The Scientific Method

Prof T RangaRao MD
Resource Person
Dr NTR University of Health Sciences
Andhra Pradesh, India
What is Science?
The Scientific Method
 What is Science ?
Science refers to a system of acquiring knowledge –
based on empiricism, experimentation, and
methodological naturalism – aimed at finding out the
truth. The basic unit of knowledge is the theory, which
is a hypothesis that is predictive.
The scientific method is a process for evaluating
empirical knowledge under the working assumption of
methodological materialism, which explains observable
events in nature as a result of natural causes, rejecting
supernatural notions. Science refers to any systematic
field of study or the knowledge gained from it.
Wikipedia
Science & Research

z Science is defined as:-

..knowledge ascertained by observation
and experiment, critically tested,
systemised and brought under general
principles..
z Research is defined as:-
..systematic investigation towards
increasing the sum of knowledge.
 Using the scientific method requires
that one be a good observer.

observation inference
uses the five involves a judgment
senses or assumption
 The Skeptical Chemist

Published “The Sceptical Chemist”

(in 1661)

…stated that scientific speculation

was worthless unless it was supported
by experimental evidence.
evidence

Robert Boyle

This principle led to the development of the scientific method.

method
 Data
Observations are also called data.

There are two types of data.

qualitative data quantitative data
descriptions; measurements;
no numbers must have numbers
Parts of the Scientific Method

z Identify an unknown.
z Make a hypothesis
(a testable prediction).
z Experiment to test
the hypothesis.
z Draw a valid conclusion.
 A Scientific Experiment
procedure variable
the order of events any factor that
in an experiment; could influence
the “recipe” the result

Experiments must be controlled; they

must have two set-ups that must differ
by only one variable.
The conclusion must be based on the data.
A Controlled Experiment?
Scientific Method

z Observations
z Hypothesis
z Experimentation
– Controlled (one variable changed at a time)
– Collect data (quantitative and qualitative)
– Analyze data (graph, statistics…trends)
z Form valid conclusion.
z After many experiments…form a theory.
 Scientific Law vs.
Scientific Theory

A law states what happens.

Law of Gravity
A theory tries to explain why
or how something happens.
Theory of Gravity
Atomic Theory
Collision Theory of Reactions
 Scientific Make
Makeobservation
observation
Method
Ask
Askquestion
question

Develop
Develop
hypothesis
hypothesis

Test
Testhypothesis
hypothesis
with
withan
an
Test experiment
experiment
Testhypothesis
hypothesis Revise
with
withfurther
further Revise
experiments hypothesis
hypothesis
experiments
Analyze
Analyzedata
data
and
anddraw
draw
conclusions
conclusions

Hypothesis
Hypothesis Hypothesis
Hypothesis
IS
IS isisNOT
NOT
supported
supported supported
supported

Develop
Develop
theory
theory
Scientific Law

Charl
es’s
Law
V1 V
T1 = T 2
2

Laws of nature never change.

Theories and Laws

The Earth is flat…

Speeding kills (Audubon, Germany);

seat belts save lives…
LAW:
LAW 65 mph and wear seat belt

No explanation of why…but the theory is if you

drive at 120 mph and crash, an ambulance won’t
need to be called (only next of kin).
The Original Metric Reference

1/10,000,000 1/10 m
= 1 meter H2O = 1 kilogram 1 kg = 1 liter
H2O
1/10 m
1/10 m
Length Volume
Mass
Isaac Newton

z Probably the most significant

contributions to experimental science
were made by Isaac Newton.
z Newton postulated a theory and then
used experimentation to test it against
alternatives.
z In Newtons view experiments provided
knowledge of the laws that governed
the whole world.
Empiricism v Rationalism

z Within this process was the debate

between empiricists and rationalists.
z Rationalists believe that all knowledge
starts in the mind.
z Empiricists believe that all knowledge
originates from experience.
Rationalism

z Descartes’ used the method of

systematic doubt and concluded that
the only thing he could be certain of
was his own existence - I think
therefore I am.
z Descartes use of the principle of
analytical reductionism forms the basis
of the majority Western scientific
thinking over the past 350 years.
Rationalism

z Reductionism is characterised by the

reduction of complex entities to the
simpler parts of which they are
composed.
z However, in the twentieth century this
approach was challenged by those who
believe that evidence gathered from the
parts cannot necessarily be combined to
describe the behaviour of the whole.
Rationalism

z These criticisms have been particularly

strong amongst those who have studied
the social sciences.
Empiricism

z John Locke concluded that there are no

such things as INNATE IDEAS but that
all we know comes from experience and
reflection upon experience.
z Such experiences cannot be isolated
from their surroundings as everything
is inter-related to everything else.
z Holistic approach to the scientific
method.
Systems Thinking

z One consequence of this holistic

approach has been the development of
the SYSTEMS MOVEMENT and
research methodologies such as
ACTION RESEARCH.
z It is systems thinking that many claim
is challenging the accepted views of
scientific revolution.
Conclusion

z It is sobering to recall that probably the

most significant contribution of the
Twentieth century was the downfall of
Newton’s model of the world and its
replacement by Einstein's.
z The lesson that this provides to today's
researcher is that the results from
scientific work are never absolute.
Conclusion

z Hopefully in this presentation I have

shown that:
– there are many different approaches to
obtaining knowledge;
– that the knowledge gained depends upon
the approaches adopted.
z In the remainder of the Research
Methods unit you will examine some of
these approaches in greater detail.