Introduction to Food Science

Civilised man does not eat all the food as it is available in nature. He cuts, crushes, cools, processes
and modifies in many ways before consuming, adding variety to the diet.
DEFINITIONS
Food is defined as anything solid or liquid which when swallowed, digested and assimilated, nourishes
the body.
Food Science: Food is a mixture of many different chemical components. The study of food
science involves an understanding of the changes that occur in these components during food prepara-
tion whether natural or induced by handling procedures. Many physical and chemical reactions occur
during food preparation. These reactions may be a result of the interaction between components, with
the medium of cooking, and the environmental conditions like heat, cold, light and air to which they
are subjected during cooking. Study of food science also includes understanding the nutritive value of
different foods and methods of preserving them during cooking. This information provides a founda-
tion of theory and method on which to build the study of food preparation.
Food additive is defined as non-nutritive substances added intentionally to food, generally in
small quantities to improve its appearance, flavour, texture or storage properties.
Fermented food is produced by the action of bacteria or moulds which act on carbohydrates and
proteins present in foods and hydrolyse them to simpler products yielding predigested foods.
Food Technology is the application of principles of food science and engineering to the process-
ing and preserving large quantities of food.
Food fortification is defined as the process whereby nutrients are added to foods in relatively
small quantities to maintain or improve the quality of the diet of a group, a community or a population.
(WHO).
Non-nutrients of foods are organic compounds having no nutritional function. They may be tox-
ins or beneficial substances like fibre or compounds that may improve palatability or pharmacological
importance.
Functional food provides health benefits beyond the nutrient contribution.
Phytochemicals are non-nutrient compounds found in plant derived food that have biological
activity in the body.
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Food safety and regulation is related to food sanitation in public health and rules and regulations
governing it.
Antioxidants include compounds that protect biological systems against the potentially harmful
effects of processes or reactions that can cause excessive oxidations (USDA).
FUNCTIONS OF FOOD
Foods are classified according to their functions in the body.
Energy yielding
This group includes foods rich in carbohydrate, fat and protein. One gram of carbohydrate gives 4
calories. One gram of protein gives 4 calories. One gram of fat gives 9 calories. This group may be
broadly divided into two groups:
Cereals, pulses, nuts and oilseeds, roots and tubers.
Pure carbohydrates like sugars and fats and oils.
Cereals provide in addition to energy large amounts of proteins, minerals and vitamins in the diet.
Pulses also give protein and B vitamins besides giving energy to the body. Nuts and oilseeds are rich
in energy yielding as they are good sources of fats and proteins. Roots and tubers though mainly
provide energy, they also contribute to some extent to minerals and vitamins.
Pure carbohydrates like sugars provide only energy (empty calories) and fats provide concentrated
source of energy and fat soluble vitamins.
Body building
Foods rich in protein are called body-building foods. They are classified into two groups:
Milk, egg, meat, fish: They are rich in proteins of high biological value. These proteins have all
the essential amino acids in correct proportion for the synthesis of body tissues.
Pulses, oilseeds and nuts: They are rich in protein but may not contain all the essential amino
acids required by the human body.
Protection and regulation
Foods rich in protein, vitamins and minerals have regulatory functions in the body e.g., maintaining
the heart beat, water balance, temperature. Protective foods are broadly classified into two groups.
Foods rich in vitamins and minerals and proteins of high biological value e.g., milk, egg, fish,
liver.
Foods rich in certain vitamins and minerals only e.g., green leafy vegetables and fruits.
Maintenance of health
Food contains certain phytochemicals and antioxidants which help in preventing degenerative dis-
eases. Food plays an important role in the prevention of cancers, heart diseases and in controlling
diabetes mellitus.
Some examples for functional foods are whole grains, soyabean, green leafy vegetables, coloured
fruits and spices.
INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE 3
FOOD GROUPS
Foods have been classified into different groups depending upon the nutritive value, for the convenience
of planning diets. Food groups like Basic four, Basic five or Basic seven can be used for planning
diets as per the convenience.
I Basic Four
Group Nutrient
Cereals, millets and pulses Energy, protein B-vitamins
Vegetables and fruits Vitamins, minerals and fibre
Milk, milk products, and animal foods Protein, calcium B-vitamins
Oils, fats, nuts and oilseeds Energy, protein (nuts and oilseeds).
II Basic Five: ICMR
Cereals, grains and products: rice, wheat, Energy, protein, invisible fat, thiamin,
ragi, maize, bajra, jowar, rice flakes, folic acid, riboflavin, iron and fibre.
puffed rice.
Pulses and legumes: Bengal Energy, protein, invisible fat, thiamin,
gram, black gram, cow pea, riboflavin, folic acid, calcium, iron
peas (dry) rajma, soyabeans. and fibre.
Milk and meat products: Protein, fat, riboflavin,
* Milk, curd, skimmed milk, cheese calcium, protein, fat, riboflavin.
* Chicken, liver, fish, egg and meat.
Fruits and vegetables:
* Mango, guava, tomato, papaya, Carotenoids, vitamin C, riboflavin,
orange, sweet lime, watermelon. folic acid, iron, fibre.
* Green leafy vegetables: Riboflavin, folic acid calcium, fibre,
Amaranth spinach, gogu, drumstick iron, carotenoids.
leaves, corriander leaves, fenugreek.
* Other vegetables:
Carrots, onion, brinjal, ladies finger, Carotenoids, folic acid, calcium and
beans, capsicum, cauliflower, fibre.
drumstick.
Fats and Sugars:
* Fats: Butter, ghee, hydro- Energy, essential fatty acids
genated fat, cooking oils. and fat soluble vitamins.
* Sugar and jaggery. Energy, jaggery has got iron.
III Basic Seven
Green and yellow vegetables Carotenoids, ascorbic acid, and iron.
Oranges, grape fruit, tomatoes or Ascorbic acid.
raw cabbage.
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Potatoes, other vegetables Vitamins and minerals in general
and fruits and fibre.
Milk and milk products Calcium, phosphorus, protein and vitamins
Meat, poultry, fish and eggs Proteins, phosphorus, iron
and B vitamins.
Bread, flour and cereals Thiamin, niacin, riboflavin, iron,
carbohydrate and fibre.
Butter or fortified margarine Vitamin A and fat
In planning balanced diets, food should be chosen from each group in sufficient quantity.
Cereals and pulses should be taken adequately; fruits and vegetables liberally; animal foods mod-
erately and oils and sugars sparingly.
Food guide pyramid
Figure 1-a shows the food guide pyramid. It is meant for use by the general healthy population as a
guide for the amount and types of foods to be included in the daily diet.
Figure 1-a: The food guide pyramid
Sugar
Sugar
and oil
Use poly
unsaturated
fatty acids
Milk and meat
Use low fat milk
Pulses and nuts
and oilseeds
Include soya bean
Use sprouted grams
and almonds
Fruits and vegetables
Emphasise on green leafy
vegetables and
yellow orange fruits
Cereals
Include whole grains
INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE 5
FOOD IN RELATION TO HEALTH
Health is related to the food consumed. To maintain good health, ingesting a diet containing the nutri-
ents in correct amounts is essential. A balanced diet is one which contains different types of food in
such quantities and proportions so that the need for calories, proteins, fats, minerals and vitamins is
adequately met and a small provision is made for extra nutrients to withstand short duration of lean-
ness. Deficiency of any nutrient affects health of an individual. Food has not only nutrients but also
nutracenticals which prevent degenerative diseases.
Table 1.1 gives nutrient deficiency symptoms and sources of nutrients and explains how food is
related to health.
Table 1.1: Food in relation to health
Nutrient Sources Deficiency
Energy, Protein Fat, sugar cereals, pulses, Underweight, Marasmus,
egg, meat. Kwashiorkor
Calcium Milk, green leafy vegetables Rickets, osteomalacia,
gingelly seeds. Tetany
Iron Liver, green leaf vegetables, Anaemia
rice flakes, jaggery.
Vitamin-A Liver, egg yolk, butter, green Night blindness
leafy vegetable, carrots.
Thiamin Yeast, outer layers of cereals, Pain in the calf muscle,
pulses, nuts. weakness of heart muscle
Niacin Groundnuts, whole cereals, pulses Dementia, diarrhoea, dermatitis
Vitamin-B
6
Meat, liver, vegetables, Anaemia, angular
whole cereal grains. stomatitis
Folic acid Fresh green leafy vegetables, Megaloblastic anaemia
ladys finger, cluster beans.
Vitamin-B
12
Yeast, fermented foods. Pernicious anaemia
Vitamin-C Citrus fruits, amla, guava, Bleeding gums
Vitamin-D Eggs, flesh foods, sunlight. Rickets, osteomalacia
COOKING
Food preparation helps in combining food ingredients in various ways with delicate flavours, textures
and colour which appeal to the senses. Food has to be pleasing in appearance and taste so that it is
consumed. Understanding food behaviour in scientific terms helps in choosing best method of cook-
ing. Food preparation is an important step in meeting the nutritional needs of the family.
Foods like fruits, vegetables and nuts are eaten raw but most of the foods are cooked to bring about
desirable changes.
The process of subjecting foods to the action of heat is termed as cooking.
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OBJECTIVES OF COOKING
Improves the taste and food quality
Cooking improves natural flavour and texture of food. For example roasting groundnuts, frying onions
and papads, cooking rice and roasting coffee seeds improve the flavour. Cooking meat with spices, rice
with spices in making pulav, frying cashewnuts in ghee, addition of turmeric, curry leaves, pepper in
pongal, blend flavour with one another during cooking.
Too much of cooking lowers the flavour as flavouring compounds are volatile. Over-cooked pulav,
does not taste as good as well cooked pulav.
Destruction of micro-organisms
Micro-organisms are present everywhere and some are useful in making curd, cheese and bread. Some
are harmful and cause infections or produce toxins, e.g., clostridium botulism and salmonella. Some
moulds produce toxins. Aspergillus flavus produces aflatoxin in groundnuts, cereals and spices. This
aflatoxin is a health hazard.
One of the most important methods of protection of food against harmful micro-organisms is by
the application of heat. Cooking food to the required temperature for a required length of time can
destroy all harmful microorganisms in food e.g., pasteurised milk.
Tapeworm or its larvae which infest pork can be killed by proper application of heat. By cooking,
food is made safe for consumption.
Improves digestibility
Cooking softens the connective tissues of meat and the coarse fibres of cereals, pulses and vegetables
so that the digestive period is shortened and gastrointestinal tract is less subjected to irritation. Cooking
improves the texture hence it becomes more chewable. Cooking also bursts the starch granules of
pulses and cereals so that the starch digestion is more easier, rapid and complete. When dry heat is
applied to starches they are converted to easily digestible dextrins. Cooking increases the access to
enzymes and improves digestibility.
Increases variety
By cooking, same food can be made into different dishes. For example, rice can be made into plain,
pulav, lemon rice, biryani, or combination with pulses and idli. Wheat can be made into chapatis, puri,
paratha or halwa.
Increases consumption of food
Cooking improves the texture and makes the food chewable. Improvement in texture and flavour by
cooking increases the consumption of food to meet our nutritional requirement.
Increases availability of nutrients
Raw egg contains avidin which binds biotin making biotin unavailable to the body. By cooking, avidin
gets denatured and biotin is available to the body.
Trypsin inhibitors present in soyabean and duck egg get denatured on cooking and availability of
protein is improved. Toxic substances from kesari dhal can also be removed by boiling it and throwing
away the water. Cooking increases the quality protein by making some aminoacids available to the
body.
INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE 7
Increases antioxidant value
Cooked tomatoes are associated with greater health benefits, compared to uncooked, because the heat-
ing process makes lycopene more easily absorbed by the body. Lycopene the pigment present in
tomatoes reduces the risk of some cancers.
Concentrates nutrients
This may be due to removal of moisture or using combination of foods or due to cooking procedures,
e.g., sweets.
Limitations of cooking
Thiamin, which is heat sensitive, may be lost during cooking. Water soluble nutrients are leached
into the water during cooking. Vitamin A and C content may be reduced due to oxidation and heat.
Quality of protein may be reduced due to destruction of certain aminoacids during cooking e.g.,
bread crust has less quality of protein compared to the inside portion.
PRELIMINARY PREPARATIONS
The term used to describe the tasks done before or ahead the final preparation of food is preliminary
preparation. Preliminary treatment of food includes cleaning, peeling and stringing, cutting and grating,
sieving, soaking, processing, coating, blanching, marinating, sprouting, fermenting, grinding, drying
and filtering.
Cleaning: The term cleaning is applicable to vegetables, fruits and many other food products.
Many food products may have portions to be discarded, for example, withered or discoloured leaves in
green leafy vegetables.
Other aspect of cleaning is washing. This term is applicable to fruits, vegetables, cereals, pulses and
non-vegetarian foods. Washing fruits renders them dirt-free. Washing cereals or dals helps to remove
husk, mud and any other unwanted matter. Hard vegetables are scrubbed under cold running water.
Advantages:
Insecticides, sprays, chemicals and dirt are removed.
Washing in warm water helps to kill the worms e.g., worms in cauliflower.
Washing flesh food products helps to remove blood, dirt and unwanted impurities.
Cleaning process helps to remove gills from fish, hard shells from prawns and crab.
Disadvantages:
Washing cereals like rice causes loss of B complex vitamins especially thiamine. This can however
be reduced by quick and thorough washing.
Water-soluble vitamins are lost when fruit and vegetables are cut and then washed.
Peeling and stringing: Both these methods involve the removal of non-edible or fibrous portion
of fruits or vegetables e.g., peeling of banana and potato, stringing of beans. Peeling brings about loss
of nutrients present under the surface of food, hence the product should be boiled or blanched and then
peeled e.g., vitamin C in potatoes. Colour of beetroot can be preserved better when it is cooked with
the skin.
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Advantages:
Non-edible or fibrous portion is removed.
Dirt and chemicals which is retained after cleaning on the skin can be removed.
Appeals better to the eye after peeling and stringing e.g., potatoes and beans.
Disadvantages:
Some nutrients might be lost e.g., peeling and exposing fruits can bring loss of vitamin C.
Some edible portion might be removed alongwith peel.
Cutting and grating: This is dividing the food into smaller pieces, thus helping in easy cooking.
Various terms under this are:
Cut : To divide into pieces or to shape with knife.
Chop : To cut into no specified shape.
Mince : To chop very fine.
Dice : To cut into small uniform cubes.
Slice : To cut into uniform slices.
Grate : To cut finely with a grater.
Cutting is a general term which includes all the others. Apart from knife, various other machines
are used to cut like food slicer, chopper, grinder and vertical cutter.
Advantages:
The product is easily cooked.
It is easily consumed.
Spoiled portion of the food can be discarded.
Appearance of the food can be improved, e.g., salads.
Grating helps in proper blending of the product.
Disadvantages:
Smaller the size, greater the surface area, greater the loss of nutrients, hence cutting is preferred to
grating but, however, certain recipes need grating.
Sieving: Sieving is done to remove coarse fibres and insects. It is also done in preparing cakes for
blending of flour with baking powder.
Advantages:
Helps in removal of dirt, worms, fibre and stones from the whole grains.
The shelf life of food products can be improved.
Flour becomes fine.
Helps in blending.
Disadvantages:
Bran is lost, thereby some nutrients like fibre, protein and B vitamins may be lost.
INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE 9
It involves time.
Soaking: Soaking is done in water either plain or salted with sodium chloride or sodium bicarbonate.
Advantages:
Hastens the process of cooking.
Figure 1-b: Standard vegetable cuts.
Source: Ursula Jones, 1986, Catering: Food preparation and service, Edward Arnold Ltd., London.
Julienne
Cut to 3cm x 2.5mm thin strips
Brunoise
Cut to 2mm dice
Macedoine
Cut to 5mm dice
Jardinere
Cut to batons 2 x 2 x 15 mm
Paysanne
Cut flat to 1 cm triangles
Cut flat to 1 cm squares
Cut flat to 1 cm circles
Cut flat to 1 cm edges
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It facilitates grinding e.g., in making idli or dosa.
Texture of food softens.
Peel can be easily removed from soaked products like whole grams.
Make the extraction of tamarind easier.
Reduces pungency in onions.
It initiates fermentation process, e.g., idli and dosa batter.
Disadvantages:
Water-soluble nutrients may be leached into the water.
It involves time.
Processing: Processing includes all the things to get food ready for cooking and serving. The
various processes included under this are:
Mix : To combine ingredients in such a way that the parts of each ingredient are evenly
dispersed in the total product.
Blend : To mix two or more ingredients so completely that they lose their separate iden-
tities. Ingredients in ice-creams and milkshake blend so well that individual in-
gredients cannot be seen.
Bind : To cause a mixture of two or more ingredients to cohere as a homogeneous prod-
uct. Binding agents like starches and eggs are used in making custards. Dough
making comes under this category.
Beat : To move an instrument back and forth to blend ingredients together to achieve a
smooth texture.
Whip : To beat with a rapid lifting motion to incorporate air into a food e.g., eggs.
Fold : To mix a whipped ingredient lightly with another ingredient by gently turning
one over the other with a flat implement e.g., egg white in souffle preparation.
Mashing : Crushing the food products to a smooth structure e.g., mashing of vegetables in
cutlet preparation.
Stuffing : Introducing or filling a foodstuff e.g., stuffing mashed potatoes in parathas.
Advantages:
All the processes mentioned above help in the enhancement of flavour of the product.
Beating and whipping help in incorporation of air thereby lightening the texture.
In process of binding, dough becomes elastic and thus can be easily rolled, thereby helping in
preparation of chapatis and puris.
Coating: The term coating refers to covering a food with a layer of crumbs, flour or other fine
substances before cooking it. There are different ways of coating a food.
Dredging : This means passing a food through a fine dry or powdery substance in order to
coat it. Substances often used are flour, powdered almonds and bread crumbs.
Breading : 3 steps are involved. The product is first dredged with flour, then dipped in egg
mixture liquids then in crumbs.
INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE 11
Battering : This is dipping the food product in batter. Batter is semiliquid. It usually consists
of an egg liquid mixture thickened with flour to achieve a smooth consistency.
Bengal gram flour or rice flour can also be used for this purpose.
Advantages:
Coating adds colour and flavour to the finished product.
The coat of breading helps in transmission of heat to the food product.
It brings less-fat absorption.
Produces a crunchy texture.
Helps the food to retain moisture.
They help in binding the food substances.
Disadvantages:
Battered or dredged food cannot be held long, otherwise the product becomes soggy.
Breading may not stick to food.
The breading may break during frying.
Blanching: This is plunging food into boiling liquid and immersing in cold water. This destroys
enzymes present in food hence used as preparation for preservation. Food products normally blanched
are tomatoes, potatoes, almonds, carrots and beans.
Advantages:
Peel can be removed easily.
It is a preliminary method for canning and freezing.
Micro-organisms present on the surface are partially removed.
Enzymes bringing spoilage can be inactivated.
Blanching causes better exposure of pigment, hence improves the colour of the food product.
Disadvantages:
Part of water-soluble nutrients may be lost.
Long-time blanching undesirably softens the food.
Marinating: Marinating is soaking a food in a marinade to add flavour or to tenderize it or both.
A marinade is any liquid made up for purpose of marinating. Vegetables, fruits and meats are mari-
nated with many flavour combinations. Meat marinade made up of oil, flavour builders and acid. Oil
helps to hold natural juices of meat. Acid is used to tenderize by breaking down connective tissue.
Vegetables normally marinated are brinjal, onions, radish, bittergourd, potatoes and chillies.
Advantages:
Prevents browning reaction e.g., in potatoes and apples.
Adds flavour to the food.
Texture of product is improved.
Eye irritation due to cutting of onions can be reduced by marinating.
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Disadvantage:
Water-soluble nutrients may leach into marinade.
Sprouting or Germination: All kinds of grams like green gram, bengal gram, peas and cereals
like ragi and wheat are generally sprouted. Sprouted pulses are used in making salads and curries.
Advantages:
Digestibility can be increased as complex substances are converted to simple substances e.g., starch
to amylose.
Discomfort due to flatulence can be reduced.
This decreases cooking time as grain becomes tender.
Water-soluble vitamins are increased.
Dehusking is easier.
Thickening power of starch is reduced.
Availability of proteins and aminoacids is increased.
Fermentation: Fermentation is the process of breaking down of complex matter into simpler ones
with aid of enzymes and bacteria. This can be under aerobic or anaerobic conditions. Fermented foods
are often more nutritious than their unfermented counterparts. Some fermented food products are idli,
bread and dhokla.
Advantages:
Texture and taste is improved.
Quality of protein is improved as availability of some aminoacids increase.
B vitamins are synthesized by micro-organisms.
Shelf life of food product can be prolonged e.g., milk is converted to curds.
Fermented foods are easily digestible.
Disadvantages:
Sometimes unwanted micro-organisms can develop and bring about spoilage of food.
Acidity of the product is increased.
Grinding: This includes both wet and dry grinding. Wet grinding includes the grinding idli batter
and preparations of chutneys. Dry grinding is grinding spices for masala powders and wheat for
wheat flour.
Advantages:
Grinding facilitates fermentation in case of idli, dosa and dhokla.
Proper blending of flavour is ensured.
There is enhancement in taste and flavour.
This is helpful in preparing gravy preparations.
Extraction of flavouring compounds are better when coffee seed is ground.
INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE 13
Disadvantages:
Infestation chances are more in flours than in whole food substances.
Flavour is lost easily e.g., coffee powder.
Vitamin C content may be reduced due to oxidation.
Drying: Drying or dehydrating is removal of moisture from food products. Removal of moisture
helps to prolong the shelf life of the food. Foodstuffs generally dried are mango and gongura for
pickles. Cereals, pulses and spices that are normally used are dried products only.
Advantages:
Shelf life can be prolonged.
Dried food grinds easily.
In vegetables like ladyfinger, removal of moisture helps in reducing stickiness.
Filtering: This process is generally done to remove dirt, unwanted particles or to remove moisture
from foodstuff. In the preparation of cottage cheese or paneer, whey water is extracted. Foodstuffs
filtered are coffee, tea, rice, soups, fruit juices and tamarind water.
Advantages:
Removal of dirt and unwanted particles.
Better extraction of flavour compounds in making tea and coffee.
Improves taste.
Disadvantages:
Nutrients are lost e.g., in whey water, and rice kanji. This loss can be compensated by utilising the
liquids for some other purposes rather than discarding them.
Roasting: This process should be grouped under actual cooking methods but certain recipes how-
ever demand roasting as preparation. Foods generally roasted are rava and vermicelli.
Advantages:
It prevents lump formation, e.g., upma.
Gives characteristic flavour to a food product.
Infestation can be reduced.
COOKING METHODS
Heat may be transferred to the food during cooking by conduction, convection, radiation or by the
energy of microwaveselectronic heat transfer.
Water or steam and air or fat or combination of these are used as cooking media. Moist heat
involves water and steam. Air or fat are used in dry heat. Foods can also be cooked by microwaves.
Classification of cooking methods is given in Table 1.2.
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Table 1.2: Classification of cooking methods
Moist heat Dry heat Combination methods
Boiling Roasting Braising
Simmering Grilling/broiling
Poaching Toasting
Stewing Baking
Blanching Satueing
Steaming Frying
Pressure cooking
MOIST HEAT METHODS
Boiling
Boiling is cooking foods by just immersing them in water at 100C and maintaining the water at that
temperature till the food is tender. Water is said to be boiling when large bubbles are seen rising
constantly on the surface of the liquid and then breaking rapidly. Water receives heat by conduction
through the sides of the utensil in which the food is cooked and passes on the heat by convection
currents which equalise the temperature and become vigorous when boiling commences. Boiling point
of water is 100C and alter at high altitudes and in the presence of electrolytes.
When foods are cooked by boiling, the food should be brought to a vigorous boil first and the heat
is then turned down, as violent boiling throughout tends to break the food. The temperature of the
water cannot be increased any further after it begins to boil and continued vigorous boiling only results
in excessive evaporation of water and waste of fuel. And foods are likely to get burnt at the bottom and
form a dry crust at the top.
Foods may be boiled in any liquid which is bubbling at the surface such as stock, milk, juices or
syrups. Foods that are cooked by boiling are rice, eggs, dals, potatoes, meat, sago and beetroot. Boiling
can be done with excess amount of water (eggs, potatoes) or with sufficient water (dal, upma).
Boiling is generally used in combination with simmering or other methods, e.g., cooking rice,
vegetables or dal.
Advantages:
It is the most simple method. It does not require special skill and equipment.
Soluble starches can be removed and rice grains are separated.
Protein gets denatured, starch gets gelatinized and collagen gets hydrolysed.
Uniform cooking can be done.
Disadvantages:
Loss of nutrients: If excess water is used in cooking and the water is discarded 30-70% water
soluble nutrients like vitamin C may be lost. To prevent this type of losses, cooked water should be
INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE 15
used in soups, rasam, sambhar and dhal. Some protein may be lost if vegetables are cooked in water
containing salt and the cooking water is discarded. There is considerable loss of minerals especially
sodium, potassium and calcium due to leaching.
Loss of colours: Water-soluble pigments, like betanin from beetroot may be lost. Beetroot should be
cooked alongwith the skin to prevent the loss of colour.
Time consuming: Boiling may take time and fuel may get wasted.
Loss of flavour and texture: Boiled foods are not considered tasty because flavour compounds are
leached into the water. Over-boiling of food may make the food mushy.
Simmering
When foods are cooked in a pan with a well-fitting lid at temperature just below the boiling point 82-
99C of the liquid in which they are immersed the process is known as simmering. It is a useful
method when foods have to be cooked for a long time to make it tender as in the case of cheaper cuts
of meat, fish, cooking custards, kheer, vegetables and carrot halwa. This method is also employed in
making soups and stocks.
Advantages:
Foods get cooked thoroughly.
Scorching or burning is prevented.
Losses due to leaching is minimum.
Disadvantages:
There is loss of heat-sensitive nutrients, due to long period of cooking.
Takes more time and more fuel is required.
Poaching
This involves cooking in the minimum amount of liquid at a temperature of 80-85C that is below the
boiling point. Foods generally poached are eggs, fish and fruits. For poaching eggs, the addition of
little salt or vinegar to the cooking liquid lowers the temperature of coagulation. Eggs get cooked
quickly by poaching.
Advantages:
Very quick method of cooking.
Easily digestible since no fat is used.
Disadvantages:
It is bland in taste.
Water-soluble nutrients may be leached into the water.
Stewing
This is a gentle method of cooking in a pan with a tight-fitting lid, using small quantities of liquid to
cover only half the food. The food above the liquid is cooked by the steam generated within the pan.
The liquid is brought to a boiling point and then the heat applied is reduced to maintain the cooking at
simmering temperature i.e., 98C. Stewing is a slow method of cooking taking from 2 to 4 hours
16 FOOD SCIENCE
depending upon the nature and volume of the foods being stewed. This method is generally used for
cooking cheaper cuts of meats alongwith some root vegetables and legumes all put in the same cooking
pot and cooked in stock or water. The larger cooking time and lower temperatures enable tougher meat
fibres to become soft. The cooking of meat and vegetables together make the dish attractive and
nutritious since no liquid is discarded.
Apples can also be cooked by this method.
Advantages:
Loss of nutrients by leaching does not take place.
Flavour is retained e.g., in making oondhya the vegetables are stewed by which flavour is retained.
Disadvantages:
This process is time consuming.
Steaming
This method requires the food to be cooked in steam. This is generated from vigorously boiling water
or liquid in a pan so that the food is completely surrounded by steam and not in contact with the water
or liquid. The water should be boiled before the food is placed in the steamer. Here the food gets
cooked at 100C. Steaming is generally done in special equipment designated for the purpose e.g., Idli
cooker and Rukmani cooker. There are three types of steamings.
Wet Steaming: Here the steam is in direct contact with the food e.g., idli.
Dry Steaming: Here double boiler is used for cooking the food. Double boiling is cooking in a
container over hot or boiling water. This process is used for such preparations as sauces and custards
where temperatures below boiling point are desirable. The food is placed in an utensil which is kept in
another utensil containing water. When the water is heated or boiled the food gets cooked.
Waterless Cooking: In steaming, food is cooked by steam from added water while in waterless
cooking the steam originates from the food itself. Cooking food wrapped in an aluminium foil is
another form of waterless cooking. In this case, there is an advantage of preventing the transmission of
the flavour from or to the sealed food.
Recipes made by steaming are idli, dhokla, rice or ragi puttu, idiappam, appam, kolukattai, undralu
and custards. Puttu made from fish or prawn is also made by steaming.
Advantages:
It does not require constant attention.
Nutritive value is maintained because there is no leaching and cooking time is less.
Easily digestible since not much fat is added. It is good for children and patients.
There is less chance for burning and scorching or overcooking.
In double boilers sudden increase in temperature in making custards and overflow of milk can be
avoided.
Texture of food is better and becomes light and fluffy.
Steamed foods have good flavour.
Disadvantages:
Special equipment is required.
Many foods cannot be prepared by this method, e.g., cooking whole grains.
INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE 17
Pressure Cooking
A relatively small increase in temperature can drastically reduce cooking time and this fact is utilized
in pressure cookers. In pressure cooking, escaping steam is trapped and kept under pressure so that the
temperature of the boiling water and steam can be raised above 100C and reduce cooking time.
Boiling for 1 hour at 100C can be reduced to half an hour at 110C and further can be reduced to
1/4 hour at 120C. In practice the reduction in cooking time is limited by the pressure-temperature
relationship of steam. Above 130-140C the pressure generated increases enormously for very small
increments in temperature. Above 130C massively constructed pressure vessels are required. Hence
120C is an effective limit.
The domestic pressure cooker is usually constructed of heavy gauge aluminium and the pressure
is regulated by weights placed upon a release valve. A safety valve is always fitted to prevent pressure
inadvertently building up beyond the safe and specified level for the vessel construction. A common
practice in pressure cooking is to allow a copious flow of steam from the release valve before capping
it with the weights. This ensures that all air is removed before the cooking process starts. Even the
presence of a small quantity of air with the steam diminishes the heat transfer properties of the steam
drastically. Ten per cent of volume of air will almost double the cooking time. Purging of the enclosed
air is therefore a vital step in using a pressure cooker.
Advantages:
It takes less time to cook.
Different items may be cooked at the same time.
Fuel is saved.
Requires less attention.
Nutrient or flavour loss may be less.
Food is cooked thoroughly by this method.
There is an indication for the completion of cooking.
There are less chances of scorching or burning.
Disadvantages:
Thorough knowledge of using the equipment is required. Otherwise accidents can happen.
There may be mixing of flavours.
Food may be undesirably soft.
Foods cooked in pressure cooker are rice, dal, vegetables and meat.
DRY HEAT METHODS
In this either air or fat is used as the medium of cooking.
Air as medium of cooking
Grilling or broiling
Grilling consists of placing the food below or above or in between a red hot surface. When under the
18 FOOD SCIENCE
heater, the food is heated by radiation only. This results in the browning of food. Then the heat is more
slowly conducted through the surfaces of the food downward. As heating is most superficial, grilled
foods are usually reversed or rotated. If the food is above the heater, heat is transmitted to the food
through convection currents as well as radiations with consequent increased efficiency. Foods cooked
by grilling are cob on the corn, papad, brinjal, phulkas, sweet potato. Barbecues are also made by this
method.
The term toasting is used to describe a process by which bread slices are kept under the grill or
between the two heated elements to brown from both sides of the bread at the same time. This can be
adjusted to give the required degree of brownness through temperature control.
Advantages:
Quick method of cooking.
Less or no fat is required.
Flavour is improved.
Disadvantage:
Constant attention is required to prevent charring.
Pan broiling or roasting
When food is cooked uncovered on heated metal or a frying pan the method is known as pan broiling,
e.g., groundnuts and chapatis.
Advantages:
Improves the colour, flavour and texture of the food.
Reduces the moisture content of the food and improves the keeping quality, e.g., rava.
It is easy to powder e.g., cumin seeds and corriander seeds after roasting.
It is one of the quick methods of cooking foods.
Disadvantages:
Constant attention is required.
Losses of nutrients like aminoacids occur when the food becomes brown.
Baking
Here food gets cooked by hot air. Basically it is a dry heat method of cooking but the action of dry heat
is combined with that of steam which is generated while the food is being cooked. Foods baked are
generally brown and crisp on the top, soft and porous in the centre, e.g., cakes, pudding and breads.
The principle involved in baking is the air inside the oven is heated by a source of heat either electric-
ity or gas or wood in case of tandoori. The oven is insulated to prevent the outside temperatures from
causing fluctuations in internal temperatures of the equipment. The methods of heat transfer involved
are radiation from the source of heat to the metal wall at the base of the oven, by conduction from the
base to the other walls and by convection through the heated air currents set up in the oven to the food.
The temperatures that are normally maintained in the oven are 120C 260C. The oven has to be
heated slightly more than required temperature before placing the food in it. Foods prepared by baking
are custards, pies, biscuits, pizzas, puffs, buns, bread, cakes, tandoori chicken, tandoori meat and fish.
INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE 19
Advantages:
Flavour and texture are improved.
Variety of dishes can be made.
Uniform and bulk cooking can be achieved e.g., bun and bread.
Disadvantages:
Special equipment and skill are required.
Fat as medium of cooking
Sauteing
This method involves cooking in just enough of oil to cover the base of the pan (greasing the pan). The
food is tossed occasionally or turned over with a spatula to enable all the pieces to come in contact
with the oil and get cooked evenly. Sometimes the pan is covered with lid, reducing the flame and
allowing the food to be cooked till tender in its own steam. The product obtained in cooking by this
method is slightly moist, tender but without any liquid or gravy. Foods cooked by sauteing are generally
vegetables used as side dishes in a menu. The heat is transferred to the food mainly by conduction.
Shallow fat frying
Here the food is cooked in fat or oil but not enough to cover it. Heat is transferred to the food partially
by conduction by contact with the heated pan and partially by the convection currents of the foods.
This prevents local burning of the food by keeping away the intense heat of the frying pan, e.g.
paratha, chapati, fish, cutlets and tikkis. The finished dish will be crispy brown outside, soft and tender
inside. The iron content of food increases when iron tavas are used. Non-stick coated frying pan can be
used.
Deep fat frying
Food is totally immersed in hot oil and cooked by vigorous convection currents and cooking is uniform
on all sides of the foods. Cooking can be rapidly completed in deep fat frying because the temperature
used is 180-220C. In most foods, this high temperature results in rapid drying out of the surface and
the production of a hard crisp surface, brown in colour. The absorption of fat by the food increases the
calorific value of the food. Fats when heated to smoking point decompose to fatty acids and glycerol
followed by the decomposition of glycerol to acrolein, which causes irritation to the eyes and nose.
Generally some 10% of oil is absorbed but larger amount of fat is absorbed when oils are used repeat-
edly. Samosa, papads, chips, muruku, pakoda, bajji and bonda are made by deep fat frying.
Advantages:
Taste is improved, alongwith the texture.
Increases the calorific value.
Fastest method of cooking.
In shallow fat frying, the amount of oil consumption can be controlled.
Disadvantages:
Sometimes the food may become oily or soggy with too much absorption of oil.
20 FOOD SCIENCE
More attention is required while cooking and care should be taken to avoid accidents.
The food becomes very expensive.
Fried food takes long time to digest.
Repeated use of heated oils may produce harmful substances and reduce the smoking point.
Combination of Cooking Methods
Braising
Braising is a combined method of roasting and stewing in a pan with a tight-fitting lid. The meat
should be sealed by browning on all sides and then placed on a lightly fried bed of root vegetables.
Stock or gravy is added which should come to 2/3 of the meat. Flavourings and seasoning are added
and allowed to cook gently.
Many food preparations are made not by single method but by a combination of cooking methods.
Vermicelli payasam : Roasting and simmering.
Vegetable curry : Sauteing and simmering.
Upma : Roasting and boiling.
Meat cutlet : Boiling and deep frying.
Vegetable pulav : Frying and simmering.
Mutter paneer : Frying and stewing.
MICROWAVE COOKING
Electromagnetic waves from a power source magnetron are absorbed by the food and food becomes
hot at once. Thus, microwaves do not require any medium of transfer of heat in cooking. The micro-
waves can be absorbed, transmitted or reflected. They are reflected by metals and absorbed by food.
When food is kept in the cavity of the microwave oven for cooking, the microwaves generated by the
magnetron strike the food and the metal walls of the oven. Microwaves that strike the metal walls are
reflected and bounced back so they disperse throughout the oven and accomplish uniform heating of
the food.
Cooking with microwaves differs radically from conventional cooking methods because the heat is
generated inside the food rather than being transferred to the exterior of the food by conduction,
convection or radiation.
The energy of these electromagnetic radiations excite the water molecule in food which bear a
positive electrical charge in one position and negative charge in other position of the molecule (dipole).
When the electric field of the microwave interacts with the water dipole, the water molecules begin to
vibrate very rapidly in food, 2,450 million times a second. This vibration produces friction that creates
heat within the food as the microwaves are able to penetrate.
The efficiency of microwave cookery depends heavily upon the constitution of the food being
cooked. Different components of the food will interact with the microwave radiation at varying rates.
The most important material in any food is water. It is the major constituent of the cellular material
and many foods contain over 70% of their normal weight as water. It is the water in cellular organic
matter that converts microwaves to heat energy with great efficiency and rapidity whereas other com-
ponents such as starch, cellulose and protein are nowhere near as efficient. Least effective as an energy
converter is fatty tissue which normally contains a very small amount of moisture. Microwave cooking
INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE 21
can be done on paper dishes, plastics, glass, chinaware and ceramics because these materials transmit
the waves through them without absorbing them like water. Aluminium foil can also be used.
But brown paper bags, stainless steel vessels, metal twist ties, conventional thermometers cannot be
used.
Figure 1-f: The microwave oven.
1. Door release button 5. Control panel
2. See-through oven window 6. Identification plate
3. Door safety lock system 7. Glass tray
4. External air vents 8. Roller ring
After cooking in a microwave oven washing dishes is much easier as food does not stick to the
sides of these vessels and the paper dishes can be thrown away. Cleaning the oven involves only
wiping it dry with a damp cloth.
Microwave cooking enhances the flavour of food because it cooks quickly with little or no water
and thus preserves the natural colour of vegetables and fruits. Leftovers from the previous days dinner
can be heated in a minute and reused for breakfast or lunch. Precooked processed foods available in
Indian markets like tikkas, kababs, dals and chicken curry can be on the table in minutes.
Following the instructions supplied by the manufacturers home makers can make a cake in 8
minutes and chicken tikkas in about the same time. Stuffed capsicum are ready in 6 minutes only.
Some microwave ovens have an infrared lamp fitted into the oven cavity so that exterior colouring can
be induced while the microwave heating is occurring.
An alternate method that is currently being developed in domestic microwave ovens is to lengthen
the cooking time by reducing the microwave output. In this way, the longer cooking time allows some
surface colouring to occur so that the appearance of the food matches the conventional product more
closely. The increase in cooking time (2-4 fold) still allows a significant saving over conventional
cooking time.
An essential difference between microwave and conventional cooking is that cooking is done by
time rather than temperature in microwave cooking.
Practical hints in using microwave oven
Do not use the oven for home canning or the heating of any closed jar. Pressure will build up and the
jar may explode.
Small quantities of food or foods with low moisture content can dry out, burn or catch on fire.
Do not dry meats, herbs, fruits and vegetables in the oven.
22 FOOD SCIENCE
Do not attempt to deep fry in microwave oven. Cooking oils may burst into flames. Microwave
utensils may not be able to withstand the temperature of the hot oil and could shatter.
Do not heat eggs in their shell in microwave oven. Pressure will build up and the eggs will explode.
Potatoes, apples, egg yolks and whole vegetables must be pierced before microwave cooking to
prevent bursting.
Overcooking of vegetables like potatoes cause dehydration and fire.
Heated liquids can erupt if not mixed with air. Do not heat liquids in microwave oven without first
stirring.
Do not use paper towels or clothes which contain a synthetic fibre woven into them. The synthetic
fibre may cause the towel to ignite.
Do not use paper bags or recycled paper products in the microwave oven.
Do not heat narrow mouthed containers as the liquid may boil over even after cooking has stopped.
Do not leave open unattended while in use.
Both bone and fat affect cooking. Bones may cause irregular cooking. Meat next to the tips of bones
may overcook while meat positioned under a large bone such as a ham bone may be undercooked.
Large amounts of fat absorb microwave energy and the meat next to these areas may get over-
cooked.
If the food is wrapped, the wrapper should be perforated or otherwise allow for steam to escape to
prevent it from bursting.
As the quantity of the food increases so does the cooking time. Place thin parts towards the centre of
the dish and thick pieces towards the edge. Thin pieces cook more quickly than thick pieces.
For even cooking place in the oven equal distances apart. When possible, arrange foods in a circular
pattern.
When removing plastic wrap covers, as well as any glass lids, be careful to remove them away from
you to avoid steam burns.
Always cook food for the minimum cooking time. Once overcooked, nothing can be done.
Most foods will continue to cook by conduction after the microwave oven is turned off.
Less tender cuts should be cooked in liquid.
Advantages:
Microwave ovens cook many foods in about 1/4th of the time necessary on a gas burner. There is no
wastage of energy.
It saves time in heating frozen foods. Thawing can be done in minutes or seconds.
Only the food is heated during cooking. The oven or the utensil does not get heated except under
prolonged heating periods.
Flavour and texture do not change when reheated in a microwave oven.
Loss of nutrients is minimised. -carotene and vitamin C are better retained by microwave cooking
compared to pressure cooking and saucepan cooking.
After cooking in a microwave oven washing dishes is much easier as food does not stick to the sides
of the vessels.
Food gets cooked uniformly.
INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE 23
Preserves the natural colour of vegetables and fruits.
No fat or low fat cooking can be made.
Disadvantages:
Due to short period of cooking, food does not become brown unless the microwave has a browning
unit.
It is not possible to make chapati or tandoori roti in it. It cannot cook soft or hard boiled eggs. Deep
frying necessary for puris, jalebis, pakoda, vadas cannot be done in it.
Sometimes unwanted chemicals migrate to food from plastic cookware or food packages. Only
microwave safe should be used.
The short cooking time may not give a chance of blending of flavours as in conventional methods.
The operator should be careful in operating the microwave oven since any exposure to microwave
oven causes physiological abnormalities.
If the food is greater than 80 mm the central portion is out of range of the microwave radiation will
only heat by the normal slow process of conduction. It will be relatively uncooked while the exterior
accessible to microwave is cooked in minutes or seconds.
SOLAR COOKING
Solar cooker works on solar energy. Solar cooker can directly utilise solar energy or can use deflected
solar energy from a large concentration rays surface.
Solar cooker consists of a well-insulated box, the inside of which is painted dull black and is
covered by one or more transparent covers. The purpose of these transparent covers is to trap heat
inside the solar cooker. These covers allow the radiation from the sun to come inside but do not allow
the heat from the hot black absorbing plate to come out of the box. Because of this, the temperature of
the blackened plate inside the box increases and can heat up the space inside the temperature upto
140C which is adequate for cooking.
The second type of solar cooker uses a lens or a reflector suitably designed to concentrate the solar
radiation over a small area. This cooker is able to provide higher temperatures on its absorbing surface
when suitably designed but is usually more expensive than the box cooker.
Important parts of a simple box type solar cooker is given in figure 1-g.
The outer box: The outer box of a solar cooker may be made of wood, iron sheet or fibre rein-
forced plastic having suitable dimensions.
The inner box: The inner box can be made from galvanised iron or mild steel or aluminium sheet.
All the four sides and the bottom of the inner box which are exposed to the sun are coated with
black paint.
Mirror: Mirror is used in a solar cooker to increase the radiation input on the absorbing surface.
Sunlight which falls on the mirror gets reflected from it and enters the box after passing through the
glass covers. This radiation is in addition to the radiation entering the box directly and helps to quicken
the cooking process by raising the inside temperature of the cooker. The use of a mirror can enhance
the solar radiation input to the cooker by about 50 per cent.
Cooking Containers: The cooking containers with covers are generally made of aluminium or
stainless steel. The containers are painted dull black on the outer surface so that they also absorb
radiation directly.
24 FOOD SCIENCE
Figure 1-g: Parts of a simple/box type solar cooker 1. Plane Mirror, 2. Cooking Container, 3. Glass Sheet, 4. Cover,
5. Insulation Material Glass, 6. Outer Box, 7. Handle, 8. Mirror Support, 9. Hinged adjustor and Guide.
Thermal Insulation: The space between the outer box and the inner box is fitted with insulating
material such as glass, wool or thermocole. This prevents heat losses from the cooker.
The double glass covers: These covers have length and breadth slightly greater than the inner box
and can be fixed in a wooden frame maintaining a small spacing between the two glasses. This space
contains air which acts as an insulator and prevents heat to escape from inside. The wooden frame is
attached to the outer box by means of hinges. A rubber strip is affixed all around on the edges of this
frame to prevent any heat leakage.
Advantages
It does not require any cooking gas or kerosene or any conventional fuel.
Simultaneously more than one recipe can be prepared.
Keeps the environment clean.
Less expensive compared to conventional source of energy.
Conserves the conventional source of energy.
Constant attention is not required.
Cost of the cooker and maintenance cost is low.
No smoke and no soot hence cleaning the vessels is easy.
Disadvantages
Depends on sun and on cloudy and rainy days it may not be possible to use.
Takes longer time and planning is required.
Special vessels need to be used.
Loss of vitamin C is more compared to cooking on gas.
World Food Day is celebrated on 16th October.
INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE 25
SUGGESTED READINGS
Francis, 2003, Encyclopedia of Food Science and Technology. The computype media, New Delhi 110 002.
New Larousse, 1983, GastronomiqueThe Worlds Greatest Cookery Reference Book, Prosper Montague
Publishing Group Ltd., Hamlyn, London.
Application of solar energydomestic, industrial and commercialMinistry of non-conventional energy
sourceswww.mncs.nic.in.
Kar Abhijit, Microwave Processing: Utilisation in Food Industries, Processed Food Industry, April 2000.
QUESTIONS
1. Give the ICMR classification of food groups.
2. Define the following.
(a) Mince (b) Bind (c) Fold (d) Dredging
3. Why do we cook food? What are limitations of it?
4. Classify different methods of cooking and explain any five methods in detail.
5. Define poaching. Bring out the advantages of it.
6. What is the best method of cooking rice? Why is it so?
7. Explain the different dry methods of cooking.
8. What is the principle of microwave cooking. Explain its construction and superiority over the traditional meth-
ods of cooking.
9. How is heat transferred in baking? What are foods normally cooked by baking?
10. Describe the different methods of cooking in which steam is used.
11. Give the advantages of pressure cooking.
12. Explain the methods in which air is used as medium of cooking.
13. Compare shallow fat frying and deep fat frying methods. Give suitable examples.
14. Name five preliminary methods of cooking. Discuss advantages and limitations giving suitable examples.
15. Give the principles of solar cooker. Enumerate the advantages.
PRACTICALS
1. Grouping of foodsDiscussion on nutritive values.
2. Technique in measurements of foodstuffUse of standard measuring cups and spoonsweight-volume rela-
tionships.
3. Survey locally available foods and identify and find the cost of foodstuffs.
4. Find edible and non-edible portions of food.
5. Give the energy and protein value per 100g of food, selecting from all the food groups.