the 128 bytes of internal RAM, 16 bytes have been organized in such a way that all the 128 bits associated with this group may be accessed bit wise to facilitate their use for bit set/reset/test applications. These are therefore extremely useful for programs involving individual logical operations. One can easily give example of lift for one such application where each one of the floors, door condition, etc may be depicted by a single hit. The 89C51 has instructions for bit manipulation and testing. Apart from these, it has 8-bit multiply and divide instructions, which may be used with advantage. The 89C51 has short branch instructions for 'within page' and conditional jumps, short jumps and calls within 2k memory space which are very convenient, and as such the controller seems to favor programs which are less than 2k byte long. Some versions of 8751 EPROM devices have a security bit which can be programmed to lock the device and then the contents of internal program EPROM cannot be read. The device has to be erased in full for further alteration, and thus it can only be reused but not copied. EEPROM and FLASH memory versions of the device are also available now. Memory consists of all memory locations, and addressing is nothing but selecting one of them. This means that we need to select the desired memory location on one hand, and on the other hand we need to wait for the contents of that location. Besides reading from a memory location, memory must also provide for writing onto it. This is done by supplying an additional line, called control line. We will designate this line as R/W (read/write). Control line is used in the following way: if r/w=1, reading is done, and if opposite is true then writing is done on the memory location. Registers are the memory locations whose role is to help with performing various mathematical operations or any other operations with data wherever data can be found. We have two independent entities (memory and CPU), which are interconnected, and thus any exchange of data is hindered, as well as its functionality. If, for example, we wish to add the contents of two memory locations and return the result again back to memory, we would need a connection between memory and CPU. Simply stated, we must have some way through data goes from one block to another.
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That way is called bus. Physically, it represents a group of 8, 16, or more wires. There are two types of buses: address and data bus. The first one consists of as many lines as the amount of memory we wish to address and the other one is as wide as data, in our case 8 bits or the connection line. First one serves to transmit address from CPU memory, and the second to connect all blocks inside the micro controller. Those locations weve just added are called ports. There are several types of ports: input, output or bi-directional ports. When working with ports, first of all it is necessary to choose which port we need to work with, and then to send data to, or take it from the port. When working with it the port acts like a memory location. Something is simply being written into or read from it, and it could be noticed on the pins of the micro-controller.
AT89C2051 MICROCONTROLLER The AT89C2051 is a low-voltage, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with 2K bytes of Flash programmable and erasable read-only memory (PEROM). The device is manufactured using Atmels high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-standard MCS-51 instruction set. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C2051 is a powerful microcomputer which provides a highly-flexible and cost- effective solution to many embedded control applications. The AT89C2051 provides the following standard features: 2K bytes of Flash 128 bytes of RAM 15 I/O lines Two 16-bit timer/counters A five vector two-level interrupt architecture A full duplex serial port A precision analog comparator On-chip oscillator and clock circuitry
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
In addition, the AT89C2051 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port and interrupt system to continue functioning. The power-down mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the oscillator disabling all other chip functions until the next hardware reset. INTERNAL BLOCK DIAGRAM:
FIG 5.3 AT89C2051 internal block diagram SALIENT FEATURES: Compatible with MCS-51Products 2K Bytes of Reprogrammable Flash Memory Endurance: 10,000 Write/Erase Cycles 2.7V to 6V Operating Range Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz Two-level Program Memory Lock
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
128 x 8-bit Internal RAM 15 Programmable I/O Lines Two 16-bit Timer/Counters Programmable Serial UART Channel Direct LED Drive Outputs On-chip Analog Comparator Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes Addr .
ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
AT89C2051 SERIAL PORT PINS:
PIN ALTERNATE USE SFR P3.0RXD Serial data input SBUF P3.ITXD Serial data output SBUF P3.2INTO External interrupt 0 TCON-1 P3.3INT1 External interrupt 1 TCON- 2 P3.4TO External timer 0 input TMOD P3.5T1 External timer 1 input TMOD
RF TRANSMITTER This block generates a continuous frequency of 100MHz, which is used to form a permanent link between the transmitter and receiver, and this is known as carrier frequency. The output of serial port is fed to this RF radio transmitter. This is a frequency modulated radio transmitter. The radiating power of the transmitter is 20mw, and it is designed using BC 494 B high frequency switching transistor. The instantaneous frequency of the carrier is varied directly in accordance with the base band signal by means of a device known as VCO (Voltage Controlled Oscillator) one of implementing such a device is to use to sinusoidal oscillator having a relatively high-Q frequency. Determining Network and to control the oscillator by symmetrical incremental variation of the reactive components. Thus the serial data is modulated at 100MHz carrier.
PIN DIAGRAM:
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
FEATURES: 433.92 MHz Frequency Low Cost 1.5-12V operation 11mA current consumption at 3V 4 dBm output power at 3V
APPLICATIONS: Remote Lighting Controls Wireless Alarm and Security Systems Long Range RFID Automated Resource Management
RF RECEIVER The RF receiver is designed with IC TEA5710, which is AM/RF Radio receiver IC, operates at a local oscillator of 88 - 108MHz and is tuned with the transmitter. This IC consists of built in RF amplifier, a double balanced mixer, local oscillator, a two stage IF amplifier, a quadrature demodulator and an automatic frequency control. The built in RF amplifier, apart from the amplification of received RF signal reduces the Noise figure, which could other wise be a problem because of the large band widths needed for RF. This radio receiver is used as a RF detector and limiter with minimum of external components. This IC includes cascaded stages of IF limiting and balanced product detector with a very low Harmonic distortion and high IF voltage gain. The RF receiver that operates at 100MHz will have an IF of 10.7 MHz and bandwidth of 200KHz. PIN DIAGRAM
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
FEATURES: Low Cost 5V operation Receiver Frequency: 433.92 MHZ IF Frequency: 1MHz APPLICATIONS: Car security system Sensor reporting Automation system Remote Lighting Controls STEPPER MOTOR DRIVES
Fig 5.4 Stepper motor drive circuit When the output of the controller is high, the base current I flows in to base of the transistor, thus providing voltage drop more then 0.7V across the Ve junction, thus the transistor goes in to saturation mode. So the Ic is maximum and the voltage drop across the Vce junction is zero. I.e. the input to MOSFET is zero. So the MOSFET will not conduct and stepper motor coil will not energize. If the output of the controller is low, the base current I is zero, thus providing voltage drop less then 0.1V across the Ve junction, thus the transistor goes in to cut-off mode. So the Ic is minimum and the voltage drop across the Vce junction is maximum. I.e. the input to MOSFET is almost Vcc. So the MOSFET will conduct and stepper motor coil get energized.
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
STEPPER MOTORS INTRODUCTION: Stepper Motors have several features which distinguish them from AC Motors, and DC Servo Motors. Brushless - Steppers are brush less Motors with contact brushes create sparks, undesirable in certain environments. (Space missions, for example.) Holding Torque - Steppers have very good low speed and holding torque. Steppers are usually rated in terms of their holding force (oz/in) and can even hold a position (to a lesser degree) without power applied, using magnetic 'detent' torque. Open loop positioning - Perhaps the most valuable and interesting feature of a stepper is the ability to position the shaft in fine predictable increments, without need to query the motor as to its position. Steppers can run 'open-loop' without the need for any kind of encoder to determine the shaft position. Closed loop systems- systems that feed back position information, are known as servo systems. Compared to servos, steppers are very easy to control, the position of the shaft is guaranteed as long as the torque of the motor is sufficient for the load, under all its operating conditions. Load Independent - The rotation speed of a stepper is independent of load, provided it has sufficient torque to overcome slipping. The higher rpm a stepper motor is driven, the more torque it needs, so all steppers eventually poop out at some rpm and start slipping. Slipping is usually a disaster for steppers, because the position of the shaft becomes unknown. For this reason, software usually keeps the stepping rate within a maximum top rate. In applications where a known RPM is needed under a varying load, steppers can be very handy.
TYPES OF STEPPERS: Stepper Motors come in a variety of sizes, and strengths, from tiny floppy disk motors, to huge machinery steppers rated over 1000 oz in. There are two basic types of steppers-- bipolar and unipolar. The bipolar stepper has 4 wires have 5, 6 or 8 wires.
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
MOTOR BASICS: The Unipolar Stepper motor has 2 coils, simple lengths of wound wire. The coils are identical and are not electrically connected. Each coil has a center tap - a wire coming out from the coil that is midway in length between its two terminals. You can identify the separate coils by touching the terminal wires together-- If the terminals of a coil are connected, the shaft becomes harder to turn. Because of the long length of the wound wire, it has a significant resistance (and inductance). The resistance from a terminal to the center tap is half the resistance from the two terminals of a coil. Coil resistance of half a coil is usually stamped on the motor; For example, '5 ohms/phase' indicates the resistance from center tap to either terminal of a coil. The resistance from terminal to terminal should be 10 ohms.
FIG 5.5 Stepper motor coil diagram
MOTOR CONTROL CIRCUITRY:
FIG 5.6 Magnetic field diagram Current flowing through a coil produces a magnet field which attracts a permanent magnet rotor which is connected to the shaft of the motor. The basic principle of stepper control is to reverse the direction of current through the 2 coils of a stepper motor, in sequence, in order to influence the rotor.
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
Since there are 2 coils and 2 directions, that gives us a possible 4-phase sequence. All we need to do is get the sequencing right and the motor will turn continuously. You may wonder how the stepper can achieve such fine stepping increments with only a 4-phase sequence. The internal arrangement of the motor is quite complex- the winding and core repeating around the perimeter of the motor many times. The rotor is advanced only a small angle either forward or reverse, and the 4-phase sequence is repeated many times before a complete revolution occurs.
FIG 5.7 Stepper motor basic control diagram Let us return to the 4-phase sequence of reversing the current though the 2 coils. A Bipolar stepper controller achieves the current reversal by reversing the polarity at the two terminals of a coil. The Unipolar controller takes advantage of the center tap to achieve the current reversal with a clever trick -- The Center tap is tied to the positive supply, and one of the 2 terminals is grounded to get the current flowing one direction. The other terminal is grounded to reverse the current. Current can thus flow in both directions, but only half coils are energized at a time. Both terminals are never grounded at the same time, which would energize both coils, achieving nothing but a waste of power. CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF UNIPOLAR STEPPER MOTOR:
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
With center taps of the windings wired to the positive supply, the terminals of each winding are grounded, in sequence, to attract the rotor, which is indicated by the arrow in the picture. (Remember that a current through a coil produces a magnetic field.) This conceptual diagram depicts a 90-degree step per phase. In a basic "Wave Drive" clockwise sequence, winding 1a is de-activated and winding 2a activated to advance to the next phase. The rotor is guided in this manner from one winding to the next, producing a continuous cycle. Note that if two adjacent windings are activated, the rotor is attracted mid-way between the two windings. The following table describes 3 useful stepping sequences and their relative merits. The sequence pattern is represented with 4 bits; a '1' indicates an energized winding. After the last step in each sequence the sequence repeats. Stepping backwards through the sequence reverses the direction of the motor. Table of Stepping Sequences: Sequence Name Description 0001 0010 0100 1000 Wave Drive, One- Phase Consumes the least power. Only one phase is energized at a time. Assures positional accuracy regardless of any winding imbalance in the motor. 0011 0110 1100 1001 Hi- Torque, Two- Phase Hi Torque - This sequence energizes two adjacent phases, which offers an improved torque-speed product and greater holding torque. 0001 0011 0010 0110 0100 1100 1000 1001 Half- Step Half Step - Effectively doubles the stepping resolution of the motor, but the torque is not uniform for each step. (Since we are effectively switching between Wave Drive and Hi-Torque with each step, torque alternates each step.) This sequence reduces motor resonance, which can sometimes cause a motor to stall at a particular resonant frequency. Note that this sequence is 8 steps.
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
IDENTIFYING STEPPER MOTORS:
F15 5.8 Stepper motor identification diagram Stepper motors have numerous wires, 4, 5, 6, or 8. When you turn the shaft you will usually feel a "notched" movement. Motors with 4 wires are probably bipolar motors and will not work with a Unipolar control circuit. The most common configurations are pictured above. You can use an ohm-meter to find the center tap - the resistance between the center and a leg is 1/2 that from leg to leg. Measuring from one coil to the other will show an open circuit, since the 2 coils are not connected. (Notice that if you touch all the wires together, with power off, the shaft is difficult to turn!) SHORTCUT FOR FINDING THE PROPER WIRING SEQUENCE: Connect the center tap(s) to the power source (or current-Limiting resistor.) Connect the remaining 4 wires in any pattern. If it doesn't work, you only need try these 2 swaps... 1 2 4 8 - arbitrary first wiring order 1 2 8 4 - switch end pair 1 8 2 4 - switch middle pair If the motor turns in the opposite direction from desired, reverse the wires so that ABCD would become DCBA.
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
HEAT CONSIDERATIONS: Over-heating can be an early indicator of a problem or need for additional heat sinking. This is true of both the controller and motors. Components can be warm to the touch, but not so hot that you can't leave your finger on them for a few seconds. Motors are designed to be mounted in such a way that, heat is drawn away from the motors. This is usually accomplished with a metal mounting bracket. Motors that are not yet mounted may require some type of temporary heat sinking. Motors heat more running at the LOW speeds or in Hold Mode. If a component or motor is running too hot, try using the Wave Drive stepping mode only, if it still runs too hot, try heat sinking, and/or a fan. If it still runs too hot, something is wrong.
FIRING INDICATOR
FIG 5.9 Firing indicator circuit diagram
The fire signal from micro controller is a pulse output of 1sec. i.e. the output is high for 1sec. When the output of the controller is high, the base current I flows in to base of the transistor, thus providing voltage drop more then 0.7V across the Ve junction, thus the transistor goes in to saturation mode. So the Ic is maximum and the LED will glow and simultaneously, buzzer gives a beep sound.
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
IR TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER
FIG 5.10 Infrared transmitter is one type of LED which emits infrared rays generally called IR Transmitter. Similarly IR Receiver is used to receive the IR rays transmitted by the IR transmitter. One important point is both IR transmitter and receiver should be placed straight line to each other. IR transmitter is used to release the IR light rays. These rays are collected by IR receiver. The IR receiver is connected with comparator. The comparator is constructed with LM358 operational amplifier. In the comparator circuit the reference voltage is given to non-inverting input terminal. The inverting terminal s connected to IR receiver. When any interrupt the IR rays between the IR transmitter and receiver, the IR receiver is not conducting. So the comparator inverting input voltage is higher then non- inverting input. So it sends an active low pulse to the MCU. When there is vehicle in between transmitter and receiver, IR rays are collected by receiver. In the first stage of LM358, the output of the op-amp is connected directly to inverting input so that it acts as a voltage follower or buffer. This will prevent any loading of signal by the next stage. In the second stage a variable voltage reference is connected to non-inverting input and signal is connected to inverting input. If the signal is lower then the reference the output will go high (+5V), or if the signal is higher then the reference then the output goes low (0V). Normally the signal level will be 2V for low and 2.5V for high. After comparator the output will be 0V for high input and +5Vfor low input i.e. the level is converted.
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
PC INTERFACE SECTION
RS-232 Connecter diagram
The above shown connector known as 9-pin, D-type male connector used for RS232 connections. The pin description is given in the following table.
Pin number Comm on Name RS23 2 name Description Sign al dire ctio n 1 /CD CF Received line signal detector IN 2 RXD BB Received data IN 3 TXD BA Transmitted data OU T 4 /DTR CD Data terminal ready OU T 5 GND AB Signal ground -- 6 /DSR CC Data set ready IN 7 /RTS CA Request to send OU T 8 /CTS CB Clear to send IN 9 -- CE Ring indicator IN RS-232 pin details
1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
We cannot simply connect our system to this terminal with out providing proper hand shaking signal. For communicating with RS-232 type equipment, the /RTS of the connector is simply looped into the /CTS, so /CTS will automatically be asserted when /RTS is asserted internally. Similarly the /DTR is looped into /DSR and /CD, so when PC asserts its /DTR output the /DSR and /CD inputs are automatically be asserted. They are necessary to get the PC and our system talk each other. The connection diagram is shown below.
The MAX232 I.C convert input TTL level into RS-232C standard level and connected to PC through 9-pin D-type connector. Now discuss about standards of RS232 and Serial communication through RS232 .
ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
RS-232 logic levels are indicated by positive and negative voltages, rather than by the positive-only signals of 5V TTL and CMOS logic. At an RS-232 data output (TD), a logic 0 is defined as equal to or more positive than +5V, and a logic 1 is defined as equal to as or more negative than 5V. In other words, the signals use negative logic, where the more negative voltage is logic 1. RS-232 interface chips invert the signals. According to the standard, the logic level of an input between 3V and +3V is undefined.
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
CHAPTER VI SOFTWARE IMPLEMENTATION
ASSEMBLY PROGRAM: MASTER: ;--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -- ;> ;> TITLE : RADAR SIMILATION WITH OPTICAL SENSOR ;> TARGET : AT89C51 ;> VERSION : VER-01 ;> STARTED : 05-03-2005 ;> ;--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ;> ;> INCLUDES : $MOD51 ;> ;--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ;> ;> HARD WARE DETAILS : ;> RADAR MOTOR CONTROL - P0.0 TO P0.3 ;> GUN MOTOR CONTROL - P0.4 TO P0.7 ;> COMMUNICATION O.K. IND - P1.0 COK BIT P1.0 ;> I.R.FEED BACK - P2.6 IRF BIT P2.6 ;> CODE MATCH INPUT - P1.7 CMI BIT P1.7 ;> ANTENNA HOME SENSOR - P2.7 AHS BIT P2.7
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
;> GUN HOME SENSOR - P2.5 GHS BIT P2.5 ;> FIRING CONTROL - P3.7 FNC BIT P3.7 ;> FIRING CONTROL - P3.6 FNC1 BIT P3.6 ;> SLAVE RESET CONTROL - P3.4 SRST BIT P3.4 ;> ;--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ;> ;> FLAGS : KEY_RLS BIT 00H MOT_DIR BIT 01H SEND_ANG BIT 02H ENEMY BIT 03H ABS_LOCK BIT 04H ZERO_LOCK BIT 05H ;> ;--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ;> ;> VARIABLES : STEP_CNT DATA 30H MOT_FB DATA 32H RAD_CNTL DATA 33H RAD_CNTH DATA 34H GUN_CNTL DATA 35H GUN_CNTH DATA 36H ABS_CNTL DATA 37H ABS_CNTH DATA 38H STEP_CNTG DATA 39H
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
P2_BUF DATA 3AH ROT_CNT1 DATA 3BH ROT_CNT2 DATA 3CH ;> ;--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ;> ;> VECTOR ADDRESESS: ORG 0000H ljmp INITIALISATION
ORG 000BH reti
ORG 0023H ; serial interrupt ; push ACC push PSW
jbc RI, RECEIVE_DATA ajmp SKIP_CHKS RECEIVE_DATA: cpl COK mov MOT_FB, SBUF setb SEND_ANG SKIP_CHKS: pop PSW ; pop ACC reti ;> ;---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
inc ROT_CNT1 mov A, ROT_CNT1 cjne A, #00H, SKIP_CY_CNT inc ROT_CNT2 mov A, ROT_CNT2 SKIP_CY_CNT: mov A, ROT_CNT2 cjne A, #01H, CP_REV_CNT1 mov A, ROT_CNT1 cjne A, #2CH, CP_REV_CNT1
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
DLY3: mov r4, #02h GONE3: mov r5, #04h OUT3: mov r6, #0B0h IN3: djnz r6, IN3 djnz r5, OUT3 djnz r4, GONE3 RET ;> ;--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -- ORG 0400H STEP_RUN: db 090H db 010H db 050H db 040H db 060H db 020H db 0A0H db 080H STEP_GUN: db 09H db 01H db 05H db 04H db 06H db 02H db 0AH db 08H END
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
RFID TRANSMITTER: ;--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ;> ;> TITLE : RFID TAG ;> TARGET : AT89C2051 ;> STARTED : 18-06-2009 ;> ;--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ;> ;> INCLUDES : $MOD51 ;> ;--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ;> ;> VECTOR ADDRESESS: ORG 0000H ljmp RESET ORG 0023H RETI ;> ;--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ;> RESET: mov P3, #0FFH mov P1, #0FFH mov sp, #65H ; init stack pointer anl PCON, #7FH ; CLR SMOD BIT mov TMOD, #21H ; TIMER 1 IN MODE 2 mov TH1, #0E8H ; SET BAUD RATE AS 1200 mov SCON, #50H ; SERIAL MODE 1 AND RECEIVE ENABLE
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
mov IE, #90H ; ENABLE SERIAL INTERRUPT setb TR1 ; RUN TIMER 1 ;> ;--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ;> MAIN: cpl P3.2
mov SBUF, #0AAH ; AA IS HEADER CHAN3: jnb TI, CHAN3 clr TI lcall SERL_DLY1 mov A, P1 mov SBUF, A CHAN4: jnb TI, CHAN4 clr TI lcall SERL_DLY1 mov A, P1 xrl A, #0AAH mov SBUF, A
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU CHAN5: jnb TI, CHAN5 clr TI lcall SERL_DLY1 ljmp MAIN ;> ;--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -- ;> SERL_DLY1: mov R6, #05H SOUT1: mov R7, #00H SIN1: djnz R7, SIN1 djnz R6, SOUT1 RET ;> ;--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -- ;> END RFID RECEIVER: ;--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ;> ;> TITLE : Radar with RFid ;> TARGET : AT89C2051 ;> STARTED : 24-12-2005 ;> ;--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ;> ;> INCLUDES : $MOD51 ;> ;---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
;> ;> FLAGS : ;> ;--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ;> ;> VARIABLES : COMMD DATA 30H CHK_SUM DATA 31H TMP_VAL DATA 32H SERL_CNT DATA 33H ;> ;--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ;> ;> VECTOR ADDRESESS: ORG 0000H ljmp RESET ORG 000BH ; TIMER 0 interrupt push ACC push PSW inc SERL_CNT mov A, SERL_CNT cjne A, #30D, RESET_CNT mov SERL_CNT, #00H mov COMMD, #0FFH RESET_CNT: pop PSW pop ACC reti ORG 0023H ; serial interrupt push ACC push PSW
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
CHAPTER VIII FABRICATION MODEL
FIG 8.1
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
CHAPTER IX CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE CONCLUSIONS: The conventional war fields are having only manual operations which leads to human as well as wealth loss. In this project we have done the following without any human loss. Detection of Enemy flight Authentication Firing FUTURE SCOPE: In the future, the gun can be replaced by a GPS guided missile so that the enemys flight is surely blasted.
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
ANNEXURE-A AT89C51 DATASHEET ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS:
DC CHARACTERISTICS: The values shown in this table are valid for TA = -40C to 85C and VCC = 4.0V to 5.5V, unless otherwise noted.
Notes: 1. Under steady state (non-transient) conditions, IOL must be externally limited as follows: Maximum IOL per port pin: 10 mA Maximum IOL per 8-bit port: Port 0: 26 mA Ports 1, 2, 3: 15 mA Maximum total IOL for all output pins: 71 mA If IOL exceeds the test condition, VOL may exceed the related specification. Pins are not guaranteed to sink current greater than the listed test conditions. 3. Minimum VCC for Power-down is 2V.
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
AC CHARACTERISTICS Under operating conditions, load capacitance for Port 0, ALE/PROG, and PSEN = 100 pF; load capacitance for all other outputs = 80 pF. EXTERNAL PROGRAM AND DATA MEMORY CHARACTERISTICS:
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
ANNEXURE-B AT89C2051 DATASHEET ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS:
DC CHARACTERISTICS: TA = -40C to 85C, VCC = 2.7V to 6.0V (unless otherwise noted)
Notes: 1. Under steady state (non-transient) conditions, IOL must be externally limited as follows: Maximum IOL per port pin: 20 mA Maximum total IOL for all output pins: 80 mA If IOL exceeds the test condition, VOL may exceed the related specification. Pins are not guaranteed to sink current greater than the listed test conditions. 2. Minimum VCC for Power-down is 2V.
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
ANNEXURE-C IRF540 DATASHEET Absolute Maximum Ratings TC = 25 o C, Unless Otherwise Specified
NOTE: 1. TJ = 25 o C to TJ = 150 o C. ELECTRICAL SPECIFICATIONS: TC = 25 o C, Unless Otherwise Specified
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
BC547 DATASHEET ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS: Ta=25C unless otherwise noted.
ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
ANNEXURE-D LM358 DATASHEET ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS OVER OPERATING FREE-AIR TEMPERATURE RANGE:
Notes: 1. All voltage values, except differential voltages and VCC specified for measurement of IOS, are with respect to the network ground terminal. 2. Differential voltages are at IN+ with respect to IN. 3. Short circuits from outputs to VCC can cause excessive heating and eventual destruction. 4. Maximum power dissipation is a function of TJ(max), JA, and TA. The maximum allowable power dissipation at any allowable ambient temperature is PD = (TJ(max) TA)/JA. Operating at the absolute maximum TJ of 150C can affect reliability. 5. The package thermal impedance is calculated in accordance with JESD 51-7. 6. Maximum power dissipation is a function of TJ(max), JC, and TC. The maximum allowable power dissipation at any allowable case temperature is PD = (TJ(max) TC)/JC. Operating at the absolute maximum TJ of 150C can affect reliability. 7. The package thermal impedance is calculated in accordance with MIL-STD-883.
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS AT SPECIFIED FREE-AIR TEMPERATURE, VCC = 5 V:
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
ANNEXURE-D MAX232 DATASHEET ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS:
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
ANNEXURE-E TCST1000 DATASHEET ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS: INPUT (EMITTER):
OUTPUT (DETECTOR):
COUPLER:
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS (T amb =25 o C): INPUT (EMITTER):
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
OUTPUT (DETECTOR):
COUPLER:
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ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILE A.A.N.M. & V.V.R.S.R.POLYTECHNIC, GUDLAVALLERU
BIBILIOGRAPHY
The 8051 Microcontroller and Embedded Systems By Muhammad Ali Mazidi Electronic Devices and Ciruits By Jacob Milliman and Christos C.Halkias www.datasheetcatalog.com www.solarbotics.net www.electronicspoint.com