Statistics & Research

1
Copyright 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NewJ ersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Statistics and Data Analysis for Nursing Research, Second Edition
Denise F. Polit
Statistics and Data Analysis
for Nursing Research
Second Edition
CHAPTER CHAPTER
Introduction to Data Analysis in an
Evidence-Based Practice Environment
Introduction to Data Analysis in an
Evidence-Based Practice Environment
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Denise F. Polit
Research and Evidence-Based
Nursing
Evidence-based practice (EBP): Use of
best clinical evidence in making patient
care decisions
Best source of evidence: Systematic
research
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What is Research?
Research is systematic inquiry that uses
orderly, disciplined methods (including
statistics) to answer questions or solve
problems
The aim of nursing research is to
generate evidence that can contribute to
EBP for nurses
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EBP Questions
How reliable is the evidence?
What is the magnitude of effects?
How precise is the estimate of effects?
Answering these questions requires an
understanding of statistics
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What is Statistics?
Statistics is the term for a collection of
mathematical methods of organizing,
summarizing, analyzing, and interpreting
information gathered in a study
Denise F. Polit
Data and Data Analysis
In the context of a study, the information
gathered to address research questions is
data
In quantitative research, data are usually
quantitative (numbers)
Quantitative data are subjected to
statistical analysis
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Where Do Data Come From?
Example 1: Interviews/questionnaires
Question: On a scale from 0 to 10, please rate
your level of fatigue
Answer (Data):
Person 1: 7
Person 2: 3
Person 3: 10
Etc.
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(contd)
Example 2: Observation
Observer: What is the patients pressure ulcer
stage (1-4)?
Rating (Data):
Person 1: 1 (Stage 1)
Etc.
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(contd)
Example 3: Biophysiologic measurements
Recorder: Patients oxygen saturation
Measurement via pulse oximeter (Data):
Person 1: 98%
Person 2: 95%
Person 3: 89%
Etc.
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From Problem to Data Analysis
Research problemidentified (e.g., high
stress in hospitalized children)
Research question asked: Will a music
intervention reduce stress?
Concepts defined/measured
Data collected
Data analyzed through statistics
Of course, a lot of things happen in between
each step!
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Concepts and Variables
Concept: An abstraction inferred from
characteristics or behaviors
Examples: height, sex, respiratory rate
In quantitative studies, concepts are
called variables
A variable is something that takes on
different values
Height, sex, and respiratory rate vary from
one person to the next
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Types of Variables
Important distinction in most studies
(with implications for analysis):
Independent variable: The hypothesized
cause of, or influence on, an outcome
Dependent variable: The outcome of
interest, hypothesized to depend on, or be
caused by, the independent variable
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Examples of Independent and
Dependent Variables
Independent variable (IV): Smoking
Dependent variable (DV): Lung cancer
IV DV ?
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Independent Variables
Some IVs are existing characteristics (like
peoples smoking behavior)
Others are created by researchers when
they introduce an intervention to some
people (e.g., a nursing intervention for
smoking cessation)
IV DV?
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Research Questions
Research questions are the queries
researchers seek to answer through the
collection and analysis of data
Research questions communicate the
research variables and the population (the
entire group of interest)
Example: In hospitalized children (population)
does music (IV) reduce stress (DV)?
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Variable Definition
In studies, variables need to be defined
Conceptual definition: The theoretical
meaning of the underlying concept
Operational definition: The precise set of
operations and procedures used to
measure the variable
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Discrete Versus Continuous
Variables
Variables have different qualities with
regard to measurement potential
Discrete variables
Continuous variables
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Discrete Variables
Discrete variable: Categories are
indivisible, with a finite number of
values between two points
Examples:
Number of siblings: 0, 1, 2,
etc. (1.2 is not possible)
Number of hospital beds
(129.034 beds is not possible)
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Continuous Variables
Continuous variable: Can (in theory)
assume an infinite number of values
between two points
Examples:
Time elapsed since birth
(e.g., 55.0359 years)
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Measurement
Measurement: Involves assigning
numbers to qualities of people or objects
to designate the quantity of the attribute,
according to a set of rules
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Levels of Measurement
Level of Measurement: A system of
classification with four types of
measurement rules that affect the kind of
statistical analysis that is appropriate:
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
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Nominal Measurement
Nominal Measurement:
Lowest form of measurement
Numbers are used simply as labels to name categories
Example: Sex, coded with 2 arbitrary numbers
0 1 0 1 2 4
It does not matter what the codes are, the numbers have no
quantitative meaning (although codes like 0 and 1 are more
sensible)
Numbers cannot be treated mathematically
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Ordinal Measurement
Ordinal Measurement:
Uses numbers to designate ordering on an attribute
Conveys some information about amount
But does not indicate distance between values
Example: Degree of pain
1 =None 2 =Some 3 =A lot
_|__________|_______________________________|_
1 2 3
Distances are not equal, and are not known
Averages do not make sense
Denise F. Polit
Interval Measurement
Interval Measurement:
Also uses numbers to designate ordering on an attribute and
conveys information about amount
Distance between values are assumed to be equal
Averages can be computed
Example: Ambient temperature (Fahrenheit)
|___|___|___|___|___|___|___|___|___|___|
70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
The difference between 70 and 75 degrees is the same as the difference
between 75 and 80 degrees
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Ratio Measurement
Ratio Measurement:
Uses numbers to designate ordering, conveys
information about amount, distances are equal
AND there is a real, rational zero
Averages can be computed
Example: Medication dose (e.g., number of
milligrams, number of pills)
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Measurement Level Comparison
At each successive measurement level,
there is more information, and greater
analytic flexibility
If you start with ratio measures, you can
collapse information to a lower-level
measure, but the reverse is not true
Higher-level scales are usually (though
not always) preferred
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Comparison of Levels
Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio
Classification
Magnitude
Equal Interval
True Zero
Math Permissible Count Count,
Rank
Count, Rank,
Add, Subtract
Count,
Rank, Add,
Subtract,
Multiply,
Divide
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Types of Statistical Analysis
Calculation
Manual versus computerized
Purpose
Descriptive versus inferential
Complexity
Univariate, bivariate, multivariate
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Descriptive Statistics
Researchers collect their data from a
sample of study participantsa subset of
the population of interest
Descriptive statistics describe and
summarize data about the sample
Examples: Percent female in the sample,
average weight of participants
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Inferential Statistics
Researchers obtain data from a sample but often
want to draw conclusions about a population
Parameter: A descriptive index for a population
Example: Average daily caloric intake of all 10-year-old
children in New York
Statistic: A descriptive index for a sample
Example: Average daily caloric intake of 300 10-year-
old children from three particular NY schools
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Inferential Statistics (contd)
Researchers use statistics to make
inferences about parameters
Inferential statistics, based on laws of
probability, help researchers draw objective
conclusions about a population, using data
from a sample
Inferential statistics are often used to test
hypotheses (predictions) about relationships
between variables
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Data Analysis Plan
Many activities must occur between the
collection of data and analyses to address
research questions
Researchers need to develop a careful data
analysis plan that lays out the analytic steps
to be taken
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Preanalytic Steps
Researchers typically begin by:
Making decisions about how to code their
dataincluding codes to use to designate
missing values
Entering data into a computer file (e.g. an
SPSS file)
Then giving variables abbreviated variable
names, and inputting additional information
about the variables (e.g., what the codes
mean)
Denise F. Polit
Preanalytic Steps (contd)
Many additional steps remain before
substantive analyses begin, including
efforts to:
Clean the data (correct errors)
Examine the extent of missing data
Correct problems relating to missing data
Assess whether assumptions for advanced
analyses are met
Assess whether there are biases
Understand the data and characterize the
study sample
Denise F. Polit
SPSS and Statistical Analysis
SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences) is among the most popular
statistical software packages for analyzing
research data
It is user friendly and menu driven
The datasets offered with this textbook are
set up as SPSS files
Denise F. Polit
The Data Editor in SPSS
The data editor in SPSS offers a
convenient spreadsheet-like method of
creating, editing, and viewing data
There are two views within the data
editor:
Data View: Shows the actual data values
Variable View: Shows variable information for
all variables
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Data View in the Data Editor
The columns represent one
variable each; unique
variable names (no more
than eight characters long)
are shown at the top of
each column
Each row is a case,
representing an individual
participant
The data view tab is at the
bottom
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Variable View in the Data Editor
Variable View shows
a wealth of
information about
how variables are
coded, how they will
be labeled in output,
level of
measurement, and
so on
The Variable View
tab is at the bottom
Denise F. Polit
Versions of SPSS
New versions of SPSS are created
regularly, to offer improved options for
analysis and presentation
Examples in this book were created in
SPSS Version 16.0
The student version of SPSS is available
for analyzing relatively small datasets (no
more than 50 variables and no more than
1,500 cases)

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