Santos Wireline Logging Procedures - Additional Acoustic Information - Version 1

2000 Baker Atlas

Santos
Additional Acoustic Information
Santos Wireline Logging Procedures - Additional Acoustic Information - Version 1
2000 Baker Atlas
Page 1
1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................2
2. ACOUSTIC WAVE TYPES ............................................................................................4
2.1. Compressional Waves................................................................................................4
2.2. Shear Waves..............................................................................................................5
2.3. Stonely Wave .............................................................................................................6
2.4. Borehole and Formation Waves .................................................................................7
2.5. Subsurface Wave Propagation...................................................................................9
3. APPLICATIONS...........................................................................................................10
3.1. Porosity.....................................................................................................................10
3.2. Fracture Detection ....................................................................................................10
3.3. Sanding Potential......................................................................................................10
3.4. Permeability Estimation ............................................................................................10
3.5. Seismic Correlation...................................................................................................10
3.6. Through Casing Acoustic Measurements.................................................................11
3.7. Abnormal Formation Pressures................................................................................11
4. WELLSITE LOG INTERPRETATIONS........................................................................12
4.1. Porosity Determination .............................................................................................12
5. MAC SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS..................................................................................14
5.1. A Very Slow Formation Example ..............................................................................15
6. Acoustic Processing.....................................................................................................16
6.1. Multiwindow Correlation Method...............................................................................16
6.2. Correlation window position......................................................................................16
6.3. Correlation Equations ...............................................................................................17
6.3.1. Nth Root method ...............................................................................................17
6.4. Correlograms............................................................................................................18
6.5. Correlogram Peaks...................................................................................................18
6.6. Array processing.......................................................................................................19
6.7. Bore hole compensation using arrays.......................................................................20
7. Mnemonics...................................................................................................................21
8. WAVE - Analysis Package ..........................................................................................22
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1. Introduction
Measurement of acoustic wave propagation in the subsurface has been employed in
seismic exploration for several decades. As seismic reflection data proved to be highly
valuable in delineating subsurface structures, the need to convert seismic wave travel times
in terms of depth increased. The idea of continuous velocity logging was originally
conceived for this purpose. However, the acoustic log was also found to be effective in the
determination of porosity, lithological correlation, and detection of secondary porosity. It
soon became one of the standard formation evaluation tools.
Western Atlas Logging Services introduced the Acoustilog as a commercial service in
1954. The Acoustilog instrument measures the time of transit of a longitudinally
propagating compressional wave through a unit distance of formation. This transit time,
t, known as specific acoustic time, denotes the time in microseconds taken by the
compressional wave to travel through one foot of rock.
The next generation of acoustic tools is based on the WTS telemetry system. These tools
are collectively known as array acoustic tools. These tools are designed to acquire the
waveform of interest, process it for transmission and send the data to a surface acquisition
system. This surface acquisition system (ECLIPS) will then perform t computations and
full wave processing at the wellsite.
Currently there are 3 tools that fit this category; DAC (Digital Array Acoustilog), MAC (Multi-
pole Array Acoustilog) and DAL (Digital Acoustilog). The DAL is a direct replacement for
the old 1600 series Acoustilog tool from the 1970s.
Figure 1 on the following page shows the 3 tools and how they are configured.
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Figure 1-1 Acoustic Services
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2. ACOUSTIC WAVE TYPES
An acoustic wave propagates through an elastic medium by the displacement of the
mediums particles, with the direction of this displacement determining the wave type. The
velocity at which a wave type propagates being a function of the density and elastic
properties of the medium through which the wave is travelling.
There are three main wave types of interest, Compressional, Shear and Stonely.
2.1. Compressional Waves

The compressional wave (or p-wave) is a longitudinal wave, in that the direction of
propagation is parallel to the direction of particle displacement. The displacement of a
particle toward its neighbour in the direction away from the origin of the wave creates a
zone of compression in an elastic medium. The neighbouring particle in turn moves toward
the next one, thus, propagating the compression. After being displaced, each particle
tends to return to its original position because of elasticity. In doing so, it overshoots its
initial position and a zone of rarefaction is created. Thus, compressional waves consist of a
compression and rarefaction travelling in a medium in the direction away from the source.
Such waves can be transmitted through solids, liquids, and gases, because there is a
resistance to compression in all three states of matter. Compression together with an
adjacent rarefaction, preceding or following it, constitutes a complete cycle. The number of
cycles propagating through a point in the medium in a unit time is the frequency.

The velocity of elastic wave propagation in a homogeneous medium can be derived from a
combination of the theory of elasticity with Newton's law of motion. Compressional waves
travel faster than other wave type and are often referred to as first arrival waves.
Compressional wave velocity is a function of the density and elastic modulus of the
medium.


For example, in the case of a
non-porous limestone,

K = 69 x 10
10
dynes/cm
2
G = 31 x 10
10
dynes/cm
2
= 2.71 gm/cm
3
(limestone matrix density).

where:

V
C
= compressional wave
velocity, cm/sec.
K = bulk modulus of elasticity,
dynes/cm
2
.
G = shear modulus of
elasticity, dynes/cm
2
.
= density of medium, g/cm
3
.
V
K G
c
=
+
4
3

Equation 1
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Therefore compressional wave velocity in a limestone matrix is calculated as:

Vc
x x
=
+ 69 10
4
3
31 10
2 71
10 10
(
.


= 640,000 cm/sec or 21,000 ft/sec

The reciprocal of velocity is the specific acoustic time also known as slowness,
which is recorded on the log in microseconds/ft. For limestone matrix, the slowness or
interval transit time for the compressional wave is:

t = 1,000,000/21,000 = 47.6 s/ft

The important point is that the acoustic travel time is explicitly related to the density and
elasticity of the material.


2.2. Shear Waves

The shear wave (or S-wave) is a transverse wave. In such waves, the direction of
propagation is perpendicular to the direction of particle displacement. Particles of a rigid
medium undergo to-and-fro motion around their mean position in a direction perpendicular
to the direction in which the waves travel. Solids have the tendency to oppose shearing
forces, which cause particles to slide relative to each other. Liquids and gases, on the
other hand, do not possess any rigidity; therefore, shear waves cannot be transmitted
through them.

Shear waves are propagated through a solid elastic medium with a velocity,



Shear wave velocity in a non-porous limestone will be, accordingly:

G = 31 x 10
10
dynes/cm
2
= 2.71 g/cm
3
where:

V
S
= shear wave velocity,
cm/sec
G = shear modulus of
elasticity, dynes/cm
2
.
= density of medium, g/cm
3
.
V
G
s
=

Equation
2
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Therefore shear wave velocity in a limestone matrix is calculated as:

V
x
s
=
31 10
2 71
10
.

= 338,000 cm/sec or 11,100 ft/sec

The slowness for shear waves in limestone matrix is 90 s/ft.

The first arrival of the acoustic pulse at the receiver denotes the compressional wave,
which has the highest velocity of all the different types of elastic waves. It can be shown
that Vc Vs > 2 . In general, shear wave velocity is about .5 to .7 times the compressional
wave velocity. Therefore, shear waves arrive at the receiver later than compressional
waves.
2.3. Stonely Wave

The Stonely wave, sometimes known as a tube wave, is a guided wave that travels along
the interface between the formation and borehole fluid. The behaviour of the Stonely wave
is characterised by; (1) No cut-off frequency, (2) Dispersion is very mild, (3) For all
frequencies Stonely wave velocity is less than fluid velocity, (4) Group velocity nearly
equals phase velocity over the frequency range. Being a surface wave, the Stonely wave
has a maximum amplitude at the wall of the borehole, and decays radially away from the
wall.
Its velocity at low frequencies is given by





where , K, and G are defined previously.

Figure 2-1 Borehole Waves
V
K G
ST
= + ( )
1 1
Equation 3
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2.4. Borehole and Formation Waves
Conventional acoustic logging tools employ piezoelectric transducers to generate and
measure acoustic waves in geological formations. Typically, these instruments are centred
in a borehole filled with fluid. The transmitter generates an omni-directional, compressional
wave in the borehole fluid (shear waves cannot exist in fluids). At the interface of the
formation and the fluid, the wave undergoes what is known as mode conversion.
The phenomenon of the reflection and refraction is quite complicated, especially in a
cylindrical borehole. In general, depending on the angle of incidence and the acoustic
velocity of the two media, the incident wave is converted into three components:
Reflected compressional wave
Transmitted compressional wave
Transmitted shear wave

In order to measure the shear or compressional wave, it is necessary that the transmitted
wave's direction of propagation is parallel to the centre axis of the borehole. This requires
that the angle of incidence of the compressional wave, is such that the transmitted shear
and transmitted compressional are refracted 90 degrees from normal. These waves are
typically referred to as head waves; body waves that travel vertically in the formation near
the wall at compressional or shear velocity and are radiated into the borehole at the critical
angle.

Mode conversion the refraction of the shear and compressional waves into the
formation by the borehole compressional wave.
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The propagation constants of the reflected and refracted waves along the surface of the
interface must be equal. This leads to Snell's Law for compressional and shear waves.

v v
2 1 1 2
sin sin =

where:
v
2
= the velocity of the
formation.
v
1
= the velocity of the
borehole fluid.

and for the critical angle:

sin
c
v
v
=
1
2
therefore:

sin sin sin
IC
CB
CF
TC
CB
SF
TS
v
v
v
v
= =

where: V
CB
= Compressional velocity of the borehole fluid.
V
CF
= Compressional wave velocity of the formation.
V
SF
= Shear wave velocity of the formation.

IC
= Angle of incidence of the incident compressional wave.

TC
= Angle of the transmitted Compressional Wave.

TS
= Angle of the transmitted Shear Wave.

Based on this relationship, it is clear that to generate a measurable shear wave (through
mode conversion) the compressional velocity of the borehole fluid must be slower than the
shear velocity of the formation.

v
v
CB
SF
1

This requirement can be a real problem in what is know as slow formations. The physics
are such that a shear wave cannot be induced into the formation. The need for shear wave
measurements in "slow" formations has led to the development of transducers which excite
shear waves "directly". Currently, the MAC tool is used by Western Atlas Logging Services
to induce a direct shear wave into the formation. This is done with a dipole transducer.
MAC will be discussed in another lecture.

Figure 2-2 Critical Angle of Incidence
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2.5. Subsurface Wave Propagation

Particles in solids, liquids, and gasses oppose compressional forces, this internal
opposition to compression causes the particles to oscillate away from and toward the
elastic disturbance. As a result an acoustic wave radiates away from the elastic
disturbance and in the same direction as particle displacement. An acoustic wave
propagated in this manner is called a compressional wave and can be illustrated with a
spring being compressed.

It is the first compressional wave created in the borehole fluid (from the formation) which is
of primary interest in Acoustic t logging. This wave, after having travelled through the
formation, will be the first to be detected by receiving transducers.

In Acoustic logging the acoustic
wave is produced by a
transmitting transducer. The
wave radiates outward from the
transmitter as a compressional
wave and travels through the
borehole at a velocity
characteristic of the fluid. At the
face of the formation the
acoustic wave is refracted and
travels through the formation as
a compressional wave at a
velocity characteristic of the
formation. Because of the
nature of the wave, during its
forward motion the formation will
be compressed and there will
result a minute lateral movement
into the borehole fluid. Because
of this lateral displacement of the
formation, other compressional
waves will be successively produced in the fluid all along the borehole, including a point
opposite the Acoustic receivers. During the rarefaction half-cycle of the acoustic wave, the
lateral formation movement will be in the same direction, but the relative motion will be
away from the borehole. This motion of the formation perpendicular to the axis of the
borehole creates a shear wave.

For the rocks commonly seen on well logs, the compressional wave velocity is 40% to 50%
faster than the shear wave velocity.

The compressional wave is the first signal to arrive at the receiver.

Figure 2-3 Wave Types In a Composite Wave
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3. APPLICATIONS

The Array Acoustic tools have many applications. What follows is a summary of the most
common applications.

3.1. Porosity

Improved porosity estimates can be determined by using both t shear and t
compressional.

3.2. Fracture Detection

Attenuation of the shear wave amplitude in relation
to the compressional wave amplitude may indicate
fracturing. Shear waves cannot propagate across
fluid boundaries, whereas compressional waves
can.

3.3. Sanding Potential

Shear and compressional velocities are a function
of the bulk modulus, shear modulus, and density of
the formation being measured. Knowledge of
formation density combined with the measured
compressional velocity, and shear velocity may be
used to delineate between the weak and more
competent sands.

3.4. Permeability Estimation

Several major oil companies and research
institutions have been evaluating and quantifying
the relationship of Stoneley wave attenuation to permeability.

3.5. Seismic Correlation


Figure 3-1 Shear Wave
Attenuation

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Seismic surveys directly record wavetrains initiated by a vibration source at the surface and
reflected from acoustic-impedance discontinuities in the subsurface. Although it is possible
to create depth maps with seismic surveys alone, this is not done in practice because of
inadequate knowledge of bed velocities.

The interval transit times computed from acoustic tools can be used to generate a synthetic
seismogram to help resolve the uncertainties and ambiguities in the analysis of the surface
seismic survey, verify reflection events, and relates seismic features to geological structure
at accurately known depths. Both compressional and shear interval transit times are
available to help the geophysicists in analysing the seismogram.

3.6. Through Casing Acoustic Measurements

Utilisation of the array of receivers, with the extended offsets (6 - 19 ft) allows our acoustic
system to quantify formation compressional and shear wave data through casing even in
conditions with marginally bonded casing.

3.7. Abnormal Formation Pressures

Formations having abnormally high fluid pressures are
often overlain by overpressured shales, which have an
excess of pore water. The pore water that would
normally be squeezed out by the overburden pressure
has become trapped. The acoustic travel time is
greater in these shales when compared to normally
pressured shales at the same depth. Thus travel time
may be used to predict the likelihood that underlying
sands are overpressured before they are drilled.
Although the same effect may be noticed in density and
gamma ray logs, the acoustic travel time log is the
preferred means of identifying overpressure zones.


Figure 3-2 Over Burden
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4. WELLSITE LOG INTERPRETATIONS

4.1. Porosity Determination

Acoustic travel time measurements of subsurface formations can be interpreted in terms of
formation porosity. A unit volume of rock through which the acoustic compressional wave
travels is influenced by the total make-up of that rock. The measurement recorded on the
log is the sum of the effect of the solid part or framework of the rock ("rock matrix") and the
fluid filled pore space.

J.R. Wyllie proposed and experimentally supported a mathematical relationship between
and t. The empirical equation is called the time-average formula or time-sharing formula.
Travel, t, is equal to the sum of time in the fluid and time in the rock matrix (as above).
The time spent in the rock matrix is proportional to the amount of rock present and the time
spent in the fluid is proportional to the amount of fluid present. In other words this is a ratio.

The time read from the log may be represented with the following equation:


t t t
t t t t
t t t t
t t t t
t t
t t
f ma
f ma ma
ma f ma
ma f ma
ma
f ma
log
log
log
log
log
( )
( )
= +
= +
=
=

1

Before this equation can be
used to compute porosity it is
necessary to have values for
the rock matrix and the
formation fluids. With the
exception of gas, most fluids
encountered in subsurface
formations do not vary
greatly in velocity. Listed in
Table 4-1 are some average
fluid velocity values.

The radius of investigation of
the acoustic tools are quite shallow. In a porous formation where the invasion is moderate
or deeper, the mud filtrate is normally the dominating fluid that influences the Acoustic
measurements. For most purposes an average velocity for this fluid can be assumed to be
approximately 5300 feet/microsecond. However, if the formation of interest is not invaded,
Fluid Vf t
ft./sec.
usec/ft
Water with 20% NaCl 5,300 189
Water with 15% NaCl 5,000 200
Water with 10% NaCl 4,800 208
Water (pure) 4,600 218
Oil 4,200 238
Methane 1,600 626
Air 1,100 910
Table 4-1 Velocities Of Various Fluids
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or if extremely shallow invasion exists, then consideration must be given to the type of fluid
occupying the pore space within the region influencing the Acoustic t measurements.

The velocity of the rock matrix is the other parameter to which a value must be assigned
before the time average equation can be used in the determination of porosity. The interval
travel time in the rock matrix ( t
ma
) will vary considerably depending upon the formation
type. To be more specific, t
ma
changes with variations in the chemical composition of the
rock, and also with its compaction, which is related to depth and confining pressure.

The selection of the proper matrix velocity to he used in the determination of porosity is
dependent upon having knowledge of the lithology of the section being investigated. Table
2 lists typical matrix velocities for some of the more common formations encountered.

It should be understood that these are average values and there are many mitigating
circumstances involved. Therefore, the matrix velocities listed in Table 4-2 may vary
somewhat from one area to another.

Vma t
ma
Formation ft /sec. t sec/ft.
Sandstone:
Unconsolidated 17,000 58.8 or more
Semi-consolidated 18,000 55.6
Consolidated 19,000 52.6
Limestone 21,000 47.6
Dolomite 23,000 43.5
Shale 6,000-16,000 167-62.5
Calcite 22,000 45.5
Anhydrite 20,000 50.0
Granite 20,000 50.0
Gypsum 19,000 52.6
Quartz 18,000 55.6
Salt 15,000 66.7
Table 4-2 Velocities Of Various Minerals
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5. MAC SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS

The most requested
application of the MAC is
to use the data to relate
surface seismic
information with depth.
To this end the MAC
includes a 30-inch span,
two-transmitter Depth
Derived BoreHole
Compensation scheme to
obtain the highest
possible accuracy for the
travel time
measurements.

The V
p
/V
s
ratio together
with the formation density
can be used to calculate Poisson's ratio, the bulk modulus and the shear modulus. These
parameters are used to predict formation strength, fracture pressure and as lithology
indicators.

The tool should also be useful for measuring delta-t through casing. Our experience to date,
although admittedly limited, indicates that contrary to some reported results the monopole
measurements penetrate the casing more readily than the flexural waves and hence are
more generally useful for logging through casing. We will continue to investigate this area.

The use of Acoustic instruments for porosity determination has lost some of its popularity
except possibly in a few hard rock areas. It has not been demonstrated that the use of the
shear velocity for porosity determination is more reliable than the use of the compressional
velocity, therefore, there is no advantage for the MAC here.

The use of the Stoneley attenuation for permeability determination depends on having a
known, constant caliper, and a known constant lithology over the interval in question.

The use of the Stoneley wave, and particularly the reflection of the wave for fracture
detection, shows more promise. Several runs have been made in the Montrose test well with
good results. This is becoming one of the popular requested services for the MAC tool.




Figure 5-1 MAC Signal
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5.1. A Very Slow Formation Example

The test well at the Baker Atlas Center
provides an example (Figure 5-2) of a very
slow unconsolidated formation. The well has
a fiberglass liner which is transparent to low
frequency acoustic signals. Correlation
results of the DAC log of this well show three
distinct arrivals: an 110 usec/ft fiberglass
arrival, a formation compressional arrival and
a Stoneley arrival at about 200 usec/ft.









The dipole waveform
includes some residual
compressional wave energy
at about 8 kHz, but is
predominantly a 700 Hz
signal that varies with the
formation, as seen on the
accompanying log. The
transmitter-to-receiver delay
time of the "first break" is
difficult to measure because
of the very low amplitude of
the signal. Careful
stationary measurements
show that the arrival time
corresponds to the velocity
as computed from the
receiver-to-receiver
moveout.


Figure 5-2 Very Slow Wave Signal

Figure 5-3 Very Slow Formations
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6. Acoustic Processing
6.1. Multiwindow Correlation Method
Waveforms are windowed into time segments and measures of correlation are
determined for each window using a range of assumed slowness values. Results from
individual windows are also combined into a single correlegram representative of
correlation values for the entire waveform. Local maximum values of the correlogram
surface are identified by peak finding algorithms.
6.2. Correlation window position
Figure 6-1 illustrates the method used to position a series of correlation windows across a
receiver array using typical processing parameters for slowness analysis of more than one
wavetype in the waveforms. The near receiver is 11.5 feet from the transmitter and the 8
receivers are 0.5 feet apart.
Individual correlation windows are positioned on the initial (near) waveform in the following
way:
The initial window begins at 800 microseconds (CWBEG).
Each window is 500 microseconds in length (CWLEN).
Correlation window step is 400 (CWSTEP).
The final window ends at 2900 microseconds (CWEND).
This selection of parameters results in a total of 5 individual correlation windows.
Each individual correlation window is stepped across the receiver array using a range of
assumed values. Correlation steps are illustrated for the initial window.
The initial step across the array corresponds to an assumed slowness of 50 s/ft
(DTMN)
The final step across the array corresponds to an assumed slowness of 250 s/ft
(DTMX)
Additional step across the array occur between DTMN and DTMX at an interval of 4
s/ft (DTSTEP).
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Figure 6-1
6.3. Correlation Equations
The correlation techniques involve a mathematical combination of waveform data contained
in individual correlation windows stepped across a receiver array.
The results of the correlation calculation is a measure of waveform similarity. The step
that achieves maximum similarity defines the slowness of a particular wavetype contained
in the correlation window.
6.3.1. Nth Root method
where
y = value of correlation function
i = time index
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j = waveform index
M = number of waveforms
N = number of waveform data values
x = waveform data values
= waveform time lag
n = root order
sg() = sign function
The results from a correlation equation is associated with an assumed value of slowness. A
series of correlation results are combined to create a correlogram.
6.4. Correlograms
A single correlogram is associated with reach individual correlation window. Due to the
fixed window start and end time, individual windows are rarely positioned in such a way to
isolate unique wavetypes. More than one correlogram peak may occur in a single window,
and the peaks associated with a single wavetype may occur in more than one correlation
window.
Individual window correlograms are projected into a single correlogram for each processing
level. The combined correlation value for a particular slowness is the maximum correlation
value found for that slowness in any individual window. Each wavetype included in the
waveform data is indicated by a unique localized peak in the combined correlogram.
6.5. Correlogram Peaks
Localized maximum values of a correlogram represent the slowness of the unique
wavetype that created the peak. In the ideal case, there will be one peak present for each
valid fromation wavetype that the wavecor* parameters have been set up to find at each
depth. For example, in MAC monopole data, there are 3 probable wavetypes present:
compressional., shear and Stonely. If, using the multiwindow correlation method, the
parameters have been set up to encompass all three wavetypes, three peaks should be
present in each depth (assuming the shear and Stoneley slownesses are within the
limitations of the tool)
These peaks may be observed and evaluated on a global basis by examining plots of the
correlograms. Peak slowness and correlation values result from a weighted interpolation
technique utilizing the adjacent samples used to detect the peak. This allows slowness to
be estimated to less than a correlation step value.
The number and magnitude of peak values varies from level to level, depending on quality
of waveform data, redundancy in the correlation, and number of wavetypes present in the
waveform.
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6.6. Array processing
Processing receiver and transmitter arrays independently and combining the results
accomplishes two things:
The borehole compensation effect of processing in two different directions eliminates
or reduces the effect of borehole enlargements on slowness values.
Slowness may be possible to obtain in one direction while it is not in the other because
of the effect of formations between the transmitter and receivers.
Figure 6-2 Array Processing
To enhance the slowness output from the semblance technique one can collect the array
data in two ways:
Receiver array (A):
A receiver array is bound to one position of the logging tool, i.e., you acquire waveform data
at, say, m receivers while the transmitter position does not change. In other words, if we
indicate a firing measurement sequence from transmitter to receiver i at logging tool
position j with the letter pair (T,Ri)j, then the receiver array contains all firing measurement
combinations (T,Ri)j at fixed j, where i=1,...,m. Consequently, a slowness obtained from
semblance processing on this receiver array data represents an average value over the
receiver array.
Transmitter array (B):
























































T
T
T
T
T
T
R
1
R
1
R
1
R
1
R
1
R
1
R
m
R
m
R
m
R
m
R
m
R
m
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
t
t
e
r

A
r
r
a
y
R
e
c
e
i
v
e
r

A
r
r
a
y
(T,R
1
)
m
(T,R
m
)
1
1 2 3 4 m
Transmitter (T)
Receiver (R)
(A) (B)
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Assuming the logging tool depth increment equals the inter receiver spacing, a transmitter
array can be obtained by acquiring data at, say, m receivers, at m consecutive logging
positions. In other words, if we indicate a firing measurement sequence from transmitter to
receiver i at logging tool position j with the letter pair (T,Ri)j, then the transmitter array
contains all firing measurement combinations (T,Rm-i+1)j, where i=1,..,m. This means that
each firing measurement sequence occurs at a different logging tool position.
Consequently, a slowness obtained from semblance processing on this transmitter array
data represents an average value over the m consecutive transmitter positions.
The primary application of the receiver-and transmitter array-derived slowness curves is to
provide a compensation for borehole irregularities such as washouts or cave-ins. The
borehole compensation is done by simply averaging the slowness estimates from the
receiver and transmitter arrays. Figure 6-3 illustrates why this average is expected to
compensate for the influence of a washout (borehole enlargement).
6.7. Bore hole compensation using arrays
Figure 6-3 Borehole Compensation Utilising Transmitter and Receiver Array

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Transmitter (T)
Receiver (R)
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The upper part of the receiver array is in the enlarged borehole. The wave arrival time in
this part of the array will increase (see slide) because of the additional time delay in the
borehole fluid. Consequently the estimated slowness will increase. An opposite situation is
observed at the transmitter array, where the same additional time delay (see slide) will
cause the estimated slowness to decrease over the transmitter array. Therefore averaging
the two slowness estimates tends to cancel the bias error in both estimates, compensating
the effects of borehole washouts.
7. Mnemonics
DT interval transit time over 24 inch interval (first arrival)
DT24 interval transit time over 24 inch interval (first arrival)
DTC compressional wave correlated slowness (semblance processing)
DTS monopole shear wave correlated slowness (semblance processing)
DTSD dipole shear correlated slowness (semblance processing)
DTCR compressional wave slowness from receiver array
DTCT compressional wave slowness from receiver array
DTH 6 inch interval transit time
DTR interval transit time for receiver array
DTT interval transit time for transmitter array
Here are the mnemonis, we used in Houston. They are the same for
DAC/MAC/XMAC/XMACII.
dtcr receiver array compressional dt
dtcx transmitter array compressional dt
dtc compressional dt it is the weighted average of dtcr & dtcx
dts flexural shear wave slowness from dipole
dtcc gas corrected dtc
scra dts/dtc ratio
corcmbr combine correlation image of the monopole receiver array
corcmbx combine correlation image of the monopole transmitter array
corcmb combine correlation image of dipole shear receiver array. We usually do not
use transmitter array for the shear because the wavelength is much longer
than the hole diameter such that borehole compensation is not needed or has
little benefit.
corpksr monopole receiver array maximum correlation peaks
corpksx monopole transmitter array peaks.
corpks dipole shear receiver array peaks.
ttr total transit time for the receiver array, dtcr
ttx total transit time for the transmitter array, dtcx
ttc total transit time for the compressional dtc
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tts total transit time for the shear, dts
8. WAVE - Analysis Package
The WAVE package is a family of programs that comprise an acoustical waveform
analysis interpretation package. This suite of computer programs comprises several
interactive screen displays designed to analyze acoustic array full waveform data and to
compute slowness from the wave types present in the data. The slowness
(compressional, shear, flexural shear, and Stonely) can then be used to obtain
amplitudes for energy analysis (both permeability and fracture indication), rock strength
and rock properties, porosity, synthetic seismograms and hydrocarbon indications. The
package can process monopole and dipole data from both Western Atlas and non-
Western Atlas array acoustic instruments.
There are three primary processing steps to compute slowness from full wave data.
These are described below.
Filtering
Filters acoustic full waveform data (both FFT and FIR filters). This process
also outputs the frequency spectra of both the unfiltered and filtered
waveforms. This optional first step to obtaining wave type slowness is less
important with monopole data and may be skipped on good data when only
the compressional and refracted shear are required. It is, however, very
necessary for the Stonley slowness and analysis and the flexural (dipole)
shear analysis.
Correlation
Correlates acoustic full waveform data, using either the filtered or unfiltered
wave traces, to find similarities in the signatures and record them as
correlation maxima. Two options for correlating waveform data include the
multiwindow correlation method and the single-window correlation method.
The user determines the parameters to set up an array of one or more
windows on which to perform the correlation. (Options include Semblance
and Nth Root stack.)
Labeling
Labels the correlation maxima as specific acoustic slowness, from the
correlograms computed by the correlation program. This enables the user to
determine tcompressional,
tshear and/or tStonely. Certain criteria, based on the physical
properties of the individual wave types, are used to avoid mislabeling.
Exclusion zones are applied for nonrequired arrivals (free casing, fluid, etc.).
Additional enhancements include the following:
Rock Mechanical Properties computation uses shear velocity computation, enabling the
user to determine rock properties and rock strength (e.g., porosity, Vp/Vs rations,
Poisson's ratio, bulk and shear moduli) for sand strength analysis and fracture height
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prediction. The Vp/Vs ratio and the shear slowness then can be used for hydrocarbon
and lithology indication.
Synthetic Seismograms can be produced from both the shear and the compressional
slowness. Optional use of shot point data can further calibrate the slowness and a
density curve, or Gardner's acoustic density conversion may be used for the tie-in of
reflectors. Wavelets may be customized to individual customer requirements. Depth-to-
time conversion will enable the geophysicist to correlate well log values in time on a
seismic cross section. This also allows synthetic seismograms to b calibrated with
check-shot surveys.
Energy Analysis uses the wavelet amplitude and attenuation to predict both fractures
and permeability.