The Waste Products of

Agriculture
Their Utilization as Humus
by
Sir Albert Howard, C.I.., !.A.
"irector of the Institute of Plant Industr#, Indore,
and Agricultural Ad$iser to States in Central India and %a&'utana
and
(eshwant ". Wad, !. Sc.
Chief Assistant in Chemistr#, Institute of Plant Industr#, Indore
Hum'hre# !ilford
)*ford Uni$ersit# Press
+ondon ,ew (or- Toronto !elbourne
.omba# Calcutta !adras
/01/
To
Sir %eginald 2lanc#
3.C.I.., C.S.I., C.I.., I.C.S.
!ember of the Council of India
4ormerl# Agent to the 2o$ernor52eneral in Central India
4irst President of the .oard of 2o$ernors of the Institute of Plant Industr#, Indore
6/0785/0709
Preface
)ne of the main features of cro' 'roduction at the 'resent da# is waste. *ce't in the
4ar ast, where the large indigenous 'o'ulation has to be fed from the 'roduce of the
countr#5side, little is being done to utilize com'letel# the b#5'roducts of the farm in
maintaining the fertilit# of the soil. The e$er5growing su''lies of agricultural 'roduce,
needed b# industr# and trade, ha$e been 'ro$ided either b# ta-ing u' new land or b#
the 'urchase of artificial manures. .oth these methods are uneconomic. The
e*'loitation of $irgin soil is a form of 'lunder. An# e*'enditure on fertilizers which
can be a$oided raises the cost of 'roduction, and therefore reduces the margin of
'rofit. It needs no argument to urge that, in maintaining the fertilit# of the soil, the
most careful attention should be 'aid to the utilization of the waste 'roducts of
agriculture itself before an# demands are made on ca'ital 55 natural or ac:uired.
4or the last twent#5si* #ears, the senior author has been engaged in the stud# of cro'
'roduction in India and in de$ising means b# which the 'roduce of the soil could be
increased b# methods within the resources of the small holder. These in$estigations
fell into two di$isions; 6/9 the im'ro$ement of the $ariet#< and 679 the intensi$e
culti$ation of the new t#'es. In the wor- of re'lacing the indigenous cro's of India b#
higher #ielding $arieties, it was soon realized that the full 'ossibilities in 'lant
breeding could onl# be achie$ed when the soil in which the im'ro$ed t#'es are grown
is 'ro$ided with an ade:uate su''l# of organic matter in the right condition. Im'ro$ed
$arieties b# themsel$es could be relied on to gi$e an increased #ield in the
neighbourhood of ten 'er cent. Im'ro$ed $arieties 'lus better soil conditions were
found to 'roduce an increment u' to a hundred 'er cent or e$en more.
Ste's were therefore ta-en; 6/9 to stud# the con$ersion of all forms of $egetable and
animal wastes into organic matter 6humus9 suitable for the needs of the growing cro'<
and 679 to wor- out a sim'le 'rocess b# which the Indian culti$ator could 're'are an
ade:uate su''l# of this material from the b#5'roducts of his holding. In other words
he has been shown how to become a chemical manufacturer. This tas- in$ol$ed a
careful stud# of the $arious s#stems of agriculture which so far ha$e been e$ol$ed and
'articularl# of the methods b# which the# re'lenish the soil organic matter. The line
of ad$ance in raising cro' 'roduction in India to a much higher le$el then became
clear. =er# mar-ed 'rogress could be made b# welding the $arious fragments of this
sub&ect 55 the care of the manure hea', green5manuring and the 're'aration of
artificial farm#ard manure 55 into a single 'rocess, which could be wor-ed
continuousl# throughout the #ear and which could be relied u'on to #ield a su''l# of
humus, uniform in chemical com'osition and read# for incor'oration into the soil.
This has been accom'lished at the Institute of Plant Industr# at Indore. The wor- is
now being ta-en u' in Sind and at $arious centres in Central India and %a&'utana.
The Indore 'rocess for the manufacture of humus is described in detail in the
following 'ages. It can be ado'ted as it stands throughout the tro'ics and sub5tro'ics,
and also on the small holdings and allotments of the tem'erate zone. How ra'idl# the
method can be incor'orated into the large5scale agriculture of the west is a :uestion
which e*'erience alone can answer. It will in all 'robabilit# de'end on how far the
'rocess can be mechanized.
In the field of rural h#giene there is great sco'e for the new method. It can be a''lied
to the utilization of all human, animal and $egetable wastes in such a manner that the
breeding of flies is 're$ented, the water and the food5su''l# of the 'eo'le
safeguarded and the general health of the localit# im'ro$ed. Cleaner and healthier
$illages will then go hand in hand with hea$ier cro's.
A.H.
(.".W.
Indore
> A'ril, /01/
The Waste Products of Agriculture -- Their
Utilization as Humus
by Albert Howard and Yeshwant D. Wad
Chapter 1
Introduction
The maintenance of the fertilit# of the soil is the first condition of an# 'ermanent
s#stem of agriculture. In the ordinar# 'rocesses of cro' 'roduction, fertilit# is steadil#
lost< its continuous restoration b# means of manuring and soil management is
therefore im'erati$e.
In considering how the ideal method of manuring and of soil management can be
de$ised, the first ste' is to bring under re$iew the $arious s#stems of agriculture
which so far ha$e been e$ol$ed. These fall for the most 'art into two main grou's; 6/9
the methods of the )ccident to which a large amount of scientific attention has been
de$oted during the last fift# #ears< and 679 the 'ractices of the )rient which ha$e been
almost unaffected b# western science. 6In the general organization of agriculture,
uro'e stands mid5wa# between the east and the west and 'ro$ides, as it were, the
connecting lin- between these two methods of farming.9 The s#stems of agriculture of
the )ccident and of the )rient will now be briefl# considered with a $iew of
e*tracting from each ideas and results which can be utilized in the e$olution of the
ideal method of maintaining and increasing the fertilit# of the soil.
The Agricultural Systems of the Occident
The most stri-ing characteristic of the agriculture of the west is the com'arati$el#
large size of the holding. +arge farms are the rule< small holdings are the e*ce'tion.
6The growth of allotments for the 'roduction of $egetables in the neighbourhood of
urban areas is a com'arati$el# recent 'henomenon and onl# affects a small area.9
The large farms of the west are for the most 'art engaged in the 'roduction of food
and a few raw materials li-e wool for the urban 'o'ulations of the world, which are
mainl# concerned with manufacture and trade. To 'roduce these $ast su''lies, and at
the same time to 'lace them on the mar-ets at low rates, 'racticall# all the unoccu'ied
tem'erate regions of the world, which are suitable for the white races, ha$e alread#
been utilized. The best areas of ,orth America, of the Argentine, of South Africa and
large tracts of Australia and 'racticall# the whole of ,ew ?ealand ha$e during the last
hundred #ears been e*'loited to 'roduce the endless 'rocession of cargoes of food
and raw materials re:uired b# the great mar-ets of the world.
The wea-ness of this s#stem of agriculture lies in the fact that it is new and has not
#et recei$ed the su''ort which centuries of successful e*'erience alone can 'ro$ide.
At first it was based on the e*'loitation of the stores of organic matter accumulated b#
$irgin land, which at the best could not last for more than a limited number of #ears.
$en now there is 'racticall# no attem't to utilize the large :uantities of wheat straw
and other $egetable wastes for -ee'ing u' the store of organic matter in the soil. The
new areas of ,orth America for e*am'le soon showed signs of e*haustion. !anuring
has become necessar# as in the case of the older fields of uro'e. To su''l# the large
:uantities of combined nitrogen needed, all 'ossible sources e*ce't the right one 55
the s#stematic con$ersion of the waste 'roducts of agriculture into humus 55 ha$e one
after the other been utilized; guano from the islands off the Peru$ian coast, nitrate of
soda from Chile, sul'hate of ammonia from coal and more recentl# s#nthetic nitrogen
com'ounds obtained from the atmos'here. These substances are su''lemented b#
another class of nitrogenous organic manures such as artificial guanos, dried blood
and slaughter5house residues, oil ca-es and wool waste 55 the b#5'roducts of
agriculture 55 and b# another grou' of artificials 55 the $arious 'hos'hatic and 'otassic
fertilizers. These su''lies of concentrated manures ha$e enabled agricultural
'roduction to be -e't at a high le$el. The fact of their e*istence for a time tended to
distract attention from the fullest utilization of the b#5'roducts of the farm. %ecentl#,
howe$er, a change has ta-en 'lace and a large amount of scientific effort has been
de$oted to the 'roblems which centre round the waste 'roducts, both animal and
$egetable, of agriculture itself. The need of -ee'ing u' the su''l# of organic matter in
the soil is now widel# recognized.
After the large size of the holding and the necessit# of manuring, the high cost of
labour is another leading characteristic of western farming. The number of men 'er
s:uare mile of agricultural land who actuall# wor- is low. 6The com'arati$e figures of
cro' 'roduction 'er wor-er for the fi$e5#ear 'eriod 'receding the War, 're'ared b#
the United States "e'artment of Agriculture, are instructi$e. The number of wor-ers
em'lo#ed 'er /,@@@ acres of cro' land was a''ro*imatel# 71A in Ital#, />@ in
2erman#, /7@ in 4rance, /@A in ngland and Wales, >@ in Scotland but onl# 8/ in the
United States. In Canada, according to %iddell, the /0// figures show that e$er#
/,@@@ acres called for onl# 7> wor-ers. This obser$er states that in the three 'rairie
'ro$inces BAlberta, !anitoba, Sas-atchewanC the figures are e$en more stri-ing; the
area under field cro's was /D,>DD,@0/ acres, and the numbers engaged in agriculture
was 7E1,8D7, so that each 'erson so em'lo#ed was res'onsible for >7 acres. $er#
/,@@@ acres re:uired onl# /> wor-ers. Since these data were 'ublished, further
statements ha$e a''eared from which it would seem that the size of the wor-ing
'o'ulation in agriculture in ,orth America has shrun- still further.9 This state of
things has arisen from the dearness and scarcit# of labour, which has naturall# led to
the stud# of labour5sa$ing de$ices including the use of machiner#. Whene$er a
machine can be in$ented which sa$es human labour its s'read is ra'id. ngines of
$arious -inds are the rule e$er#where. The ine$itable march of the combine5har$ester,
in all the wheat5'roducing areas of the world, is the latest e*am'le of the
mechanization of the agriculture of the west.
Another feature of this e*tensi$e s#stem of large5scale agriculture is the de$elo'ment
of food 'reser$ation 'rocesses, of trans'ort and of mar-eting, b# which the 'roducts
of agriculture are chea'l# and ra'idl# mo$ed from the field to the centres of
distribution and consum'tion. There is no great dearth of ca'ital at an# stage. !one#
can alwa#s be found for an# new machine and for an# new de$elo'ment which is
li-el# to return a di$idend. +and and ca'ital are abundant< efficient trans'ort and good
mar-ets abound. The com'arati$el# small su''l# of suitable labour and its high cost
'ro$ide the chief agricultural 'roblems of the west.
This s#stem of agriculture is essentiall# modern and has de$elo'ed largel# as one of
the conse:uences of the disco$er# of the steam engine and the ra'id e*'loitation of
the su''lies of coal, oil and water5'ower. It has onl# been made 'ossible b# the
e*istence of $ast areas of $irgin land in 'arts of the earthFs surface on which the white
races can li$e and wor-. As alread# mentioned the wea- 'oint in this method of cro'
'roduction is that it is new and lac-s the bac-ing which onl# a long 'eriod of 'ractical
e*'erience can su''l#. !other arth is 'ro$ided with an abundant store of reser$e
fertilit# which can alwa#s be e*'loited for a time. $er# reall# successful s#stem of
agriculture howe$er must be based on the long $iew, otherwise the da# of rec-oning
is certain.
Side b# side with this method of utilizing the land there has been a great de$elo'ment
of science. fforts ha$e been made to enlist the hel' of a number of se'arate sciences
in stud#ing the 'roblems of agriculture and in increasing the 'roduction of the soil.
This has entailed the foundation of numerous e*'eriment stations, which e$er# #ear
'our out a large $olume of 'rinted results and ad$ice to the farmer. At first the
scientific wor-ers naturall# de$oted themsel$es to sol$ing local 'roblems and to
furnishing scientific e*'lanations of $arious agricultural 'ractices. This 'hase is now
'assing. A new note is beginning to a''ear in the 'ublications of the e*'eriment
stations, namel# that of direction and ad$ice which can onl# be ad$anced b# men
whose education and training combine the ideas of science with the aims of the
statesman. The feeling is not onl# growing but is being e*'ressed that it is no longer
the business of science merel# to sol$e the 'roblems of the moment. Something more
is needed. The chief function of science in the agriculture of the future is to 'ro$ide
intelligent direction in general 'olic# and to 'oint the wa#.
The Agricultural Systems of the Orient
Peasant Holdings
The chief feature of the agricultural s#stems of the east is the small size of the
holding. The relation between man5'ower and culti$ated area in India is gi$en in
Table I. In this table, based on the Census Report of /07/, the number of wor-ers and
the acreage culti$ated ha$e been calculated for the chief 'ro$inces of .ritish India.
Incidentall# these figures illustrate how intense is the struggle for e*istence in this
'ortion of the tro'ics.
Table I.
The elation bet!een "an-#o!er and
$ulti%ated Area in India
Provinces
Number of acres cultivated
by 100 ordinary cultivators
Bombay 1,215
North-West
Frontier Province
1,122
Punjab 1!
"entral Provinces !#!
Burma 5$5
%adras #1
Ben&al '12
Bihar and (rissa '0
)ssam 2$
*nited Provinces 251
These minute holdings are fre:uentl# culti$ated b# e*tensi$e methods 6those suitable
for large areas9 which neither utilize the full energies of man and beast nor the
'otential fertilit# of the soil. Such a s#stem of agriculture can onl# result in 'o$ert#.
The ob$ious line of ad$ance is the gradual introduction of more intensi$e methods,
for which the su''l# of suitable manure, within the means of the a$erage culti$ator, is
bound to 'ro$e an im'ortant factor.
If we turn to the 4ar ast, to China and Ga'an, a similar s#stem of small holdings is
accom'anied b# an e$en more intense 'ressure of 'o'ulation both human and bo$ine.
In the introduction to Farmers of Forty Centuries, 3ing states that the three main
islands of Ga'an had in /0@D a 'o'ulation of 8>,0DD,@@1, maintained on 7@,@@@ s:uare
miles of culti$ated fields. This is at the rate of 7,180 to the s:uare mile or more than
three 'eo'le to each acre. 6These figures agree $er# closel# with those :uoted in the
Japan Year Book of /01/ in which the number of 'ersons 'er s:uare -ilometre is
gi$en as 0>0; e:ui$alent to 7,811 to the s:uare mile.9 In addition Ga'an fed on each
s:uare mile of culti$ation a $er# large animal 'o'ulation 55 >0 horses and A> cattle,
nearl# all em'lo#ed in labour< E7A 'oultr#< /1 swine, goats and shee'. Although no
accurate statistics are a$ailable in China, the e*am'les :uoted b# 3ing re$eal a
condition of affairs not unli-e Ga'an. In the Shantung Pro$ince, a farmer with a famil#
of twel$e -e't one don-e#, one cow and two 'igs on 7.A acres of culti$ated land 55 a
densit# of 'o'ulation at the rate of 1,@D7 'eo'le, 7A> don-e#s, 7A> cattle and A/7 'igs
'er s:uare mile. The a$erage of se$en Chinese holdings $isited ga$e a maintenance
ca'acit# of /,DE1 'eo'le, 7/7 cattle or don-e#s and 100 'igs 55 nearl# 7,@@@
consumers and 8@@ rough food transformers 'er s:uare mile of farm land. In
com'arison with these remar-able figures, the corres'onding statistics for /0@@ in the
case of the United States 'er s:uare mile were; 'o'ulation >/, horses and mules 1@.
The 'roblems of tro'ical agriculture for the most 'art relate to small holdings. The
main 'ur'ose of this 'easant agriculture is cro' 'roduction< animal husbandr# is much
less im'ortant. In India the cro's grown fall into two classes 55 6/9 food and fodder
cro's and 679 mone# cro's. The former includes, in order of area; rice, millets, wheat,
'ulses and fodder cro's, barle# and maize and sugar5cane. The mone# cro's are more
$aried< cotton and oil seeds are the most im'ortant, followed b# &ute and other fibres,
tobacco, tea, o'ium, indigo and coffee. It will be seen that food and fodder cro's
com'rise E7 'er cent of the total area under cro's and that mone# cro's, as far as
e*tent is concerned, are relati$el# unim'ortant.
Table II.
Agricultural Statistics of &ritish India'
()*+-*,
)rea, in acres, under food and fodder cro+s
,ice -!,502,000
%illets '!,--$,000
Wheat 2#,1!1,000
.ram 1#,$$#,000
Pulses and other &ood &rains 2,15#,000
Fodder cro+s !,#0,000
"ondiments, s+ices, fruits,
ve&etables, and misc/ food
cro+s
-,5'-,000
Barley $,'!-,000
%ai0e 5,555,000
1u&ar ',0#1,000
2otal, food and fodder cro+s
21$,-'-,00
0
)rea, in acres, under money cro+s
"otton 15,$!-,000
(il seeds, chie3y ra+e and
mustard, sesamum,
&roundnuts and linseed
1#,,000
4ute and other 5bres #,#11,000
6yes, tannin& materials, dru&s,
narcotics and miscellaneous
cro+s
1,-2,000
2obacco 1,055,000
2ea -'!,000
(+ium 5,000
7ndi&o 10#,000
"o8ee 1,000
2otal, money cro+s '!,!-',000
The 'rimar# function of Indian agriculture is to su''l# the culti$ator and his cattle
with food. Com'ared with this dut# all other matters are subsidiar#. The houses are
built of mud, thatched with grass and are almost de$oid of furniture. *'enditure on
clothing and warmth is, on account of the customs of the countr# and the nature of the
climate, much smaller than in uro'ean countries. ,e$ertheless, the culti$ators
re:uire a little mone# with which to 'a# the land re$enue and to 'urchase a few
necessaries in the $illage mar-ets. Hence the growth of mone# cro's to the e*tent of
about one5fifth the total culti$ated area. 6See Table III below.9 The 'roduce, after
con$ersion into cash, is afterwards either wor-ed u' in the local mills or e*'orted. To
some e*tent food cro's are also mone# cro's. The 'o'ulation of the towns and cities
is largel# fed from the 'roduce of the soil, while in addition a small 'ercentage of the
total food grains 'roduced is e*'orted to foreign countries. In some cro's li-e sugar5
cane, the total out5turn is insufficient for the towns and large :uantities of sugar are
im'orted from Ga$a, !auritius and the continent of uro'e.
Table III.
-ield of the "ore Im#ortant $ro#s of
India' ()*+-*,
Food cro+s
,ice 2,$'$,000 tons
Wheat !,#1,000
%illets -,!0$,000
.ram ',-,000
Barley 2,550,000
1u&ar ',2'#,000
%ai0e 1,1,000
%oney cro+s
4ute
12,1'2,000 bales 9each
#00 lb/:
"otton #,$0,000 9each #00 lb/:
.roundnuts 2,0'5,000 tons/
,a+e and
mustard
!$,000 tons/
;inseed #0-,000 tons/
1esamum/ #11,000 tons/
"astor seed 12!,000 tons/
2ea '2,1-,!00 lb/
"o8ee '#,2!$,!0$ lb/
,ubber 2',002,-00 lb/
7ndi&o 1!,100 c<t/
When we come to the details of soil management, a further stri-ing difference
between the methods in $ogue in the west and on the 'easant holdings of the east is at
once manifest. In China, fertilit# has for centuries been maintained at a high le$el
without the im'ortation of artificial manures. Although it was not till /EEE, after a
'rotracted contro$ers# lasting thirt# #ears, that western science finall# acce'ted as
'ro$ed the im'ortant 'art 'la#ed b# 'ulse cro's in enriching the soil, ne$ertheless
centuries of e*'erience had taught the 'easants of the east the same lesson. The
leguminous cro' in the rotation is e$er#where one of their old fi*ed 'ractices.
!oreo$er, on the allu$ium of the Indo52angetic Plain, the dee', s'reading root5
s#stem of the 'igeon 'ea 6Cajanus indicus S'reng.9 is utilized b# the 'easantr# as an
efficient substitute for the 'eriodical subsoil 'loughing which these closel#5'ac-ed,
silt5li-e soils re:uire. In the case of the best culti$ators, the general soil management
and 'articularl# the conser$ation and utilization of combined nitrogen has alread#
reached a high le$el. This has been described, in the case of the United Pro$inces of
India, b# Clar-e in a recent 'a'er which has been re'roduced as A''endi* .. In
China and Ga'an not onl# the method of soil management but also the great attention
that is 'aid to the s#stematic 're'aration, outside the field, of food materials for the
cro' from all -inds of $egetable and animal wastes com'elled the admiration of one
of the most brilliant of the agricultural in$estigators of the last generation. The results
are set out b# 3ing in his unfinished wor- 55 Farmers of Forty Centuries 55 which
should be 'rescribed as a te*tboo- in e$er# agricultural school and college in the
world.
Another feature of this agriculture is the culti$ation of rice where$er the soil and
water5su''l# 'ermit. In the scientific consideration of the methods of soil
management under which the rice cro' of the )rient is 'roduced, 'ractical e*'erience
at first seems to contradict one of the great 'rinci'les of the agricultural science of the
)ccident, namel# the de'endence of cereals on nitrogenous manures. +arge cro's of
rice are 'roduced in man# 'arts of India on the same land #ear after #ear without the
addition of an# manure whate$er. The rice fields of the countr# e*'ort 'add# in large
:uantities to the centres of 'o'ulation or abroad, but there is no corres'onding im'ort
of combined nitrogen.
6Ta-ing .urma as an e*am'le of an area e*'orting rice be#ond seas, during the
twent# #ears ending /078, about 7A,@@@,@@@ tons of 'add# ha$e been e*'orted from a
tract roughl# /@,@@@,@@@ acres in area. As unhus-ed rice contains about /.7 'er cent of
nitrogen the amount of this element, shi''ed o$erseas during twent# #ears or
destro#ed in the burning of the hus-, is in the neighbourhood of 1@@,@@@ tons. As this
constant drain of nitrogen is not made u' for b# the im'ort of manure, we should
e*'ect to find a gradual loss of fertilit#. ,e$ertheless this does not ta-e 'lace either in
.urma or in .engal, where rice has been grown on the same land #ear after #ear for
centuries. ,earl# the soil must obtain fresh su''lies of nitrogen from somewhere,
otherwise the cro' would cease to grow. The onl# li-el# source is fi*ation from the
atmos'here, 'robabl# in the submerged algal film on the surface of the mud. This is
one of the 'roblems of tro'ical agriculture which calls for earl# in$estigation.9
Another im'ortant difference between the east and the west concerns the su''l# of
labour. In the )rient it is e$er#where ade:uate, as would naturall# follow from the
great densit# of the rural 'o'ulation. Indeed in India it is so abundant that if the time
wasted b# the culti$ators and their cattle for a single #ear could be calculated as
mone#, at the local rates of labour, a 'erfectl# colossal figure would be obtained. )ne
of the 'roblems underl#ing the de$elo'ment of agriculture in India is the disco$er# of
the best means of utilizing this constant drain, in the sha'e of wasted hours, for
increasing cro' 'roduction. There is therefore no lac- of human labour in de$elo'ing
the agriculture of the east. Another fa$ourable factor is the e*istence of e*cellent
breeds of wor-5cattle and of the buffalo. 6The buffalo is the milch cow of the )rient
and is ca'able not onl# of useful labour in the culti$ation of rice, but also of li$ing
and 'roducing large :uantities of rich mil- on a diet on which the best dair# cows of
uro'e and America would star$e. The digesti$e 'rocesses of the buffalo is a sub&ect
which a''ears to ha$e esca'ed the attention of the in$estigators of animal nutrition.9
The last characteristic of this ancient s#stem of agriculture is lac- of mone#. Again
there is a great contrast between the east and the west. There is little or no s'are
ca'ital for the im'ro$ement of the holding. )$er large tracts of India at an# rate, the
culti$ators are in the hands of the mone#lender and indebtedness is the rule. 4or man#
#ears one of the 're5occu'ations of 2o$ernment has been the disco$er# of safeguards
b# which the culti$ator can be sa$ed from the worst conse:uences of his own foll# 55
rec-less borrowing for un'roducti$e 'ur'oses 55 and maintained on the land. The
recent de$elo'ment of co5o'eration and the ra'id increase in the number of 'rimar#
credit societies has onl# been 'ossible because of this $olume of indebtedness.
Plantations
While small holdings, accom'anied b# a dense 'o'ulation, are an im'ortant feature of
eastern agriculture, ne$ertheless there are e*ce'tions. Throughout this 'ortion of the
tro'ics uro'ean enter'rise has remo$ed the original forest and established in its
'lace e*tensi$e 'lantations of such cro's as sugar5cane, tea, rubber and coffee. The
labour for these estates is obtained from indigenous sources< the ca'ital and
management are contributed b# uro'eans. Plantations of this -ind are common all
o$er the east and are an im'ortant feature of the agriculture of Ga$a, Ce#lon, the
4ederated !ala# States, Assam and the u'lands of Southern India. )ne of the features
of this agriculture is the attention 'aid to manurial 'roblems. Com'arati$el# large
sums of mone# are e*'ended e$er# #ear in the 'urchase of artificial manures, mainl#
for -ee'ing u' the su''l# of combined nitrogen. "uring a tour in Ce#lon in /0@E,
when $isits were 'aid b# the senior author to a number of tea estates, the managers
in$ariabl# 'roduced their manurial 'rogramme on which suggestions were alwa#s
in$ited. Ce#lon at that time offered a tragic e*am'le of the damage which results from
uncontrolled tro'ical rainfall on slo'ing land, from which the forest cano'# had been
remo$ed without 'ro$iding a 'ro'er s#stem of terracing combined with surface5
drainage. )$er large areas of hill# countr#, formerl# forest and now e*clusi$el# under
tea, 'racticall# the whole of the $aluable surface soil rich in humus had been lost b#
denudation. The tea 'lant was 'roducing cro's from the relati$el# 'oor subsoil,
su''lemented b# the constant a''lication of e*'ensi$e manures.
In a recent re$iew of this :uestion in Crop Production in India 'ublished in /078, the
damage which has resulted from erosion on the 'lantations of the )rient was referred
to 6''. /85A9 as follows;
HIt is in the 'lanting areas of the east, howe$er, that the most stri-ing e*am'les
of soil denudation are to be found. Instances of damage to the natural ca'ital
of the countr# are to be seen on the tea estates near "ar&eeling, on the hill5
sides in Si--im on the u''er terraces in the $ale of 3ashmir, in the 3umaon
Hilis, on the tea estates in Ce#lon and Assam, and in the 'lanting districts of
Southern India and the 4ederated !ala# States. In most of these areas forest
land was so abundant that the need for the 'reser$ation of the soil was not at
first recognized. Than-s to the efforts of Ho'e, a former scientific officer
em'lo#ed b# the tea industr# in Assam the control of the drainage and the
chec-ing of erosion are now widel# recognized and are being dealt with b# the
'lanters in man# 'arts of India. A great im'etus to this wor- was gi$en b# the
'ublication in India of a detailed account of the methods in use b# the "utch
'lanters in Ga$a, where the terracing and drainage of slo'ing land, under tea
and other cro's has been carried to a high stage of 'erfection. In this island the
area of land a$ailable for 'lanting is strictl# limited, while the feeding of the
large indigenous 'o'ulation is alwa#s a serious 'roblem. As a conse:uence the
de$elo'ment of the island is $er# strictl# controlled b# the 2o$ernment, and
one of the conditions of 'lanting new forest lands is the 'ro$ision of a suitable
s#stem of terraces combined with surface5drainage. The ad$antage is not all
on the side of the State. The manuring of tea soils in Ga$a is far less necessar#
than in Ce#lon and India, while one im'ortant conse:uence of the retention of
the $aluable soil made b# the forest is health# growth, which suffers
remar-abl# little damage from insect and fungoid 'ests.H
Unde%elo#ed Areas
=er# large stretches of the )rient are still under forest and at 'resent carr# a $er#
small 'o'ulation, su''orted b# hunting, fishing and b# the small culti$ated areas
surrounding the $illages. These unde$elo'ed forest areas occur e$er#where,
'articularl# in the !ala# Archi'elago, the 4ederated !ala# States, .urma and the low
countr# of Ce#lon. In the search for the ideal method of manuring in the tro'ics, the
greatest care will ha$e to be ta-en to 'reser$e the $aluable surface soil whene$er the
forest cano'# has to be remo$ed for the creation of new culti$ated land. Some at an#
rate of these 'otentiall# rich tracts are almost certain to be ta-en u' during the 'resent
centur#. The# will therefore 'ro$ide am'le o''ortunities of a''l#ing an# lessons in
soil management, which science can e*tract from e*'eriment and from e*'erience.
The serious mista-es of the 'ast must not be re'eated when the time comes for
de$elo'ing the $ast areas of tro'ical forest still untouched.
It will be e$ident that the s#stems of agriculture of the west and of the east are $er#
different and that the two ha$e little or nothing in common. In a sense these two
methods of managing land remind one of the two sides of a coin. The one
su''lements the other; each can be regarded as a 'art of one great whole. Clearl#
when attem'ting to e$ol$e the ideal s#stem of manuring and soil management of the
future, both of these widel# different methods of agriculture must be studied. This has
been done b# the senior author for the last twent#5si* #ears in $arious 'arts of India 55
on the allu$ium of the Indo52angetic 'lain at Pusa in .ihar, on the loess soils of the
Iuetta =alle# on the Western 4rontier and on the blac- cotton soils of 'eninsular India
at Indore. The chief climatic factors at Indore are re'resented in Plate II. The climate
of Iuetta resembles generall# that of Persia, where the rainfall is recei$ed mainl#
during the winter months, often in the form of snow. At these three centres a method
of utilizing all the $egetable and animal wastes of the holding has graduall# been
e$ol$ed. The latest scientific wor- of the )ccident and 'articularl# that recentl#
accom'lished at the e*'eriment station of ,ew Gerse#, together with the 'ractices in
$ogue in India and the 4ar ast, ha$e been welded together and s#nthesized into a
s#stem for the continuous manufacture of manure throughout the #ear so that it forms
an integral 'art of the industr# of agriculture.
Plate I. Rainfall, temperature,
humidity and drainage, Pusa,
1922.
Full-size image
Plate II. Rainfall, ground-water level, temperature and
humidity, Indore, entral India, 192!.
Full-size image
6In considering all this information 55 the $arious agricultural s#stems in use at the
'resent time, as well as the large $olume of scientific 'a'ers dealing with manurial
:uestions, which ha$e been 'oured out b# the e*'eriment stations during the last fift#
#ears, we ha$e been im'ressed b# the e$ils inse'arable from the 'resent
fragmentation of an# large agricultural 'roblem and its attac- b# wa# of the se'arate
science. All this seems to follow from the e*cessi$e s'ecialization which is now
ta-ing 'lace, both in the teaching and in the a''lication of science. In the training
gi$en to the students and in much of the 'ublished wor-, the tendenc# of -nowing
more and more about less and less is e$er# #ear becoming more mar-ed. 4or this
reason an# re$iew of the 'roblem of increasing soil fertilit# is rendered 'eculiarl#
difficult, not onl# b# the $ast mass of 'ublished 'a'ers but also b# their fragmentar#
and 'iecemeal nature.9
,o e*tra labour is re:uired in our manure factor#. ,o im'orted chemicals such as
Adco are needed in this 'rocess. ,o ca'ital is re:uired at an# stage of the
manufacture. The methods now in use at Indore form the main sub&ect of this boo-,
which also attem'ts to deal with a number of related matters such as 55 the role of
organic matter in the soil, the methods of re'lenishing the su''l# of organic matter
now in use and the recent in$estigations which ha$e been carried out on the
conditions necessar# for con$erting raw organic residues into humus which can be
immediatel# nitrified in the soil and so made use of b# the 'lant. The Indore 'rocess
can easil# be carried out, not onl# in the tro'ics but also on the small holdings of the
tem'erate regions and on the allotments 6'ro$ided s'ace is made a$ailable9 in the
neighbourhood of urban areas, where it is now the 'ractice to burn most of the
$egetable waste. How ra'idl# the s#stem can be introduced into the farming s#stems
of the )ccident is a :uestion to which no answer can be gi$en until the ideas in this
boo- ha$e been full# tried out in western agriculture. It is not im'ossible that the#
ma# founder for a time on the 'resent high cost of labour. The method howe$er is in
full accord with the well5mar-ed tendenc# in western agriculture towards a more
intensi$e 'roduction. The ine$itable change o$er from e*tensi$e to intensi$e methods
has alread# begun. 4or 'roduction to be more economical, the acre #ield must be
increased. Alread# in the United States the suggestion has been made that the line of
ad$ance in cro' 'roduction lies in restricting the area culti$ated. A 'ortion of the
im'o$erished 'rairie lands should go bac- to grass. The cro's needed should be raised
from a smaller area. These ideas will become 'racticable the moment the farmer
learns how to utilize the waste 'roducts of his fields in increasing the fertilit# of the
soil. This is the greatest need of agriculture at the 'resent da#.
Chapter 2
Oranic !atter and "oil #ertility
The ancients and the moderns are in the com'letest agreement as to the im'ortance of
organic matter in maintaining the fertilit# of the soil. This is e$ident when the
methods of cro' 'roduction in the time of the %omans are com'ared with the $iews
now held b# man# of the leading e*'eriment station wor-ers in the United States and
other 'arts of the world. In %oman times, the management of the manure hea' had
alread# reached an ad$anced stage. In 8@ ..C. =arro drew attention to the great
im'ortance of the com'lete deca# of manure before it was a''lied to the land. To
bring this about, the manure hea', during the 'eriod of storage, had to be -e't moist.
In A.". 0@ Columella em'hasized the im'ortance of constructing the 'its 6in which
farm#ard manure was stored9 in such a manner that dr#ing out was im'ossible. He
mentions the need of turning this material in summer to facilitate deca#, and
suggested that ri'ened manure should alwa#s be used for corn, while the fresh
material could be a''lied with safet# to grass land. The %omans therefore not onl#
understood the im'ortance of organic matter in cro' 'roduction but had gone a long
wa# towards mastering the 'rinci'le that, to obtain the best results, it is necessar# to
arrange for the deca# of farm#ard manure before it is a''lied to arable land. It is
interesting to turn from the writings of the ancients to the account of the s#m'osium
on FSoil )rganic !atter and 2reen5manuringF arranged b# the American Societ# of
Agronom# at Washington ".C. on 77 ,o$ember /07E, the main results of which
a''eared in the Journal of the American Society of Aronomy of )ctober /070.
Without e*ce'tion, the in$estigators who too- 'art in this conference laid the greatest
em'hasis on the im'ortance of -ee'ing u' the su''l# of organic matter in the soil, and
on disco$ering the most effecti$e and the most economical method of doing this
under the $arious conditions, as regards moisture, which the soils of the United States
'resent.
"uring the 7,@@@ #ears which ha$e ela'sed since =arro wrote in 8@ ..C. and the
American in$estigators met in /07E, there has occurred onl# one brief 'eriod during
which the role of organic matter was to some e*tent forgotten. This too- 'lace after
+iebigFs Chemistry in its Application to Ariculture and Physioloy first a''eared in
/E8@. +iebig em'hasized the fact that 'lants deri$e their carbon from the carbon
dio*ide of the atmos'here and ad$anced the $iew that, in order that a soil ma# remain
fertile, all that is necessar# is to return to it, in the form of manure, the mineral
constituents and the nitrogen that ha$e been ta-en awa# in the cro'. The disco$er# of
the true origin of the carbon of 'lants not unnaturall# suggested that the organic
matter in the soil was of little conse:uence. ,itrogen and minerals onl# remained, the
latter being found in the 'lant ashes. When therefore anal#ses of the cro's had been
made, it would be 'ossible to draw u' tables showing the farmer what he must add in
the wa# of nitrogen and minerals in an# 'articular case. These $iews and the
contro$ersies to which the# ga$e rise, combined with the results of the %othamsted
e*'eriments 6started b# +awes and 2ilbert in /E819 led to the ado'tion of artificial
manures b# man# of the farmers of uro'e. The %othamsted e*'eriments
undoubtedl# 'ro$ed that if the 'ro'er :uantities of combined nitrogen, 'hos'hates and
'otash are added to the soil, satisfactor# cro's for man# #ears can be obtained without
the addition of organic matter be#ond that afforded b# the roots of the cro's grown.
4urther, the results of hundreds of trials, in the course of ordinar# farming 'ractice,
confirmed the fact that the &udicious addition of nitrogenous artificial fertilizers can,
in the great ma&orit# of cases, be relied on to increase the #ield. It was onl# natural
that results of this -ind, combined with the im'ortant fact that the a''lication of
artificials often 'a#s in 'ractice, 'roduced a mar-ed effect on current o'inion and also
on teaching. 4or nearl# a centur# after +iebigFs ideas first a''eared, the ma&orit# of
agricultural chemists held that all that mattered in obtaining ma*imum #ields was the
addition of so man# 'ounds of nitrogen, 'hos'horus and 'otassium to the acre.
.e#ond this the onl# other factor of im'ortance was the liming of acid soils. The great
de$elo'ment of the artificial manure industr# followed as a matter of course.
The 'lace of organic matter in the soil econom# was forgotten. The old methods of
maintaining soil fertilit# naturall# fell into the bac-ground.
4or a time all seemed to go well. It is onl# in com'arati$el# recent #ears that
e*'eriment station wor-ers ha$e begun to understand the 'art 'la#ed in cro'
'roduction b# the micro5organisms of the soil and to realize that the su''l# of
artificials is not the whole stor#. Something more is needed. The need for the
maintenance of the su''l# of organic matter soon became a''arent. The $iew now
beginning to be held is that, onl# after the su''l# of organic matter has been
ade:uatel# 'ro$ided for, will the full benefit of artificials be realized. There a''ears to
be a great field for future e*'eriment in the &udicious use of artificials to land alread#
in a fair state of fertilit#.
In all this howe$er there was one im'ortant e*ce'tion. In the )rient, the artificial
manure 'hase had 'racticall# no influence on indigenous 'ractice and 'assed
unheeded. The +iebig tradition failed to influence the farmers of fort# centuries. ,o
demand for these 'roducts of the west e*ists in China. At the 'resent da# it would be
difficult to 'urchase such a substance as sul'hate of ammonia in the bazaars of rural
India.
Soil Humus' its Origin and .ature
What is the origin and nature of the organic matter or soil FhumusF and what 'art does
it 'la# in soil fertilit#J These matters form the sub&ect of the 'resent cha'ter.
In the 'resentation which follows, the fullest use has been made of 6/9 one of the
'a'ers of Wa-sman 6Pa'er ,o. 7D> of the Gournal Series, ,ew Gerse# Agricultural
*'eriment Station, "e'artment of Soil Chemistr# and .acteriolog#, afterwards
'ublished in Soil Science, 77, /07>, '. /719 and 679 of the s#m'osium on soil organic
matter and green5manuring which a''eared in the issue of the Journal of the
American Society of Aronomy of )ctober /070. These im'ortant contributions to the
sub&ect ha$e made it eas# briefl# to s-etch the necessar# scientific bac-ground for the
'resentation of the Indore 'rocess.
The organic matter found in the soil consists of two $er# different classes of material;
6/9 the constituents of 'lants and animals which ha$e been introduced into the soil and
are undergoing decom'osition< $arious unstable intermediate 'roducts which ha$e
been formed under certain en$ironmental conditions< substances li-e lignified
cellulose which are more resistant to decom'osition and which ma# 'ersist in the soil
for some time< and 679 number of $aluable materials which ha$e been synthesi!ed b#
the numerous grou's of micro5organisms which form the soil 'o'ulation. The soil
organic matter is thus a heterogeneous mass of substances which is constantl#
undergoing changes in com'osition. When its com'osition reaches a certain stage of
e:uilibrium, it becomes more or less homogeneous and is then incor'orated into the
soil as FhumusF. This definition of soil organic matter, which is due to Wa-sman, is of
great im'ortance. Soil organic matter or FhumusF is not merel# the residue left when
$egetable and animal residues deca#. It contains in addition the $aluable materials
s#nthesized and left behind b# the fungi and bacteria of the soil 'o'ulation. !oreo$er
it is a 'roduct of the general soil conditions which obtain in an# 'articular localit#,
and therefore $aries in com'osition and character from one soil t#'e to another. It is
not the same all o$er the world. The soil humus for e*am'le of the blac- cotton soils
of India is not identical with that of the allu$ium of the Indo52angetic 'lain.
The $arious ste's in the formation of soil organic matter are somewhat as follows.
When the fresh remains of 'lants or animals are added to the soil, a 'ortion of this
organic matter is at once attac-ed b# a large number of the micro5organisms 'resent.
%a'id and intense decom'osition ensues. The nature of these organisms de'ends on
the soil conditions 6mechanical and chemical com'osition and 'h#sical condition9 and
on the soil en$ironment 6moisture content, reaction and aeration, and the 'resence of
a$ailable minerals9. The decom'osition 'rocesses can best be followed b# measuring
one of the end5'roducts of the reaction 55 carbon dio*ide. The rate of e$olution of this
gas de'ends on the nature of the organic matter, on the organisms which ta-e 'art in
the 'rocess and on the soil en$ironmental conditions. As soon as the readil#
decom'osable constituents of the 'lant and animal remains 6sugars, starches, 'ectins,
celluloses, 'roteins, amino5acids9 ha$e disa''eared, the s'eed of decom'osition
diminishes and a condition of e:uilibrium tends to become established. At this stage
onl# those constituents of the original organic matter, such as the lignins which are
acted u'on slowl#, are left. These and the substances s#nthesized b# the micro5
organisms together form the soil humus and then undergo onl# a slow transformation
during which a moderate but constant stream of carbon dio*ide is liberated. At the
same time the nitrogen of this soil humus is similarl# con$erted into ammonia which,
under fa$ourable conditions, is then transformed into nitrate. It will be clear therefore
that the soil organic matter or humus is a manufactured 'roduct and that its
com'osition is not e$er#where the same, but will $ar# with the soil conditions under
which it is 'roduced. +i-e all manufactured articles, it must be 'ro'erl# made if it is
to be reall# effecti$e. Too much attention therefore cannot be 'aid to its 're'aration.
After the 'roduction of humus and its incor'oration into the soil mass, the ne*t ste' is
its utilization b# the cro'. This can onl# ta-e 'lace when this organic matter is
decom'osed b# the micro5organisms of the soil. This 'rocess is $er# slow, as can be
seen b# 'lacing a :uantit# of soil under fa$ourable en$ironmental conditions and
measuring the rate of decom'osition, either b# the e$olution of carbon dio*ide or b#
the accumulation of ammonia and nitrate nitrogen. Since the ratio between the carbon
and nitrogen content of the humus in normal culti$ated soils is more or less constant,
a''roaching /@;/, the e$olution of carbon dio*ide will be accom'anied b# the
liberation of a$ailable nitrogen. This o*idation of the carbon and of the nitrogen is
com'arati$el# $er# slow, as onl# slow5growing grou's of microorganisms are ca'able
of attac-ing it. These organisms are aerobic and moreo$er can onl# wor- effecti$el#
when the general soil reaction is fa$ourable. Their acti$ities are therefore hastened in
non5acid 'eat soils b# draining, in acid 'eat soils b# draining and liming, and in acid
soils b# liming.
It will be clear that the utilization of $egetable and animal wastes in cro' 'roduction
in$ol$es two definite ste's; 6/9 the formation of humus and its incor'oration into the
soil and 679 the slow o*idation of this 'roduct accom'anied b# the 'roduction of
a$ailable nitrogen. .oth of these stages are brought about b# micro5organisms for
which suitable en$ironmental conditions are essential. The re:uirements of the first
'hase 55 the 're'aration of humus and its incor'oration into the soil mass 55 are so
intense that if the 'rocess ta-es 'lace in the soil itself, it is certain to interfere with the
de$elo'ment of the cro'. The needs of the second 'hase 55 the utilization of humus 55
are much less intense and can 'roceed in the soil without harm to the growing 'lant.
4rom the 'oint of $iew of cro' 'roduction therefore, it will be a distinct ad$antage to
se'arate these two stages and to 're'are the humus outside the field. In this matter the
Chinese ha$e antici'ated the teachings of western science. The culti$ators of the
)rient were the first to gras' and act u'on the master idea that the growth of a cro'
in$ol$es two se'arate 'rocesses, the 're'aration of food5materials from $egetable and
animal wastes which must be done outside the field, and the actual growing of the
cro'. )nl# in this wa# can the soil be 'rotected from o$erwor-.
The /ormation of Humus as a esult of the Synthesizing Acti%ities
of "icro-organisms
Although the im'ortant 'art 'la#ed b# microorganisms in the formation of soil humus
has onl# $er# recentl# been full# understood, ne$ertheless the older literature contains
a number of useful contributions to the sub&ect. !ost of these earl# 'a'ers a''eared
towards the end of the last centur#< man# of them related to other branches of
-nowledge and were not written from the 'oint of $iew of agriculture. The# ha$e
been summed u' b# Wa-sman, from whose 'a'er the following account has been
're'ared. Post5%amann and !uller considered that the FhumusF bodies obtained from
soil often consist of the chitinous remains of insects and animal e*crete. Wettstein and
Winterstein showed that chitin is characteristic of $arious fungi and not of bacteria.
Schmoo- ad$anced the $iew that the 'rotein nitrogen in the soil was mostl# 'resent in
the bodies of bacteria and 'rotozoa. Trusso$ showed that the 'roto'lasm of fungi is a
source of humus in the soil. Schreiner and Store# suggested that $arious characteristic
constituents of the soil are 'robabl# s#nthesized b# micro5organisms.
The earlier wor- on this sub&ect has been considerabl# de$elo'ed, first b# 4alc- and
more recentl# b# Wa-sman. 4alc- showed that organic matter in forest soils can be
transformed into different t#'es of humus in at least three wa#s; 6/9 The #earl#
additions of raw organic matter are com'letel# decom'osed b# fungi 6microcriny9
accom'anied b# the s#nthesis of fungus 'roto'lasm, which ser$es as an e*cellent
fertilizer for the forest trees. In this 'rocess the celluloses are decom'osed com'letel#,
whereas the lignins are more resistant. 679 The decom'osition of the organic matter is
begun b# fungi and then carried on b# lower in$ertebrates and bacteria 6anthracriny9.
The fungus m#celium as well as the original organic matter are de$oured b# $arious
lar$ae 'roducing a dar- FhumusF mass which, in the 'resence of bases, is o*idized b#
bacteria with the ultimate liberation of carbon dio*ide and the formation of nitrate. 619
The formation of 'eat 6anthroeny9, which 4alc- e*'lains as resulting from the
absence of an abundant fungus de$elo'ment. Wa-sman carried the sub&ect still further
and called attention to the similarit# between the carbon5nitrogen ratio of the soil
organic matter and that of the 'roto'lasm of the soil fungi and other micro5organisms,
and suggested that these 'robabl# ma-e u' a large 'art of the soil FhumusF. He further
'ointed out that when cellulose is added to the soil, it decom'oses onl# in 'ro'ortion
to the a$ailable combined nitrogen 'resent. This is because the decom'osition is
brought about b# fungi and bacteria, both of which re:uire combined nitrogen. The
ratio between the amount of cellulose decom'osed and the nitrogen re:uired is about
1@;/, so that, for e$er# thirt# 'arts of cellulose decom'osed b# the fungi and bacteria,
one 'art of inorganic nitrogen 6ammonium salt or nitrate9 will be built u' into
microbial 'roto'lasm. In the 'resence of sufficient combined nitrogen and under
aerobic conditions, the decom'osition of cellulose is $er# ra'id. The same is true of
$egetable wastes li-e straw, maize stal-s, wood 'roducts and other materials rich in
celluloses, 'entosans and lower carboh#drates but 'oor in nitrogen. These facts
e*'lain the in&urious effects on cro' growth which follow the addition of straw and
green5manure to the soil. The decom'osition of these materials remo$es large
:uantities of combined nitrogen from the soil solution. This nitrogen is then
tem'oraril# stored in the form of microbial 'roto'lasm, when for a time it is 'laced
be#ond the reach of the growing cro'.
Since Wa-smanFs 'a'er a''eared in /07>, an im'ortant contribution to this sub&ect
has recentl# been made b# Philli's, Weite and Smith. The results of these
in$estigators 6which agree with our e*'erience at Indore9 has remo$ed the im'ression
that lignin is com'arati$el# resistant to the action of micro5organisms. Under suitable
conditions, soil organisms are ca'able of decom'osing lignin as found in lignified
'lant materials 6cornstal-s, oat hulls, corn cobs and wheat straw9, the rate of
decom'osition being as great as that of cellulose and 'entosans.
The ole of Humus in the Soil
4rom the immediatel# 'ractical 'oint of $iew, the actual role of humus in the soil is of
e$en greater interest than its formation, nature and decom'osition. This material
influences soil fertilit# in the following wa#s;
1/ 2he +hysical +ro+erties of humus e=ert a favourable in3uence on
the tilth, moisture-retainin& ca+acity and tem+erature of the soil as
<ell as on the nature of the soil solution/
2/ 2he chemical +ro+erties of humus enable it to combine <ith the soil
bases, and to interact <ith various salts/ 7t thereby in3uences the
&eneral soil reaction, either actin& directly as a <ea> or&anic acid or
by combinin& <ith bases liberatin& the more hi&hly dissociatin&
or&anic acids/
'/ 2he biolo&ical +ro+erties of humus o8er not only a habitat but also a
source of ener&y, nitro&en and minerals for various micro-
or&anisms/
These 'ro'erties 55 'h#sical, chemical and biological 55 confer u'on humus a 'lace
a'art in the general wor- of the soil including cro' 'roduction. It is not too much to
sa# that this material 'ro$ides the $er# basis of successful soil management and of
agricultural 'ractice.
The Washington Sym#osium on Soil Organic "atter
)nce the origin and nature of the soil organic matter is understood and the im'ortance
of this material in soil fertilit# is a''reciated, the ne*t ste' is to consider how best to
ma-e use of this information and to weld it into farming 'ractice. With this ob&ect in
$iew a s#m'osium on soil organic matter and green5manuring was arranged at
Washington ".C. on 77 ,o$ember /07E, when the following 'a'ers were read and
discussed;
1/ ?2he ,elation of 1oil 2y+e to (r&anic %atter/? "/ F/ %arbut/
2/ ?(r&anic %atter Problems in @umid 1oils/? 2/ ;yttleton ;yon/
'/ ?(r&anic %atter Problems *nder 6ry-Farmin& "onditions/? 4/ "/
,ussell
#/ ?(r&anic %atter Problems in 7rri&ated 1oils/? P/ 1/ Bur&es
5/ ?"hemical and %icrobiolo&ical Princi+les *nderlyin& the *se of
.reen-%anures/? 1/ )/ Wa>sman 9by title only:/
$/ ?7n3uence of (r&anic %anures on the "hemical and Biolo&ical
Pro+erties of )rid 1oils/? 4/ A/ .reaves/
-/ ?.reen-%anurin& and 7ts )++lication to )&ricultural Practices/? )/ 4/
Pieters and ,oland %cBee/
In dealing with the :uestion of organic matter in humid soils, +#on first 'resented a
critical sur$e# of the literature dealing with the losses of nitrogen in soils and
concluded that;
1/ 2he loss of &aseous nitro&en may, under some conditions, cause a
&reater removal of nitro&en from a soil than occurs throu&h
absor+tion by cro+ +lants/
2/ 2he conditions <hich favour a lar&e loss of this >ind areC 9a: tilla&e
or stirrin& the soil in any <ay, 9b: absence of +lant &ro<th, 9c: hi&h
nitro&en content of a soil, 9d: a++lication of lar&e Duantities of
nitro&enous manures, and 9e: +ossibly the a++lication of lime to
some soils/
'/ 2he loss of &aseous nitro&en does not ta>e into account the amount
5=ed by soil or&anisms and therefore the calculated losses are less
than actually occurred/
These losses of gaseous nitrogen from the soil ma# arise in fi$e 'ossible wa#s;
1/ 2here may be an esca+e of +art of the ammonia durin& the +rocess
of ammoni5cation/
2/ 2here may be a reduction of nitrates to form nitro&en as a result of
alternatin& o=idation and reduction/
'/ 2here may be a loss of &aseous nitro&en in the o=idation of
ammonia to nitrous acid since nitro&en is +ossibly an intermediate
+roduct in this +rocess/
#/ ) loss of nitro&en may result from the interaction of nitrous acid
<ith the N@2 &rou+ of the amino-acids/
5/ ) loss of &aseous nitro&en may occur as a result of the
decom+osition of ammonium nitrite in the +rocess of nitri5cation/
In conne*ion with these losses of nitrogen it was 'ointed out in the discussion that the
following two facts must be considered; 6/9 The ratio of carbon to nitrogen in the soils
of the humid regions tends to maintain itself in the region of /@;/. If the organic
residues left in the soil or a''lied to it afterwards ha$e a higher carbon5nitrogen ratio
than /@;/, an ad&ustment is soon effected, the e*tra carbon disa''earing into the
atmos'here as carbon dio*ide. If the carbon5nitrogen ratio is less than /@;/, there is
li-el# to be a loss of nitrogen before the ratio is ad&usted. 679 The nitrogen content of
an# gi$en soil tends to come to an e:uilibrium at a 'oint which de'ends u'on the
nature of the soil, the effecti$e climate and the cro''ing s#stem. When therefore the
nitrogen su''l# is increased in an# wa#, the e*cess is soon dissi'ated when the soil
comes under culti$ation.
The information 'laced before the meeting b# %ussel 6,ebras-a9 on the role of
organic matter under dr#5farming conditions was most instructi$e, and throws a flood
of light on the conse:uences which are certain to follow the continuous cro''ing of
$irgin land without manure. A ra'id and continuous fall in the total organic matter
content, accom'anied b# loss of nitrogen, occurs together with a corres'onding
falling off in cro''ing 'ower. Side b# side, the water5holding ca'acit# of these soils
decreases, while the structure and tilth e*hibit mar-ed degeneration. All this has
naturall# led to attem'ts being made to restore the original content of organic matter.
The results obtained, howe$er, ha$e been most disa''ointing, for the reason that most
of these efforts ha$e been directed towards the direct incor'oration of green5manures
and raw organic matter li-e straw into the soil under conditions of low rainfall. In
man# cases more harm than good has resulted. %ussel concludes that the 'roblem of
the restoration of organic matter under dr#5land conditions is e*tremel# com'licated
and difficult and leans to the $iew that the solution of the 'roblem might after all be
found in the direction of nitrogenous fertilizers. *'erience at Indore, howe$er,
suggests that all these difficulties could at once be a$oided if the a$ailable su''lies of
green5manure, straw and other raw organic matter could first be com'osted outside
the field before being a''lied to the land. The American farmers are ob$iousl# tr#ing
to o$erwor- the soil and !other arth naturall# ob&ects.
The a''lication of organic matter to the soil is followed b# a number of im'ortant
indirect results. These were dealt with b# 2rea$es in a most interesting
communication, in which the results obtained o$er a number of #ears on two different
t#'es of Utah soils were discussed. The first 6,e'hi9 was t#'ical dr#5farm soil, the
second was under irrigation 62reen$ille9. In both the results were similar. The
a''lication of organic matter increased the ammonif#ing, nitrif#ing and nitrogen
fi*ing 'rocesses of the soil. The gains in nitrogen, due to non5s#mbiotic nitrogen
fi*ers, occurring under greenhouse conditions, $aried from @ to 1@8 lb. 'er acre foot
of soil. The greatest gains occurred when legumes were used in the manure. The gain
occurring in the soil under field conditions, and attributed to non5s#mbiotic nitrogen
fi*ation, was 88 lb. 'er acre annuall#. A''ro*imatel# 1,@@@ lb. of a''lied organic
material were decom'osed e$er# #ear.
The last 'a'er of the s#m'osium dealt with the 'ractice of green5manuring throughout
the United States, with the $arious cro's which are turned under, and with the great
need for further e*act e*'erimentation on this :uestion. Pieters and !c3ee state; FIn
re$iewing the e*'erimental wor- that has been done with green5manures in the United
States and the 'ractices that are now followed it is e$ident that much wor- remains to
be done before man# :uestions can be settled or answered. Some of these fall clearl#
in the field of chemistr#, others in 'h#siolog#, and still others in bacteriolog# or other
s'ecialized fields of biolog#. Some, howe$er, are strictl# agronomic 'roblems or so
directl# in$ol$ed with cro' 'roduction that their solution can 'erha's best be
underta-en b# the agronomist or carried on with his acti$e co5o'eration. It ta-es but a
hast# sur$e# to indicate the wide sco'e this wor- must co$er in order to answer the
s'ecific :uestions for the man# soil t#'es, $arious climatic conditions, and for each of
the large number of agronomic and horticultural cro's in$ol$ed.F In no case is there
an# reference in this 'a'er to the growing of green5manures for the e*'ress 'ur'ose of
'ro$iding material for com'osting, 'ossibl# because the need for this material has not
#et been full# realized and because of the labour in$ol$ed. 2reen5manuring in the
United States, as in India and other 'arts of the world, is still in the em'irical stage.
2reen cro's are grown merel# to 'ro$ide a su''l# of organic matter for turning into
the soil. What ha''ens afterwards is a matter of chance. If the results are fa$ourable,
so much the better< if an#thing untoward occurs, one must ho'e for better things ne*t
time. That such an uncertain 'ractice 'ersists at all in the United States and that it
a''ears to be s'reading can onl# be e*'lained b# the great need of these de'leted
soils for fresh su''lies of organic matter.
Chapter $
%he "ources of Oranic !atter
A number of sources of soil organic matter e*ist, namel#; 6/9 the roots of cro's left
behind at har$est, including the weeds turned under in the course of culti$ation< 679
the algae met with in large :uantities in rice fields, on the surface of the soils of
tro'ical countries during the rain# season and to some e*tent in all soils< 619 green5
manure< 689 farm#ard manure< 6A9 artificial farm#ard manure. In addition to these
su''lies, certain b#5'roducts of industries, such as oil5ca-es and wool5waste, are also
em'lo#ed as sources of organic matter. These, howe$er, are small in total amount and
need not be considered. *ce't in China and Ga'an and to a limited e*tent in India,
little or no use is made of night soil in cro' 'roduction.
The oot-Systems of $ro#s
It is not alwa#s realized that about half of e$er# cro' 55 the root5s#stem 55 remains in
the ground at har$est time and thus 'ro$ides automaticall# a continuous return of
organic matter to the soil. The weeds and their roots turned in during the ordinar#
course of culti$ation add to this su''l#. When these residues, su''lemented b# the
fi*ation of nitrogen from the atmos'here, are accom'anied b# s-ilful soil
management, cro' 'roduction can be maintained at a moderate le$el without the
addition of an# manure whatsoe$er. A good e*am'le of such a s#stem of farming
without manure is to be found on the allu$ial soils of the United Pro$inces, where the
field records of ten centuries 'ro$e that the land 'roduces fair cro's #ear after #ear
without an# falling off in fertilit#. A 'erfect balance has been reached between the
manurial re:uirements of the cro's har$ested and the natural 'rocesses which
recu'erate fertilit#. A similar, although not so stri-ing a result, is afforded b# the
'ermanent wheat 'lot at %othamsted, where this cro' has been grown e$er# #ear on
the same land without manure since /E88. This 'lot, which has been without manure
of an# -ind since /E10, showed a slow decline in 'roduction for the first eighteen
#ears after which the #ield has been 'racticall# constant. S#stems of soil management
such as these 'ro$ide, as it were, the base line for the would5be im'ro$er. ,othing
e*ists in the worldFs agriculture below this le$el. At the worst, therefore, the organic
matter of a soil, constantl# cro''ed without manure, does not disa''ear altogether.
The wheel of life slows down. It does not sto'.
Soil Algae
)ne source of readil# decom'osable organic matter, which is a$ailable in India &ust at
the moment when the cold season cro's need it, is to be found in the sha'e of a thic-
algal film on the surface of culti$ated soils during the second half of the rains. This
film has also been obser$ed in Africa, Ce#lon and Ga$a, and is 'robabl# uni$ersal
during the rain# season in all 'arts of the tro'ics. As is well -nown, there are two
'eriods in India when the cro' is in greatest need of combined nitrogen; 6/9 at the
brea- of the monsoon in Gune and Gul#, and 679 when the cold season cro's are sown
in )ctober after the rains. These latter are 'lanted at a time when the a$ailable
nitrogen in the surface soil is li-el# to be in great defect. The land has been e*'osed to
hea$# rain for long 'eriods< the surface soil is often waterlogged. ,itrates under such
conditions are easil# lost b# leaching and also b# de5nitrification. The conditions are
therefore altogether unfa$ourable for an# a''roach towards an am'le su''l# of nitrate
when sowing time comes round in earl# )ctober. How do the cold weather cro's
obtain a sufficient su''l# of this essential food materialJ It is more than 'robable that
the deficienc# is made u' for, in 'art at least, b# the ra'id deca# of the algal film
6which also a''ears to be one of the factors in nitrogen fi*ation9 during the last
culti$ations 'receding the sowing of the cold weather cro' in )ctober. It is 'ossible
that some changes ma# ha$e to be made in soil management with a $iew to
stimulating the growth of this algal film. )ne of the beneficial effects of growing a
green5manure cro' li-e sann hem' for com'osting, during the earl# rains, ma# 'ro$e
to be due to the fa$ourable en$ironment 'ro$ided for the ra'id establishment of the
algal film. )n monsoon fallow land it will 'robabl# be found best to sus'end surface
culti$ation during the second half of the rains when the film is most acti$e. There is
alread# among the culti$ators of India a tendenc# to sto' stirring the surface, from the
middle to the end of the rains, e$en when this in$ol$es the growth of weeds. This
coincides with the 'eriod when the algal film is most noticeable. The indigenous
'ractices ma# therefore 'ro$e to be based on sound scientific 'rinci'les. Here are
read# to hand se$eral interesting sub&ects which urgentl# call for stud# under actual
tro'ical conditions. When this is underta-en, the in$estigation should include; 6/9 the
conditions most fa$ourable for the establishment of the algal film< 679 the 'art 'la#ed
b# algae and associated bacteria in nitrogen fi*ation< 619 the role of algae in ban-ing
easil# destro#ed combined nitrogen during the rains< and 689 the su''l# of easil#
decom'osable and easil# nitrifiable organic matter for the use of the cold weather
cro's. In the rice fields of the tro'ics, the algal car'et is e$en more e$ident than on
ordinar# culti$ated soils. The total weight of organic matter added e$er# #ear to each
acre of rice land in the sha'e of algal remains must be considerable and must ser$e as
a useful addition to the store of organic matter. A'art from the fi*ation of nitrogen
from the air, it ma# hel' to e*'lain wh# such hea$# cro's of 'add# can be obtained in
India, #ear after #ear on the same land, without manure.
0reen-"anures
Since the in$estigations of Schulz5+u'itz first showed how o'en sand# soils in
2erman# can be ra'idl# im'ro$ed in te*ture b# the incor'oration of green5manures,
the future 'ossibilities of this method of enriching the land became a''arent to the
in$estigators of the )ccident. After the role of the nodules 6found on the roots of
leguminous 'lants9 in the fi*ation of atmos'heric nitrogen was 'ro$ed, the 'roblems
of green5manuring ha$e naturall# centred round the utilization of the leguminous cro'
in adding to the store of organic matter and combined nitrogen in the soil. At the end
of the last centur# it seemed so eas#, b# merel# turning in a leguminous cro', to settle
at one stro-e and in a $er# economical fashion the great 'roblem of maintaining soil
fertilit#. At the e*'enditure of a $er# little trouble, the soil might be made to manure
itself. A su''l# of combined nitrogen, as well as a fair :uantit# of organic matter,
might be 'ro$ided without an# serious interference with ordinar# cro''ing. These
e*'ectations ha$e led to innumerable green5manuring e*'eriments all o$er the world
with 'racticall# e$er# s'ecies of leguminous cro'. The results howe$er ha$e left
much to be desired. In a few cases, 'articularl# on o'en soils and where the rainfall,
after the 'loughing in of the green cro', is well distributed, the results ha$e been
satisfactor#. )n rice lands, where abundance of water ensures the maintenance of
swam' conditions, somewhat similar results ha$e been obtained. In the $ast ma&orit#
of cases, howe$er. green5manuring has been disa''ointing. As a general method of
soil im'ro$ement, the game is hardl# worth the candle. )n the monsoon fed areas of
India the rainfall is often so uncertain, after the green cro' is 'loughed in, that for
long 'eriods deca# is arrested. Sowing time arri$es at a stage when the soil contains a
mass of half5rotted material, with insufficient nitrogen and moisture for the growth of
a cro'. 4ailure results. The cro's raised after green5manure are worse than those
obtained on similar land left fallow. 4or this reason green5manuring has not been
ta-en u' b# the 'eo'le in India, in s'ite of the e*'eriments and 'ro'aganda of the
Agricultural "e'artment.
It soon became e$ident, during the earl# #ears of the 'resent centur# in India, that no
matter what the rainfall and the soil conditions ma# be, a definite time factor is in
o'eration in green5manuring. A 'eriod of not less than eight wee-s must ela'se,
between the 'loughing in of the green cro' and the 'lanting of the ne*t, if satisfactor#
results are to be obtained. This was well brought out in the green5manuring
e*'eriments on tobacco, carried out at Pusa between /0/7 and /0/A. Some #ears later,
the e*'lanation of this factor, as well as the general conditions necessar# for the deca#
of a green5manure cro' were furnished b# the wor- done at the ,ew Gerse#
e*'eriment station b# Wa-sman and his co5wor-ers. The deca# and incor'oration of
green5manure in the soil has been shown to be a $er# com'le* 'rocess, de'ending on;
6/9 the chemical com'osition of the 'lants which ma-e u' the green5manure, which in
turn largel# de'ends on the age of the cro' when 'loughed in< 679 the nature of the
decom'osition of the $arious grou's of organic com'le*es in the 'lant b# the different
t#'es of soil organisms, which in turn is influenced b# such factors as moisture,
aeration, and the su''l# of a$ailable nitrogen and 'hos'hates needed b# these
organisms, and 619 the metabolism of the microorganisms ta-ing 'art in the deca# of
the green cro'.
The 'rocess of incor'oration ta-es 'lace on the following lines. When the green5
manure cro' is 'loughed in, the first stages of deca# are brought about b# fungi,
which re:uire for their acti$ities am'le su''lies of air, moisture and combined
nitrogen, as well as the soluble and easil# decom'osable carboh#drates su''lied b#
the green cro'. If the su''l# of nitrogen 'ro$ided b# the green5manure is insufficient,
the stores of soluble nitrates in the soil solution are utilized b# the fungi. "eca# is
ra'id 'ro$ided all these essential factors are simultaneousl# arranged for. The result is
that the whole energies of the soil at this 'eriod are gi$en u' to the needs of the fungi
of deca#, which s#nthesize large :uantities of 'roto'lasm from the materials su''lied
b# the green cro' and the soil solution. "uring this 'hase, most of the nitrogen 'resent
is built u' into m#celial tissue, and is therefore not immediatel# a$ailable for the
growth of cro's. The ne*t stage is the deca# of the remainder of the green5manure,
including the m#celial tissue itself, b# $arious grou's of bacteria, followed b# the
incor'oration of the whole mass into the soil organic matter. This must first be
nitrified before the soil solution and the cro' can obtain an# benefit from this form of
manuring. Clearl# all this ta-es time, and needs abundance of o*#gen as well as a
continuous su''l# of soil moisture. If an# of the limiting factors 55 nitrogen su''l#, air
or moisture 55 are in defect, it is ob$ious that the final stage of nitrifiable organic
matter will not be :uic-l# reached. The soil will not onl# contain a mass of undigested
material, but will be 'oor in a$ailable nitrogen and 'erha's low in moisture as well.
Seeds sown in such a soil can onl# result in a 'oor cro'. The in$estigations of the
,ew Gerse# e*'eriment station e*'lain the im'ortance of the time5factor in green5
manuring, and incidentall# show that the ordinar# green5manuring e*'eriments in
India cannot 'ossibl# succeed. The sooner the# are discontinued the better. ,othing is
to be gained b# attem'ting the ho'eless tas- of manufacturing soil organic matter
under conditions which cannot be controlled.
The :uestion at once arises as to whether the green5manuring 'rocess can be regulated
in such a manner that the results can be relied u'onJ A number of attem'ts ha$e been
made in this direction in India, of which that carried out b# Clar-e at Shah&ahan'ur is
the most 'romising. 2reen cro's of sann hem' 6Crotalaria juncea +.9 ha$e been
successfull# utilized for the growth of sugar5cane. The secret of the Shah&ahan'ur
'rocess is to 'ro$ide am'le moisture, b# means of irrigation, for the first stages of the
deca# of the green5manure. The rainfall, after the hem' cro' is 'loughed in, is
carefull# watched. If it is less than fi$e inches during the first fortnight of Se'tember,
the fields are irrigated. This enables the first 'hase of the deca# of the green cro' b#
the soil fungi to be com'leted. Practicall# all the nitrogen is then in the form of easil#
decom'osable m#celial tissue. "uring the autumn, nitrification is 're$ented b# dr#ing
out the surface soil. The nitrogen is, as it were, -e't in the ban- till the sugar5cane is
'lanted under irrigation in !arch. ,itrification then sets in and the a$ailable su''lies
of combined nitrogen are made use of b# the sugar5cane. In this wa# cro's of o$er
thirt# tons of cane to the acre ha$e been grown without the addition of an# manure
be#ond the hem', grown on the same land the 're$ious rains and treated in the
manner indicated abo$e. These results do not a''ear to ha$e been obtained with an#
other cro' than sugar5cane 'lanted in !arch. It would be interesting to ha$e figures
for wheat, sown in )ctober, i.e. about si* wee-s after the hem' was 'loughed under.
It is 'robable that e$en with irrigation, this inter$al is insufficient for the 'ro'er
incor'oration of the green cro' into the bod# of the soil organic matter and its
subse:uent nitrification. In this case, the Shah&ahan'ur method, $aluable and
interesting as it is, can onl# ha$e a limited a''lication.
Is it 'ossible to de$ise a method of green5manuring, b# means of the leguminous cro',
which a$oids all ris-s, is certain, and also ma-es the fullest use of this s#stemJ There
are two 'ossible wa#s in which the growing of a leguminous green5manure cro' ma#
benefit the soil. These are; 6/9 the well5-nown ad$antages of such cro's in the rotation
in increasing the nitrogen su''l# and in stimulating the micro5organisms in the soil,
and 679 the effects of incor'orating the green cro' into the store of soil organic matter.
+ohnis, howe$er, showed, in man# green5manuring e*'eriments with leguminous
cro's, that the same results were obtained when the cro' was remo$ed as when it was
'loughed under 55 a conclusion which is in full accord with Wa-smanFs wor-. It
follows from this that the double ad$antage of a leguminous green5manure cro' can
onl# be achie$ed pro"ided full use of the crop itself can be found outside the field#
either as fodder for animals# for makin silae or as material for the manufacture of
compost. This latter method has been successfull# wor-ed out at Indore, and will be
described in the ne*t cha'ter. The real 'lace of the leguminous cro' in green5
manuring seems to be in 'ro$iding material for the manufacture of organic matter in a
com'ost factor#, s'eciall# designed for the 'ur'ose.
The e*act 'eriod in the life histor# of the green cro', when it should be rea'ed for
com'osting, is an im'ortant matter. If the cro' is cut before the grand 'eriod of
growth is com'leted, the ma*imum amount of $egetable waste will not be obtained.
)n the other hand, an earl# har$est will #ield a 'roduct rich in nitrogen and suitable
for ra'id deca# 6A''endi* C9. +ate har$esting is also attended with disad$antages. If
rea'ed after flowering begins, the green cro' will ha$e used u' a good deal of the rich
nodule tissue which will then be tem'oraril# remo$ed from the soil and will not
benefit the ne*t cro'. 4urther, the older the cro', the more unfa$ourable the carbon5
nitrogen ratio becomes. The best stage for remo$al will be &ust before flowering
begins. At this 'oint, most of the nitrates in the soil solution ha$e been absorbed b#
the cro' and ha$e been ban-ed, either in the form of an easil# decom'osable root5
s#stem or as com'ost material, the chemical com'osition of which is e*actl# what is
needed to im'ro$e the carbon5nitrogen ratio of the other $egetable wastes of the farm.
When the green cro' is rea'ed at this stage the following ad$antages are obtained; 6/9
The nitrates of the soil solution are safel# ban-ed. 679 The ne*t cro' deri$es the
ma*imum benefit from an easil# decom'osable and uniforml# distributed root5
s#stem, rich in combined nitrogen, the deca# and incor'oration of which is well
within the 'owers of the soil. 619 The store of $egetable waste for com'osting is
increased in amount and im'ro$ed in chemical com'osition b# the uniform
distribution of the combined nitrogen throughout the tissues of the green cro'.
/armyard "anure
4rom the beginning of agriculture, the utilization of farm wastes, rotted b# means of
the urine and dung of animals, has been the 'rinci'al means of re'lenishing soil
losses. $en at the 'resent da#, in s'ite of the establishment of numerous e*'eriment
stations and the em'lo#ment of an arm# of in$estigators, the methods in $ogue in the
're'aration and storage of this 'roduct lea$e much to be desired. $en under the
co$ered5#ard s#stem, when the dung and litter are left under the animals until a la#er
se$eral feet thic- is 'roduced, and the 'roduct is 'rotected from the weather, as much
as fifteen 'er cent of the $aluable nitrogen is lost. When the dung is carted out into a
hea' to ri'en, as is the usual 'ractice, the losses of nitrogen are e$en greater. %ussell
and %ichards, who some #ears ago carried out an elaborate in$estigation on the
storage of farm#ard manure at %othamsted, concluded that; 6/9 the s#stem of lea$ing
the manure under the beasts till it is re:uired for the fields, as in the bo* or co$ered5
#ard s#stem, is the best whene$er this is 'racticable< 679 the ideal method of storage is
under anaerobic conditions at a tem'erature of 7> degrees C.< 619 the manure hea',
howe$er well made and 'rotected, in$ol$es losses of nitrogen< and 689 the best ho'e
of im'ro$ement lies in storing the manure in watertight tan-s or 'its, so made that
the# can be com'letel# closed and thereb# allow the attainment of 'erfect anaerobic
conditions. These in$estigations, 'ublished in /0/D, clearl# indicate that one of the
reasons for the 'resent im'erfect management of farm#ard manure lies in the fact that
the conditions are sometimes aerobic, at others anaerobic, whereas the# should be one
or the other throughout. In other words, there is no 'ro'er management of the air
su''l#. !oisture is not usuall# in defect, e*ce't in hot countries li-e India where there
is abundant air but often little moisture. Ta-ing 2reat .ritain and India as e*treme
cases of the management of farm#ard manure, we find one or other of the following
conditions in o'eration. In 2reat .ritain, the irregular air su''l# of the manure hea'
leads to serious losses of nitrogen.
The final 'roduct is not a fine 'owder but a 'artiall# rotted material, which cannot be
incor'orated into the 'ore5s'aces of the soil until further deca# has ta-en 'lace. The
soil therefore has to do a good deal of wor- before the farm#ard manure, a''lied on
the surface in lum's, can be uniforml# distributed through and incor'orated into the
soil mass. In India, the storage of farm#ard manure leads to the loss of so much
moisture, that often insufficient deca# ta-es 'lace before it finds its wa# into the soil.
+osses of nitrogen ma# be 're$ented in this wa# but the wor- thrown u'on the soil is
e$en greater than in tem'erate regions. )nl# in China and Ga'an is an# real attem't
made to 're'are the manure for the use of the cro', and to relie$e the soil from
unnecessar# wor-. What is needed throughout the world is a continuous s#stem of
're'aring farm#ard manure in which 6/9 all losses of nitrogen are a$oided, and, 679
the $arious ste's from the raw material to the finished 'roduct follow a definite 'lan,
based on the orderl# brea-ing down of the materials, and the 're'aration of a finished
'roduct, read# for immediate nitrification, which can easil# be incor'orated into the
soil. At the same time, an attem't should be made to gain as much nitrogen as
'ossible b# fi*ation from the atmos'here. )nl# when all this is done will the
're'aration of farm#ard manure be based on correct scientific 'rinci'les.
Arti1cial /armyard "anure
"uring the last ten #ears, an additional source of soil organic matter has been utilized,
namel#, artificial or s#nthetic farm#ard manure. In /07/, the results of e*'eriments,
carried out b# Hutchinson and %ichards at %othamsted on the con$ersion of straw into
manure without the inter$ention of li$e stoc-, were 'ublished. In this 'ioneering
wor-, which constitutes an im'ortant milestone in the de$elo'ment of cro'
'roduction, a method was de$ised b# which straw could be con$erted into a substance
ha$ing man# of the 'ro'erties of stable manure. In the 'reliminar# e*'eriments, the
most 'romising results were obtained when the straw was sub&ected to the action of a
culture of an aerobic cellulose decom'osing organism 6Spirochoeta cytophaa9,
whose acti$ities were found to de'end on the mineral substances 'resent in the culture
fluid. The essential factors in the 'roduction of well5rotted farm#ard manure from
straw were found to be; air su''l#< a suitable tem'erature, and a small amount of
soluble combined nitrogen. The fermentation was aerobic< the brea-down of the straw
was most ra'id in a neutral or slightl# al-aline medium in the 'resence of sufficient
a$ailable nitrogen. Urine, urea, ammonium carbonate and 'e'tone 6within certain
concentrations9 were all useful forms of combined nitrogen. Sul'hate of ammonia b#
itself was not suitable, as the medium soon became mar-edl# acid. The concentration
of the combined nitrogen added was found to be im'ortant. When this was in e*cess,
nitrogen was lost from the mass before deca# could 'roceed< when it was in defect, a
mar-ed tendenc# to fi* nitrogen was obser$ed. The 'ublication of this 'a'er soon led
to a number of further in$estigations, and to numberless attem'ts all o$er the world to
're'are artificial farm#ard manure from e$er# -ind of $egetable waste. The 'rinci'les
underl#ing the con$ersion are now well understood, and ha$e recentl# been summed
u' b# Wa-sman and his co5wor-ers in the Journal of the American Society of
Aronomy 67/, /070, '. A119 in a 'a'er which should be carefull# studied b# all
interested in this im'ortant sub&ect. The 'rinci'les underl#ing the con$ersion are so
well 'ut b# these in$estigators that the# are best gi$en in the authorsF own words;
FThe 'roblems in$ol$ed in the stud# of the 'rinci'les underl#ing the
decom'osition of mature straw and other 'lant residues in com'osts, leading
to the formation of so5called artificial manure, in$ol$e a -nowledge of; 6a9 the
com'osition of the 'lant material< 6b9 the mechanism of the decom'osition
'rocesses which are brought about b# the micro5organisms< and 6c9 a
-nowledge of the metabolism of these organisms.
FStraw and other farm residues, which are commonl# used for the 'ur'ose of
com'osting, consist 'redominantl# 6>@ 'er cent or more9 of celluloses and
hemi5celluloses, which undergo ra'id decom'osition in the 'resence of
aufficient nitrogen and other minerals, of lignins 6/A to 7@ 'er cent9 which are
more resistant to decom'osition and which graduall# accumulate, of water5
soluble substances 6A to /7 'er cent9 which decom'ose $er# ra'idl#, of
'roteins which are usuall# 'resent in $er# small amounts 67.7 to 1@ 'er cent9
but which graduall# increase in concentration with the ad$ance of
decom'osition, and of the mineral 'ortion or ash.
FThe 'rocesses of decom'osition in$ol$ed in the com'osting consist largel# in
the disa''earance of the celluloses and hemi5celluloses, which ma-e u' more
than E@ 'er cent of the organic matter which is undergoing decom'osition in
the 'rocess of formation of artificial manures. These 'ol#5saccharides cannot
be used as direct sources of energ# b# nitrogen5fi*ing bacteria and their
decom'osition de'ends entirel# u'on the action of $arious fungi and aerobic
bacteria. In the 'rocess of decom'osition of the celluloses and hemi5
celluloses, the micro5organisms bring about the s#nthesis of microbial cell
substance. This ma# be :uite considerable, fre:uentl# e:ui$alent to a fifth or
e$en more of the actual organic matter decom'osed. To s#nthesize these large
:uantities of organic matter, the micro5organisms re:uire large :uantities of
a$ailable nitrogen and 'hos'horus and a fa$ourable reaction. The nitrogen and
'hos'horus are used for the building u' of the 'roteins and nucleins in the
microbial cells. Since there is a direct relation between the celluloses
decom'osed and the organic matter s#nthesized, it should be e*'ected also
that there would be a direct relation between the cellulose decom'osed and the
amount of nitrogen re:uired. As a matter of fact, for e$er# fort# or fift# 'arts
of cellulose and hemi5cellulose decom'osed, one unit of a$ailable nitrogen has
to be added to the com'ost.
FAs the 'lant residues used in the 're'aration of Hartificial manureH are 'oor in
nitrogen, a$ailable inorganic nitrogen must be introduced for the 'ur'ose of
bringing about acti$e decom'osition. This e*'lains the increase in the 'rotein
content of the com'ost accom'an#ing the gradual decrease of the celluloses
and hemi5celluloses.
FIn general, artificial com'osts can be 're'ared from 'lant residues of an#
chemical com'osition so long as the nature of these residues and of the
'rocesses in$ol$ed in their decom'osition are -nown. .# regulating the
tem'erature and moisture content and b# introducing the re:uired amounts of
nitrogen, 'hos'horus, 'otassium and calcium carbonate, the s'eed of
decom'osition and the nature of the 'roduct formed can be controlled.F
It is not 'ossible in the s'ace a$ailable to summarize all the $arious e*'eriments
which ha$e been made in 2reat .ritain, the United States, India and other 'arts of the
world on the actual con$ersion of $egetable residues into artificial farm#ard manure.
It will be sufficient to refer to t#'ical e*am'les of what has been done. The
%othamsted in$estigations ha$e been continued and ha$e led to a 'atented 'rocess,
-nown as Adco, b# which the re:uisite nitrogenous and 'hos'hatic food for the
micro5organisms, as well as a base for the neutralization of acidit#, are added to the
$egetable wastes in the form of 'owders. 4ull details and numerous illustrations are to
be found in the $arious Adco 'am'hlets. The ob&ect of 'atenting the 'rocess is not
'rofit for the in$entors but the raising of funds for further research. All users of Adco
therefore are not onl# 'ro$ided with a useful mi*ture but also ma-e a small
contribution to the cost of fundamental research wor-. In India, the $arious
e*'eriments on the 'roduction of artificial farm#ard manure from a large number of
materials, such as 'ric-l# 'ear, fallen lea$es, town refuse, mahua 6Bassia latifolia +.9
flowers, weeds, banana waste, leguminous 'lants such as sann hem', green 'ea stal-s
and $arious weeds ha$e recentl# been summed u' b# 4owler, whose 'a'er 6see
.ibliogra'h# below9 should be consulted for details. The materials em'lo#ed for
adding the necessar# nitrogen and other materials for the micro5organisms were night5
soil, cow5dung, cattle urine, acti$ated sludge or chemicals li-e sul'hate of ammonia
and calcium c#anamide. A large number of e*'eriments are described from which it is
clear that $er# useful manures, containing from / to 8 'er cent of nitrogen, were
obtained, which in field trials with rice and maize ga$e results e:ual to or better than
an# other nitrogenous manure in common use. Attem'ts were made in the course of
this wor- to determine the amount of nitrogen fi*ation from the air which occurs
during the con$ersion of the $egetable waste. It was found, when 'ro'er care was
ta-en to su''l# the necessar# organisms, that a considerable amount of free nitrogen
was actuall# absorbed. These results, which agree with others on the same 'oint, are
of considerable interest. If in the con$ersion of $egetable wastes into artificial
farm#ard manure additional nitrogen can be gained, ob$iousl# the ideal conditions
ha$e been disco$ered. )nce such 'rinci'les ha$e been correctl# ascertained and 'ut
into 'ractice, it might then be 'ossible to deal not onl# with the manure hea' itself but
also with green5manuring, so that actual fi*ation can be substituted for the losses of
nitrogen which now occur.
As is to be e*'ected in such a matter as this, the 're'aration of artificial farm#ard
manure has been in actual o'eration centuries before Hutchinson and %ichards began
their wor- at %othamsted. 3ing, in Farmers of Forty Centuries, describes the
con$ersion b# the Chinese 'easants of clo$er 6Astraalus sinicus9 into manure b#
mi*ing the green cro' with rich canal mud To all intents and 'ur'oses, this s#stem
closel# resembles the Adco 'rocess. )nce more the em'irical methods, disco$ered
during centuries of 'ractice, ha$e 'receded the results obtained b# the a''lication of
'ure science. ,e$ertheless, although in a sense the %othamsted wor-ers ha$e been
antici'ated, it is :uite safe to sa# that but for their wor-, the utilization of green clo$er
in China, although described in the literature of the sub&ect, would ha$e 'assed
unheeded. It was the no$elt# of the %othamsted in$estigations which has 'ro$ed so
useful and so stimulating.
) critical e=amination of the literature on the +rinci+les underlyin& the
conversion into humus of the chief &rou+s of crude or&anic matter --
&reen-manure, farmyard manure and ve&etable <astes -- reveals one
fundamental <ea>ness, namely, the fra&mentation, into a number of
loosely related sections, of <hat is essentially one subject/ Farmyard
manure, &reen-manure and the +re+aration of synthetic farmyard manure
are al<ays dealt <ith as if they <ere se+arate thin&s and not +arts of one
&reat +roject/ Aven Wa>sman 9<hose contributions to the +rinci+les
underlyin& the conversion of ve&etable <astes into humus cannot fail to
com+el the admiration of all investi&ators:, <hen the time came to <rite
u+ his <or> for the a&ronomists of the *nited 1tates, contributed three
separate papers to the Journal of the American Society of Agronomy -- one
on farmyard manure, one on &reen-manure and the third on arti5cial
farmyard manure -- instead of synthesi0in& all these related subjects into
one sin&le contribution/ When <e come to the +ractical side of the
Duestion, a similar fra&mentation is a++arent/ .reen-manurin& is al<ays a
se+arate +rocess/ 2he manure hea+ and its utili0ation from the time of the
,omans to the +resent day, forms a s+ecial section of the <or> of the
farm/ 2he manufacture of arti5cial farmyard manure is a&ain s+lit o8 as an
isolated o+eration/ 2his +articularism, in the most recent +a+ers, is
re3ected in the se+arate conversion of each >ind of ve&etable <aste,
althou&h it follo<s, from considerations of chemical com+osition, that a
mi=ture of residues is much more li>ely to +ossess a suitable carbon-
nitro&en ratio than any sin&le material/ )s <ill be evident from a study of
Wa>sman?s three +a+ers referred to above, the +rinci+les underlyin& the
decay of farmyard manure, of &reen-manure and the +re+aration of
arti5cial farmyard manure are essentially the same, namely, the synthesis
of humus, by means of fun&i and bacteria, from crude ve&etable matter,
various nutrients, air, <ater and bases/ 2his humus increases the su++ly of
soil or&anic matter and is ca+able of ra+id nitri5cation/ What is needed is
the <eldin& of all the se+arate fra&ments of the subject into a <ell ordered
system/ (ne +rocess is reDuired, not several/ The agriculturist of the
future must be shown how to become a chemical manufacturer/ Further,
the method 5nally ado+ted must be so elastic that it can be introduced
into almost any system of a&riculture/ )&ain, it must be sim+le, safe and
must yield a continuous and uniform +roduct, ca+able of bein& instantly
utili0ed by the cro+/ No <aste of valuable nitro&en should occur at any
sta&e/ 7f +ossible, matters should be so arran&ed that the 5=ation of
atmos+heric nitro&en ta>es +lace at all sta&es of the +rocess -- in the
com+ost factory and after<ards in the soil/ 7n the ne=t cha+ter, a
continuous +rocess of ma>in& humus is described <hich fur5ls the
conditions just outlined/ 2his includes, in a sin&le +rocess, the various
fra&ments of the subject, such as the care of the manure hea+, &reen-
manurin&, the utili0ation of all ve&etable <astes as <ell as the urine earth
from the cattle shed and the <ood ashes from the labourers? Duarters/ By
its means, the <aste +roducts of '00 acres of land are converted every
year into about 1,((( cart-loads of valuable humus, of uniform chemical
com+osition and of uniform 5neness/ When this material is added to the
soil there is a ra+id increase in fertility/ 2he +ractical results obtained at
7ndore +rove that all that is needed to raise cro+ +roduction to a much
hi&her level throu&hout the <orld is the orderly utili0ation of the <aste
+roducts of a&riculture itself/
Chapter &
%he !anufacture of Co'post by the Indore
!ethod
The aim of the Indore method of manufacturing com'ost is b# means of a sim'le
'rocess to unite the ad$antages of three $er# different things; 6/9 the results of
scientific research on the transformation of 'lant residues< 679 the agricultural
e*'erience of the 'ast, and 619 the ideal line of ad$ance in the soil management of the
future 55 in such a manner that all the b#5'roducts of agriculture can be s#stematicall#
con$erted into humus. An essential feature of this s#nthesis is the a$oidance of
an#thing in the nature of fragmentation of the factors. All a$ailable $egetable matter,
including the soiled bedding from the cattle5shed, all unconsumed cro' residues,
fallen lea$es and other forest wastes, farm#ard manure, green5manures and weeds
'ass s#stematicall# through the com'ost factor#, which also utilizes the urine earth
from the floor of the cattle5shed together with the a$ailable su''l# of wood ashes
from the blac-smithFs sho' and the wor-menFs :uarters. The onl# other materials
em'lo#ed are air and water. This manufacture is continuous right through the #ear,
including the rain# season, when a slight modification has to be made to ensure
sufficient aeration. The 'roduct is a finel# di$ided leaf5mould, of high nitrif#ing
'ower, read# for immediate use. The fine state of di$ision enables the com'ost to be
ra'idl# incor'orated and to e*ert its ma*imum influence on a $er# large area of the
internal surface of the soil.
The Indore 'rocess thus utilizes all the b#5'roducts of agriculture and 'roduces an
essential manure. .esides doing this an# successful s#stem of manufacturing com'ost
must also fulfil the following conditions;
1/ 2he labour reDuired must be reduced to a minimum/ 2he +rocess
must 5t in <ith the care of the <or> cattle and <ith the ordinary
<or>in& of the farm/
2/ A suitable and also a regular carbon-nitrogen ratio must be
produced by well mixing the vegetable residues before going into
the compost pits/ *nless this is arran&ed for, decay is al<ays
retarded/ 2he mi=in& of these residues, combined <ith the +ro+er
brea>in& u+ of all refractory materials is essential for ra+id and
vi&orous fermentation and for uniformity throu&hout the +rocess/
'/ 2he +rocess must be ra+id/ 2o achieve this it must be aerobic
throu&hout, and must include arran&ements for an adeDuate su++ly
of <ater and for inoculation, at the ri&ht moment, <ith the +ro+er
fun&i and bacteria/ 2he &eneral reaction of the mass must be
maintained, <ithin the o+timum ran&e, by means of earth and <ood
ashes/ 2he maintenance of the +ro+er relationshi+ bet<een air and
<ater, so that no delay ta>es +lace in the manufacture, +roved to
be the &reatest +ractical diEculty <hen evolvin& the +rocess/
#/ 2here should be no losses of nitro&en at any sta&eF if +ossible,
matters should be so arran&ed that 5=ation ta>es +lace in the
com+ost factory itself and after<ards in the 5eld/ 2o conserve the
nitro&en, the manufacture must sto+ as soon as the com+ost
reaches the nitri5cation sta&e, <hen it must either be used or
ban>ed/ 7t can best be used as a to+ dressin& for irri&ated cro+sF it
can be +reserved, as money is >e+t in a ban>, by a++lyin& it to the
5elds <hen dilution <ith the lar&e volume of soil arrests further
chan&es till the ne=t rains/
5/ 2here must be no serious com+etition bet<een the last sta&es of
the decay of the com+ost and the <or> of the soil in &ro<in& a cro+/
2his is accom+lished by carryin& the manufacture of humus u+ to
the +oint <hen nitri5cation is about to be&in/ 7n this <ay the
"hinese +rinci+le of dividin& the &ro<in& of a cro+ into t<o se+arate
+rocesses -- 91: the +re+aration of the food materials outside the
5eld, and 92: the actual &ro<in& of the cro+ -- can be introduced
into &eneral a&ricultural +ractice/
$/ 2he com+ost should not only add to the store of or&anic matter and
+rovide combined nitro&en for the soil solution but should also
stimulate the micro-or&anisms/
-/ The manufacture must be a cleanly and a sanitary process from the
point of view both of man and also of his crops. There must be no
smell at any stage, fies must not breed in the compost pits or in
the earth under the wor cattle/ 2he seeds of <eeds, the s+ores of
harmful fun&i, the e&&s of no=ious insects must 5rst be destroyed
and then utili0ed as ra< material for more com+ost/ )ll this is
achieved by the combination, in the com+ost +its durin& lon&
+eriods, of hi&h tem+erature and hi&h humidity <ith adeDuate
aeration/
The $om#ost /actory
The com'ost factor# at Indore ad&oins the cattle shed. This latter 6Plate III9 has been
constructed for fort# o*en and is 'ro$ided with a cubicle, in which a su''l# of
'owdered urine earth can con$enientl# be stored. The cattle stand on earth. A 'a$ed
floor is undesirable as the animals rest better, are more comfortable and are warmer
on an earthen floor. The earth on which the cattle stand absorbs the urine, and is
re'laced b# new earth to a de'th of si* inches e$er# three or four months.
Plate III. attle-shed.
The com'ost factor# 6Plates I=9 itself is a $er# sim'le arrangement. It consists of
thirt#5three 'its, each 1@ ft. b# /8 ft. and 7 ft. dee' with slo'ing sides, arranged in
three rows with aufficient s'ace between the lines of 'its for the eas# 'assage of
loaded carts. The 'its themsel$es are in 'airs, with a s'ace /7 ft. wide between each
'air. This arrangement enables carts to be brought u' to an# 'articular 'it. Am'le
access from the com'ost factor# to the main roads is also necessar#, so that during the
carting of the com'ost to the fields, loaded and em't# carts can easil# 'ass one
another, and also lea$e room for the standing carts which are being filled. 4or a large
factor# it is an ad$antage to ha$e water laid on, so that the 'eriodical moistening of
the com'ost can be done b# means of a hose 'i'e. At Indore, water is 'um'ed through
a 1 in. 'i'e into a 'ressed steel tan-, E ft. b# E ft. b# E ft., holding 1,7@@ gallons,
which is carried on walls, 8 ft. abo$e the ground, to 'ro$ide the necessar# head. This
su''l# lasts about a wee-. Water is led b# /5/K7 in. 'i'es from the tan- to eight ta's,
to which the armoured hose can be screwed. ach ta' ser$es about si* 'its. The
general arrangement will be clear from Plate I=.
Plate I". Plan of #ompost fa#tory at Indore.
The total cost of the water tan-, including arrangements for distribution, was %s. />A@
6e:ui$alent to about /7@ 'ounds sterling9. This was made u' as follows; tan-, %s.
DA@< 'i'e s#stem, %s. 8>>< girders for tan-, %s. 1/< armoured hose, %s. 7E; railwa#
freight, %s. EE< masonr# wor-, %s. /8E< labour, including fitting u', %s. /70.
The s'ace under the tan-, which is walled in on three sides and is o'en on the leeward
side, is used for storing wood ashes, and for -ee'ing the tubs and im'lements needed
for the ma-ing of com'ost.
4or a smaller factor# or for the small holder, such a water s#stem is not necessar#. All
that is needed is that the com'ost 'its should be arranged near a well.
$ollection and Storage of the a! "aterial
Plant Residues
All $egetable wastes from the culti$ated area 55 such as weeds, cotton and other
stal-s, green5manure, cane5trash, fallen lea$es and so forth, and all inedible cro'
residues from the threshing floor 55 are carefull# collected. All wood# materials li-e
cotton and 'igeon5'ea 6Cajanus Indicus S'reng.9 stal-s are crushed b# 'lacing on the
farm roads to be tram'led and reduced b# the traffic to a condition resembling bro-en
u' wheat straw 6Plate =9. All green materials 55 such as weeds and green5manures 55
are withered for at least two da#s before use or storage. All these $arious residues are
stac-ed near the cattleshed as recei$ed, la#er b# la#er 55 if 'ossible under co$er during
the rains 55 so that these materials ma# become thoroughl# mi*ed. ach la#er must
not be more than one foot thic-, otherwise difficulties arise in ma-ing a suitable
mi*ture. Care must also be ta-en to remo$e the stac-ed material in $ertical slices so
as to ensure e$en mi*ture. =er# hard and wood# materials 55 such as sugarcane and
millet stum's, wood sha$ings, sawdust and waste 'a'er 55 should be dum'ed
se'aratel# in one of the em't# com'ost 'its with a little earth and -e't moist. After
this 'reliminar# treatment, these hard and resistant materials can be readil#
com'osted. Stee'ing such materials in water for two da#s, before addition to the
bedding under the wor- cattle, ser$es the same 'ur'ose.
Plate ". rushing #otton sal$s %y road traffi#.
$rine %arth and &ood Ashes
All the earth remo$ed from the silage 'its, all earth# swee'ings from the threshing
floors and all silt from drains are stored in a con$enient 'lace near the cattle5shed.
This 'ro$ides an ade:uate su''l# of suitable earth for absorbing the urine of the wor-
cattle, and acting as a base in the ma-ing of com'ost. This earth is s'read e$enl# on
the cattle5shed floor to a de'th of si* inches and renewed e$er# three or four months.
Half the urine earth when remo$ed from the floor should be crushed 6Plate =I9 in a
mortar mill6See PlateFs = and =I9. to brea- u' the large lum's, and should be stored
under co$er as dr# 'owdered urine earth. The other half of the urine earth should be
a''lied direct to the fields as manure. All a$ailable wood ashes should be stored under
co$er, as in the case of the 'owdered urine earth. These materials 6urine earth and
wood ashes9 are as essential in the manufacture of com'ost as the 'lant residues
themsel$es.
Plate "I. Powdering urine earth in a mortar mill.
&ater and Air
.oth water and air are needed for the com'ost 'rocess, which therefore must be
carried out near a well or other source of fresh water.
Arrangement and 2is#osal of the &edding under the Wor3 $attle
6All :uantities in the following refer to one 'air of o*en. The figures should be
multi'lied, when necessar#, b# the number of 'airs of o*en -e't.9
All the uneaten food and an# damaged silage are thrown on the wet 'ortions of the
cattle5shed floor. )ne and a half pals 64ig. /9 of
stac-ed $egetable refuse, together with not more than
one5twentieth of this amount of hard resistant
material 6such as wood sha$ings, sawdust or waste
'a'er9 from the soa-ing 'it are s'read on the floor. 6A
pal is a stretcher made of a 'iece of gunn# sheet, 8 ft.
b# 1 ft., nailed to two bamboos each D ft. > in. long.9
The cattle slee' on this bedding during the night. In
this wa# the bedding gets crushed and bro-en still
further and also im'regnated with urine. ,e*t morning one5fourth of a taari 64ig. 79
of fresh dung is remo$ed to the com'ost 'it< the rest of the cattle dung being scattered
on the bedding in lum's not bigger than a small orange< or this e*cess dung can be
made into cow5dung ca-es 6kundas9 for fuel.
6A taari is a bowl made of sheet iron, ca'acit# fi$e5
se$enths of a cubic foot. In Table I= the metal bowls
are con$erted into 'ounds or double handfulls of the
materials used. 'undas, thin flat cow5dung ca-es,
about twel$e inches in diameter and one inch thic-,
are used in the $illages of India as fuel for the
coo-ing of food.9 Two5fifths of a taari of dr# urine
earth is s'rin-led on the used bedding in the same manner as murum 6(urum is the
Hindustani name of the 'ermeable la#er of deca#ed basalt which underlies the blac-
cotton soils of India9 is s'read on roads.
The bedding is then transferred b# a s'ade 64ig. 19 on to the pal from one end to the
other and remo$ed to the com'ost 'it. In this wa# the raw material used for the
com'ost is made 'erfectl# homogeneous. The earthen floor of the cattle5shed should
then be swe't clean, the swee'ings being remo$ed on
a pal to the com'ost 'it. All wet 'atches on the floor
are co$ered with new earth, after scra'ing out the
$er# wet 'ortions. In this wa# all smell in the cattle5
shed is a$oided and the breeding of flies in the earth
underneath the animals is entirel# 're$ented. .edding
for the ne*t da# can then be laid as described abo$e.
"uring the rains, the bedding should consist of three
la#ers 55 a bottom la#er and a to' la#er of dr#
material s'eciall# reser$ed for the 'ur'ose, an# withered residues being sandwiched
in between. )n $er# wet da#s, all the urine earth ma# be added to the bedding before
remo$al to the com'ost hea'.
Fig. 1. & stret#her 'pal( for
removing %edding.
Fig. 2. & sheet-iron %owl 'tagari(.
Fig. ). & spade 'phawra( used in
#ompost ma$ing.
The $olume and weight of the $arious materials which are mo$ed to and fro in the
sheet5iron bowls 6taaries9 are gi$en in Table I=.
Table I4
4olume 5In 2ouble Handfulls6 and Weight 5In
7b.6 of the $ontents of a Tagari
Golume in
double
handfulls
Wei&ht in
lb/
Fresh dun& $/5 '/5
Po<dered urine earth 20/5 22/5
Wood ashes 15 20
Fun&us innoculant 5 20
Bacterial innoculant $ 20
,efractory ve&etable
residues
$
%i=ed ve&etable residues
7m+re&nated beddin& 1$/5
1<ee+in&s from the
cattle-shed 3oor
1
$harging the $om#ost Pits
A con$enient size for a com'ost 'it is 1@ ft. b# /8 ft. and 7 ft. dee' with slo'ing sides.
The de'th of the com'ost 'it is most im'ortant on
account of the aeration factor. It should ne$er e*ceed 78
in. A wooden tub 64ig. 89, a ra-e 64ig. A9, a bowl 6taari9
64ig. 79, and a few em't# -erosine tins 6each holding
four gallons9 with handles 64ig. >9 are all that are needed
besides the pal 64ig. /9.
The following materials are 'laced alongside each
com'ost 'it 55 'owdered urine earth, two5fifths taari,
fresh dung, one5:uarter taari< fungus material, three5
tenths taari, ta-en from a com'ost 'it ten to fifteen
da#s old< wood ashes, one twentieth taari< water, one -erosine tin. The wood ashes
and one5twentieth of a taari of urine earth are mi*ed with some dung and fungus
material in a 'ortion of the water to ma-e a thin slurr#. The pals of bedding should be
Fig. *. & wooden tu% for slurry.
added, as the# arri$e, from one edge of the 'it b# sim'l# allowing the bamboo 'ole of
the pal ne*t the 'it to fall into it 6Plate =II9.
The other 'ole is then lifted so that the rest of the
bedding dro's easil# into the 'it. The material is then
s'read b# means of the ra-e in a la#er, not e*ceeding
two inches thic- o$er the com'ost 'it. All tram'ling
of the charged 'it must be a$oided as this interferes
with aeration. Some dr# urine earth and then the
stirred slurr# are first s'rin-led thinl# on each charge of bedding, which should a''ear
e$enl# wetted. The soa-ed residues from the tub are then scattered on each la#er of
bedding.
This inoculates the mass with acti$e fungus throughout. The 'olished surfaces of the
bedding are also co$ered with an acti$e adherent coating. This leads to ra'id and e$en
crumbling. The $olume of the slurr# is made u' with more dung, fungus starter and
water as re:uired. The 'it is charged with the bedding, la#er
b# la#er, until all the bedding is used u'. The swee'ings from
the cattle5shed floor, which are rich in urine, are s'rin-led on
the to' of each da#Fs charge with a taari, followed b# one5
third of a tin of fresh water. This distributes the urine e$enl#
throughout the dail# charge and also 're$ents e*cess dr#ing.
Another watering in the e$ening, with two5thirds of a tin, and
a third watering the ne*t morning with one5third of a tin
com'letes the charge. The 'it or a suitable 'ortion of it
should be filled u' to the brim in si* da#s or less, the
remaining 'art being filled subse:uentl#. 6The 'eriod of
charging must not e*ceed si* da#s, whether or no the 'it is com'letel# filled b# then.
ach si* da#sF charge should be regarded as one unit in the manufacture of com'ost,
no matter whether the 'it is filled com'letel# or not.9 $er#thing is now read# for the
de$elo'ment of an acti$e fungus growth 6the first stage in the manufacture of
com'ost9. When 'ro'erl# managed, a $ertical section of the fermenting mass should
a''ear :uite uniform and should not show an# alternate la#ers.
Fig. *. +ooden ra$e for #harging
pits.
Fig. ,. +ater tin.
Plate "II. harging the ompost pits- '1( harging the ompost pits. '2( &pplying the
slurry
As the 'its are fre:uentl# full of water during the greater 'art of the rains, the com'ost
must be made in hea's 6Plate =III9 from the middle of Gune to / )ctober. The
dimensions of the hea's should not e*ceed D ft. b# D ft. at the to', E ft. b# E ft. at the
bottom and 7 ft. in height. The dimensions of these monsoon hea's 6an# one of which
is not necessaril# com'leted b# the amount of $egetable waste which can be
accumulated in si* da#s9 must not be e*ceeded, otherwise aeration difficulties are
certain to be encountered. The decom'osition in hea's during the rains does not ta-e
'lace so e$enl# as in the 'its.
Plate "III. ompost manufa#ture in the rainy season
"uring the earl# rains, all the material in the 'its must be transferred to hea's on the
surface. This is most con$enientl# done at the time of the first, second or third turn.
The subse:uent waterings are most im'ortant, otherwise deca# will sto'. The first
watering is done twel$e da#s 6da#s should be counted from the date on which the
filling of the 'it begins9 after charging, when /.7A tins are added e$enl# o$er the
whole surface. 4urther water is added at the time of the first, second and third turning
and afterwards as needed. "uring the rains, the :uantit# of water as gi$en abo$e must
be added at the time of charging< the subse:uent waterings during the rains ma# be
reduced or com'letel# omitted according to the weather. Stagnant rain5water from the
'its should ne$er be used. When watering is done b# a hose 'i'e from a tan- as at
Indore, the amount added can easil# be ad&usted if the rate of flow is -nown.
Turning the $om#ost
To ensure uniform mi*ture and deca#, and to 'ro$ide the necessar# amount of water
and air as well as a su''l# of suitable bacteria, it is necessar# to turn the material three
times. The onl# difficult# which is li-el# to arise in the 'rocess is the establishment of
anaerobic conditions between the 'eriod of charging and the first turn. This can be
caused b# o$erwatering or b# want of attention to the mi*ing. It is at once indicated
b# the smell and b# the a''earance of flies attem'ting to breed in the mass. When this
occurs, the hea' should be turned at once with the addition of dung slurr# and wood
ashes.
First turn.
Si*teen da#s after charge 6Plate IL9. Sufficient fresh water should be read# 55 about
four tins according to the season. Three5fifths of a taari of com'ost is ta-en from
another 'it thirt# da#s old 6&ust after the second turn9 and scattered on the surface of
the material. This is necessar# for inoculating the mass with the 'ro'er bacteria. The
to' la#er of the com'ost is then loosened and mi*ed, a 'ortion at a time, with a ra-e
and well moistened with water. Half the hea' is sliced with a s'ade a few inches
breadthwise and $erticall# from to' to bottom to fill one taari at a time. )aari after
taari is 'oured in rows on the other undisturbed half to ma-e a la#er which is then
s'rin-led with water. This is re'eated until one5half of the contents of the 'it is
doubled lengthwise o$er the other. The hea' is then watered, suflicient being added at
this first turn to 're$ent the wasteful use of water afterwards. After turning, the hea'
should not rise more than twel$e inches abo$e ground le$el. The second watering, /.A
tins, is gi$en twent#5four da#s after charge. At the first turn, the materials should be
arranged on the windward side of the 'it to a$oid the cooling of the mass and also
e*cessi$e dr#ing. "uring the rains, when hea's are made, it is not 'ossible to double
one5half of the hea' o$er the other. The material should then be com'letel# turned and
the hea' re5made. The hea's should be made as near as 'ossible to each other.
Chapter (
%he Chief #actors in the Indore Process
The Indore 'rocess enables the Indian culti$ator to transform his mi*ed $egetable
wastes into humus< in other words to become a chemical manufacturer. The reactions
in$ol$ed are those which ta-e 'lace under aerobic conditions during the natural deca#
of organic residues in the soil. The ob&ect of the 'rocess is to bring these changes
under strict control and then to intensif# them. A -nowledge of the chemical 'rocesses
in$ol$ed and of their relati$e im'ortance is therefore essential in a''l#ing the 'rocess
to other conditions. These matters form the sub&ect of the 'resent cha'ter.
The $ontinuous Su##ly of "i8ed 4egetable Wastes
A continuous su''l# of mi*ed $egetable wastes throughout the #ear, in a 'ro'er state
of di$ision, is the chief factor in the 'rocess. The ideal chemical com'osition of these
materials should be such that, after the bedding stage, the carbon5nitrogen ratio is in
the neighbourhood of 11;/. The material should also be in such a 'h#sical condition
that the fungi and bacteria can obtain read# access to, and brea- down the tissues
without dela#. The bar-, which is the natural 'rotection of the celluloses and lignins
against the inroads of fungi and bacteria, must first be destro#ed. This is the reason
wh# all wood# materials 55 such as cotton5stal-s, 'igeon5'ea stal-s and sann hem'
6Crotalaria juncea +.9 55 are laid on the roads and crushed b# the traffic into a fine
state of di$ision before com'osting. Still more refractor# residues li-e the stum's of
sugar5cane and millets, sha$ings, sawdust, waste 'a'er and 'ac-ing materials, old
gunn# bags and similar substances, must either be stee'ed in water for fort#5eight
hours or mi*ed with moist earth in a 'it for a few da#s before 'assing, in small
:uantities dail#, into the bedding.
The $egetable wastes which ha$e been utilized at Indore for the last si* #ears are the
following;
Residues a"ailable in lare *uantities+ Cotton stal-s, sann hem' 55 either as green
'lants rea'ed before the flowering stage or as dried stems of the cro' -e't for seed,
'igeon5'ea stal-s, sugar5cane trash, weeds, fallen lea$es.
Residues a"ailable in moderate *uantities+ !i*ed dried grass, gram stal-s, wheat
straw, uneaten and deca#ed silage, millet stal-s damaged b# rain, residues of the
safflower cro', ground5nut hus-s, ground5nut stal-s and lea$es damaged b# rain,
sugar5cane and millet stum's.
Residues a"ailable in small *uantities+ Waste 'a'er and 'ac-ing materials, sha$ings,
sawdust, worn out gunn# bags, old can$as, worn out uniforms, old leather belting.
The chemical com'osition of the abo$e or of similar materials is gi$en in Table =I.
Table 4I
$om#osition of the a! "aterials
%aterial
(r&anic
matter
)sh
Protein
s
Fats Fibre
1oluble
carbo-
hydrate
s
Nitro&en
%alvi cotton-stal>s
9<ith leaves and
+ericar+s:
0/1- /!' -/'5 '/2 '$/0 #'/5' 1/1-$
"ambodia cotton-
stal>s
$/1 '/0 #/00 1/11 #5/'1 #$/# 0/$#
"ambodia cotton
leaves
!-/#5 12/55 1#/0$ !/# !/-1 5$/1 2/25
"ambodia cotton
+ericar+s
5/2$ #/-# 11/## /!1 #5/21 2/0- 1/!'
%i=ed <eeds $/#! '0/52 10/!- 2/05 21/2 '#/$# 1/-#
1ann hem+,12
<ee>s old, stems
$/'0 '/-0 #/00 1/0$ 5'/$1 '-/$# 0/$#
1ann hem+, 12
<ee>s old, leaves
0/$# /'$ 1#/2$ 2/0 20/-0 52/!0 2/2
Sesbania indica, $
<ee>s old
!/''
10/
$-
1#/0 '/#5 22/'' #!/$- 2/'!
Pi&eon-+ea stal>s 1/0! !/2 #/'- 1/0 '/$# #5/1- 0/-0
1u&ar-cane trash #/0 5/1 2/00 1/25 #2/1$ #!/-' 0/'2
Water hyacinth -5/!0 2#/20 /'- - - - 2/1-
;eavesC
9!icus religiosa:
!1/'- 1!/$' '/00 1/'' 2$/! 5!/1! 0/#!
;eavesC
9!icus indica:
!2/0! 1-/2 2/1! 1/12 2!/'- 50/' 0/'5
%i=ed dried &rass !'/!0 1$/20 #/25 1/55 2$/20 #0/20 0/$!
%illet stal>s !/0 10/10 2/2# - 25/#2 51/5- 0/-0
%illet sila&e !/20 10/!0 #/5' 1/55 2$/!- 51/10 0/-
,ice stra< !0/0 1/10 2/25 1/05 '5/10 #0/#0 0/'$
Wheat stra< !#/-0 15/'0 '/01 0/! '5/$ '-/' 0/5!
Pi&eon-+ea
residues
!$/!0 1'/20 11/01 #/#0 1/2' ##/$- 1/
.ram residues !5/-0 1#/'0 #/$! 2/2- 2$/-1 #5/!$ 0/-5
.round-nut !$/$0 1'/#0 12/0$ 2/20 1$/$0 '/2# 1/'
residues
.round-nut hus>s !5/!0 1#/20 -/5- 2/!0 55/'5 1'/-' 1/21
It will be seen that the raw materials a$ailable at Indore differ greatl# in chemical
com'osition and 'articularl# in the 'ercentage of nitrogen. !an# of these wastes,
such as cotton5stal-s, the stems of sann hem' and of the 'igeon5'ea, and cane trash
are too low in nitrogen for ra'id com'osting. )thers 55 such as green hem', rea'ed
&ust before flowering, ground5nut residues and leguminous and other weeds 55 contain
higher 'ercentages of nitrogen, a 'ortion of which is certain to be lost during the
'rocess if these materials are com'osted singl#. A 'ro'er mi*ture of the $arious
materials a$ailable, so that the nitrogen content of the mass throughout the #ear is
-e't uniform and sufficientl# high, is the first condition of success. 4or this reason it
is necessar# to collect and stac- the $arious residues in such a manner that a regular
su''l# of dr#, mi*ed, $egetable wastes 6as alread# stated with a carbon5nitrogen ratio
in the neighbourhood of 11;/ after the material has been used as bedding9 is a$ailable
right through the #ear. This could onl# be accom'lished at Indore; 6/9 b# cutting the
cotton5stal-s soon after 'ic-ing is o$er so as to secure the ma*imum number of
lea$es< 679 b# growing a large area of sann hem', which contains when withered as
much as 7.1 'er cent of nitrogen< and 619 b# securing as much green weeds, groundnut
residues and fallen lea$es as 'ossible for the mi*ture. All these materials are rich in
nitrogen, and hel' to bring the carbon5nitrogen ratio near the re:uired standard. .#
stac-ing the $arious constituents in la#ers, not more than one foot thic-, and b# a
&udicious admi*ture with the residues richest in nitrogen, it is 'ossible to 'ro$ide a
continuous su''l# of dr# mi*ed material of the correct chemical com'osition. "uring
the rains, a good deal of the raw material is in the form of fresh green weeds, rich in
nitrogen and soluble carbo5h#drates. These must be s'read, in thin la#ers, on the grass
borders of the fields alongside the roads and withered, before being carried to the
stac- or used as one of the constituents of the bedding. )nl# in this wa# can the most
be made of this $aluable material. Collecting weeds in tem'orar# hea's on the borders
of fields leads to serious waste of the soluble carbo5h#drates and also of the nitrogen.
$om#osting Single "aterials
A number of e*'eriments ha$e been carried out at Indore during the last four #ears
with the following single materials 55 cotton5stal-s, 'igeon'ea stal-s, cane trash,
weeds 6green and withered9, sann hem' 6green and withered9. When necessar# these
residues were either 'assed through a chaff cutter or crushed with a disc harrow
before com'osting direct in hea's, eighteen inches high, or in 'its filled to the same
de'th. In some cases Adco was em'lo#ed as the source of nitrogen and base, in others
cattle5dung and urine earth were used. Sufficient water was alwa#s added to maintain
a high moisture content 6Table =II9.
Table 4II
"oisture $ontent of $otton-stal3 Hea#s
No/ of Nitro&en su++ly Percenta&e of moisture
hea+ and base
on
'/'/'0
on 15-'-
'0
on '-#-'0
1
"attle-dun& and
urine earth
$2 5$ $2
2 H $ $ #-
' H -5 $ $2
# H $2 $2 5$
5 H -5 -2 '!
$ )dco $ $ $$
Although the cotton residues, fermented direct with urine earth and cattle5dung,
contained />.A 'er cent of green lea$es 6high in nitrogen9 and e$er# care was ta-en to
maintain the correct relation between air and water, the results were not com'letel#
satisfactor#. 4ermentation was ra'id at the beginning, due to the 'resence of the
lea$es, but slowed down afterwards. It too- IA@ da#s to obtain a usable 'roduct, as
com'ared with the ninet# da#s re:uired for mi*ed wastes.
In the case of cotton5stal-s, bro-en down b# the use of Adco, the results were still
more unsatisfactor#. Se$eral interesting facts howe$er came to light. The fermentation
tended to be une$en< the tem'erature of the hea's was alwa#s irregular< the mass did
not retain moisture well< a $er# large :uantit# of water was needed. The final 'roduct,
although high in nitrogen, tended to be somewhat coarse and to contain a good deal of
'artiall# decom'osed material Plate LI9. The ma*imum tem'eratures in the Adco
hea's during the first /@@ da#s fell from A1.A degrees C. to 70.A degrees C. 6In the
standard Indore 'rocess, the range of tem'erature during ninet# da#s was >A degrees
C. to 11 degrees C.9 The final 'roduct was fairl# satisfactor# as regards fineness 6E@.A
'er cent 'assed through a sie$e of si* meshes to the linear inch9 and high in total and
a$ailable nitrogen 6total 7.A@, a$ailable @.87 'er cent9. The corres'onding figures for
the 'roduct made from cotton5stal-s with cattle5dung and urine earth were 55 fineness
E8.7 'er cent and total nitrogen /.>/, of which @./1 'er cent was a$ailable. In s'ite of
the higher nitrogen content obtained in the Adco 'roduct, no increase in growth was
obtained when e:ual :uantities of both -inds of cotton5stal- com'ost were used in 'ot
cultures of millet 64ig. D9. This result 'robabl# follows from the fact that the use of
Adco often 'roduces com'ost with a carbon5nitrogen ratio narrower than /@;/, the
ideal which should be aimed at in the manufacture of humus. The e*tra nitrogen in
such cases is alwa#s liable to be lost before the cro' can ma-e use of it.
Fig. /. 0he effe#t of Indore and &d#o #omposts on millet
The results obtained in the direct com'osting of other single materials, li-e 'igeon5
'ea stal-s and cane trash, were still more unsatisfactor#. When used alone, either with
cow5dung and urine earth or with Adco, little change too- 'lace in a month in s'ite of
co'ious watering and occasional stirring. When, howe$er, these materials were 'assed
through the cattle5shed and used as bedding, the results were distinctl# better but not
reall# satisfactor#. At the end of si* months, the hea's were onl# about half
decom'osed.
"ifficulties also arise when weeds 6fresh or withered9 or sann hem' 6fresh or
withered9 are com'osted b# themsel$es or when a mi*ture of the two is em'lo#ed. In
the first 'lace, the nitrogen content of this material is too high and serious losses of
this element ta-e 'lace. In the second 'lace, these residues, 'articularl# when fresh,
tend to 'ac- closel# in the hea's and to 're$ent aufficient aeration 6Table =III9. 4or
this reason, withered weeds or withered sann must ne$er form more than about 1@ 'er
cent of the $olume of the bedding, the rest being made u' of mi*ed residues li-e
cotton and 'igeon5'ea stal-s with a much lower nitrogen content.
Table 4III
7osses of .itrogen esulting from the $lose
Te8ture of the "ass
No/ of
+it
Withered
materials
used
2otal
nitro&en
9lb/: at the
be&innin&
2otal
nitro&en
9lb/: in
the
5nished
+roduct
;oss or
&ain of
nitro&en
9lb/:
Percenta&
e loss or
&ain
'# Weeds ##/2 25/- -1!/5 -#1/!
'!
@alf
sann,
half
<eeds
#2/! 2!/# -1#/5 -''/!
#0 do/ #/- 2/2 -20/5 -#1/'
#1
%i=ed
residues
2!/' 2/5 I1/' I#/#
When one food material at a time is 'ro$ided for the fungi and bacteria, loss of
nitrogen or aeration difficulties or both alwa#s occur. When a mi*ed diet is em'lo#ed,
e$er#thing goes smoothl#, 'ro$ided of course all other im'ortant details recei$e
attention.
.itrogen e9uirements
The total amount of combined nitrogen which must be added to the mi*ed residues for
the use of the micro5organisms is less than was at first e*'ected. The $egetable wastes
from the 1@@ acres of land at the dis'osal of the Institute can be con$erted into humus
b# means of half the urine earth and one :uarter of the cattle5dung of the fort# o*en
maintained for the wor- of the station. A satisfactor# 'roduct, with a suitable carbon5
nitrogen ratio, can be obtained with this reduced su''l# of dung 6Table IL9. At first all
the urine earth was em'lo#ed in com'osting, but it was soon found that better aeration
resulted with onl# half the :uantit#. Although in man# cases the com'ost made with
full dung contains about @./A 'er cent more nitrogen than that made with reduced
dung, the results obtained in the field were alwa#s the same 64ig. E9. The sur'lus urine
earth is used for manuring the land, the e*tra cattle5dung can either be used u' in
com'osting or can be sold for the manufacture of cow5dung ca-es 6-undas9. This
means; 6/9 that the 'resent high out'ut of com'ost could be doubled if sufficient
$egetable wastes could be obtained< and 679 that e$en after this increased out'ut is
reached, half the dung would still be in e*cess.
Fig. !. 0he effe#t of #omposts made with redu#ed '112( and
full dung
Table I:
esults !ith educed 5One-fourth6 and /ull 2ung
No/
of
+it
)moun
t of
dun&
used
2otal
nitro&en
9lb/: at
be&inni
n&
2otal
nitro&e
n 9lb/:
at end
Percenta
&e &ain
of
nitro&en
Percenta
&e of
nitro&en
at the
be&innin
&
Percenta
&e of
nitro&en
at end
"arbon
-
nitro&e
n ratio
Finenes
s
1#
,educe
d
2/12 '2/'$ 11/1 0/$- 0/!#
11/$ C
1
!!/5
15 Full '2/-0 '#/!- $/$ 0/-0 0/-2
12/$ C
1
!2/5
The fact that the culti$ator reall# re:uires onl# a fraction of his cow5dung for
con$erting all his $egetable wastes into humus, dis'oses once and for all of the $iew
that the sal$ation of Indian agriculture lies in substituting some other fuel for cow5
dung ca-es. This material is essential for the slow coo-ing needed for a $egetarian
diet As no other suitable fuel. e*ists in man# of the $illages of India, cow5dung must
be utilized. 4ortunatel#, when all the a$ailable $egetable wastes ha$e been con$erted
into humus, a large su''l# of cow5dung for fuel will still be a$ailable, and there is no
reason wh# it should not be burnt. The ashes, howe$er, should be carefull# collected
and em'lo#ed as a base in the com'ost 'rocess.
In all the com'arati$e trials which ha$e been made at Indore, with Adco on the one
hand and with urine earth and cow5dung on the other hand, far more satisfactor#
results ha$e been obtained with the indigenous materials. The wea- 'oint of Adco is
that it does nothing to o$ercome one of the great difficulties in com'osting, namel#
the absor'tion of moisture in the earl# stages. In the hot weather in India, the Adco
'its lose moisture so ra'idl# that the fermentation sto's, the tem'erature becomes
une$en and then falls. When, howe$er, urine earth and cow5dung are used, the
residues become co$ered with a thin colloidal film, which not onl# retains moisture
but contains the combined nitrogen and minerals re:uired b# the fungi. This film
enables the moisture to 'enetrate the mass and hel's the fungi to establish themsel$es.
Another disad$antage of Adco is that when this material is used according to the
directions, the carbon5nitrogen ratio of the final 'roduct is narrower than the ideal
/@;/. ,itrogen is almost certain to be lost before the cro' can ma-e use of it,
'articularl# when Adco com'ost is added to the land some wee-s before sowing ta-es
'lace 64ig. 09.
Fi&/ / ;oss of nitro&en in
)dco com+ost
The Amount of Water .eeded
It is an eas# matter to waste large :uantities of water in the 'rocess. As a result of
re'eated trials, the ma*imum econom# of water is obtained when I>E gallons 6for
e$er# 8@@ taaries of used bedding9 are added at the time of charging and during the
ne*t twent#5four hours. After this, the watering should 'roceed as laid down in
Cha'ter I=. An# de'arture, in either direction, leads to a waste of water 6Table L9.
The standard water re:uirements as now ado'ted, 'er cart5load of finished com'ost,
$aries from 7@@ to 1@@ gallons according to the season. The !alwa Plateau, on which
Indore is situated, is a windswe't area in which the humidit# is low for at least eight
months in the #ear. It is unli-el#, therefore, that these :uantities will be greatl#
e*ceeded, e*ce't in $er# dr# areas li-e the Pun&ab and Sind.
Table :
The Water e9uirements 5in 0allons6 of the
Process
No/ of
+it
1eason
7nitial
<aterin
&
2otal
<ater for
#00
tagaries
of used
beddin&
2otal
<ater +er
cart of
5nished
com+ost
5 "old
<eathe
r
1$! 120! 201
1tandard
<aterin&
no<
ado+ted at
7ndore
$ 1$! 1200 200
12 @ot
<eathe
r
1$! 1!0 '15
1' 1$! 1!0# '10
@ot !# 2!# #- 7nitial
<eathe
r
<aterin&
reduced
10 2#55 -2 #0
11 1## 2'-0 '5
- @ot
<eathe
r
2'# 20## '0# 7nitial
<aterin&
increased
! 2'2 2500 #1$
At the beginning of the 'rocess, care should be ta-en to add &ust sufficient moisture to
-ee' the a$erage water content below A@ 'er cent of com'lete saturation, so as to hel'
the fungi to establish themsel$es ra'idl# and strongl#. This matter is im'ortant, as the
$egetable wastes ta-e u' water $er# slowl# at the beginning. If too much is added at
this stage, free water tends to accumulate in the air s'aces and to hinder aeration. This
chec-s the growth of the fungi, which thri$e best if the total moisture is below A@ 'er
cent. The moment the crumbling of the material sets in, water is absorbed more
ra'idl#. After the first turn and till the com'ost is read# to cart to the fields, the total
moisture content should $ar# between A@ and >@ 'er cent. After the final turn, when
no more water is added, the 'ercentage again dro's to what it was at the beginning,
namel# under A@ 'er cent. "uring the rains, the water content of the hea's naturall#
tends to run a little higher than in the dr# season 6Table LI9.
Table :I
Percentage of "oisture in Pits 52ry
Weather6 and Hea#s 5"onsoon6
Pits 9dry
<eather:
@ea+s
9monsoon:
7nitial sta&e
#'--5 $!--
#$/ $5/$
50/0 $2/5
)fter the 5rst turn
5/# 5/#
5/# 5$/2
52/' $!/-
)fter the second
turn
50/0 $2/#
50/0 $2/5
5#-0 $2/5
5$/2 $2-5
52/' -
)fter the 5nal turn
55/0 $0/5
52/0 $2/5
$2/5 $2/2
$2/5 -
,i+e manure
52/0 50/0
#-/$ #'/!
#$/! #/-
#'/0 #-/$
##/$ 50/2
The de'ressing effect on the fermentation of $er# hea$# monsoon down'ours was
well brought out during a wet 'eriod of se$en da#s 6/@5/> Se'tember /01@9, when
/7.E> inches occurred, //.>A inches of which were recei$ed in one continuous fall,
lasting se$ent#5two hours. At the end of this s'ell, there was a tem'orar# fall in the
tem'erature of the hea's. Three or four da#s after the down'our sto''ed, fermentation
again became $igorous as is seen b# the ra'id rise in the tem'erature 6Table LII9.
Table :II
The ;<ect of Hea%y ainfall 5(*.=+ Inches6
on the Tem#erature of /ermenting Hea#s
)&e of @ea+
2em+erature in de&rees "
Before
the rain
)fter the
rain
2hree
days
after
the rain
sto++ed
First <ee> $1 ## 5'
H 5 '- 50
)fter the 5rst turn 55 '! 52
H 5# ' 5'
)fter the second turn 51 '0 #!
H #! '2 #!
)fter the third turn #1 2 '!
H #0 '0 '!
The Su##ly of Air
The control of the aeration factor is 'erha's the most difficult 'art of the 'rocess, and
re:uires careful attention. The first condition of success in obtaining a sufficient
su''l# of o*#gen and nitrogen for the micro5organisms, is the use of mi*ed bedding
which maintains an o'en te*ture through out the 'rocess. As alread# e*'lained, single
materials alwa#s tend to 'ac- too closel# and to cut off the air su''l#. The second
condition of success is attention to detail at the time of charging. The bedding must be
carefull# s'read, the urine earth, the cow5dung slurr# and the wood ashes must be
e$enl# scattered. Water must be 'ro'erl# distributed o$er the whole mass, and there
must be no tram'ling. At the time of the first and second turns, the s'ading or for-ing
must be carried out so that the material falls lightl#, when thorough mi*ing ta-es
'lace with the ma*imum amount of aeration. The third condition of success concerns
the de'th of the 'it or hea', which must ne$er e*ceed twent#5four inches. This is the
ma*imum distance to which air can 'enetrate the fermenting mass in sufficient
$olume. If this de'th is e*ceeded, two things ha''en; 6/9 the deca# of the la#ers
below twent#5four inches is retarded< 679 is alwa#s a loss of nitrogen through
denitrification 6Table LIII9.
Table :III
$om#ost "a3ing in 2ee# and Shallo!
Pits
Pits # ft/
dee+
Pits 2 ft/
dee+
)mount of material
9lb/: in char&e
#500 #51#
2otal nitro&en 9lb/: at
the be&innin&
'1/25 2/12
2otal nitro&en 9lb/: at
the end
2/# '2/'$
;oss or &ain of nitro&en
9lb/:
-1/-$ I'/2#
Percenta&e loss or &ain
of nitro&en
-$/1 I11/1
The air su''l# can also be 'ermanentl# interfered with if too much earth and cow5
dung are used at the time of the first charge. These materials ma-e the whole mass too
solid and 'ac- it too closel#. Anaerobic conditions are then established. This is
indicated b# the smell and b# the a''earance of flies, which then find suitable
breeding conditions. The remed# is at once to turn the material, with the addition of
cow5dung slurr# and wood ashes. Tem'orar# interru'tions in aeration also follow
o$erwatering or the soa-ing due to hea$# rain. These troubles, howe$er, 'ass in two
or three da#s as the hea' dries and the sur'lus moisture is graduall# ta-en u' b# the
mass 6Table LII9.
The "aintenance of the 0eneral eaction
In order to maintain the general reaction of the mass within the o'timum range, a
suitable base is necessar# for neutralizing e*cessi$e acidit#, and for the tem'orar#
absor'tion of an# ammonia that ma# be gi$en off during the 'rocess. The urine earth
and wood ashes 'ro$ide this in the most economical manner. .lac- cotton soil 6Table
LI=9 contains an am'le reser$e of wea- bases. The buffering effect of these maintains
the general reaction constant throughout 6Table L=9. 4urther, blac- soil contains a
high 'ercentage of cla#, the colloids of which are most useful in two wa#s. In the first
'lace, these substances are ca'able of tem'oraril# absorbing, till re:uired for
o*idation, an# ammonia gi$en off in the 'rocess. In the second 'lace, the colloids,
when mi*ed with the urine and cow5dung, co$er the $egetable wastes with a thin,
nutrient, moisture5retaining film which is of the utmost $alue, not onl# in the gradual
absor'tion of water but also in 'ro$iding the fungi with a fa$ourable nidus for the
stead# brea-ing down of the $egetable wastes. The result is the ra'id establishment of
a $igorous m#celial growth, and the earl# crumbling of the whole mass. When a
colloidal film is not em'lo#ed, as in the Adco 'rocess, it is most difficult to get the
material to absorb and retain sufficient moisture. Conse:uentl#, an e$en and $igorous
m#celial growth is ne$er :uic-l# obtained. The colloids in soil are essential, both for
coa*ing water into the material and also for enabling the fungi to establish themsel$es
ra'idl# and $igorousl#. The fungi are the storm troo's of the com'osting 'rocess, and
must be furnished with all the armament the# need.
Table :I4
"echanical and $hemical Analyses of &lac3 Soil
%echanical "hemical
Fraction 7 77 777
"onstitue
nt
7 77 777
"lay #2/5 #5/$ '!/' 7nsolubles 5$/1 -'/! $!/-
Fine 1ilt 1/$ 21/! 1-/- FA20' /! /1 11/2
1ilt 12/5 10/! 11/' %N(2 -- 0/1 0/'
Fine 1and -/# #/2 $/- "a( $/$ 0/ 1/0
"oarse 1and 10/2 $/0 '/0 %&( 2/5 1/5 1/!
%oisture '/' $/# '/0 B2( 0/# 0/2 0/#
;oss on '/0 5/- 2/- Na2( 0/2 - -
7&nition
"alcium
"arbonate
1/$ $/1 1/# P2(5 0/0! 0/1- 0/0$
"(2 0/! 0/1 0/#
N 0/0' 0/05 0/05
(r&anic
combined
<ater
/# -/# 5/!'
Table :4
eaction and Tem#erature in the Indore
Process
1ta&e +@ value
2em+erature
in de&/ "
(ne day after char&e -/2 $'
)fter 5rst turn 91
days old:
-/# #
)fter second turn 9'#
days old:
-/5 #5
)fter third turn 9$0
days old:
-/$ #1
,i+e manure 90 days
old:
-/- '5
In a recent 'a'er, recei$ed &ust as this cha'ter was com'leted, Gensen has shown that
cellulose decom'osing bacteria multi'l# most strongl# at 'H D.@5E.@.
The /ermentation Processes
In addition to 'ro$iding suitable conditions for the ra'id de$elo'ment of the micro5
organisms, it is necessar# to inoculate the mass at the 'ro'er moment, so that there is
no dela# in the con$ersion. This is arranged for at the time of charging, when the 'its
are uniforml# infected with acti$el# growing fungus m#celium, ta-en from a com'ost
'it ten to fifteen da#s old. At the same time, the bacteria 'resent in cow5dung are
introduced in large numbers. A further inoculation is carried out at the time of the first
turn, when com'ost from a 'it thirt# da#s old is introduced into the mass. This
'ro$ides a su''l# of the organisms re:uired for the second half of the 'rocess.
The acti$it# of the $arious micro5organisms can most easil# be followed from the
tem'erature records. A $er# high tem'erature, about >A degrees C., is established at
the outset, which continues for a long time with onl# a moderate downward gradient
6Table L=I9. This range fits in $er# well with the o'timum tem'erature conditions
re:uired for the micro5organisms which brea- down cellulose. The aerobic
thermo'h#lic bacteria thri$e best between 81 degrees and >1 degrees C.< the fungi
between 8@ degrees and AA degrees C.
Table :4I
Tem#erature ange in a .ormal Pit
%oisture #5 to 55 +er cent
)&e
2em+eratu
re in de&/
"
Period in days for each
fall of 5 de&/ "
12
hours
$5 2em+erature ,an&e
6ay
s
6ays $5J-$0J #
' $' $0J-55J -
# $0 55J-50J 1
$ 5! 50J-#5J 25
11 55 #5J-#0J 2
12 5' #0J-'5J ##
1' # '5J-'0J 1#
1# #
!irst Turn
1! #
20 51
22 #!
2# #-
2 #$
Second Turn
'- #
'! #5
#0 #0
#' '
5- '
Third Turn
$1 #1
$$ '
$!--$ '!
!2 '$
0 ''
The tem'eratures throughout the fermenting mass are e*traordinaril# uniform in the
'its< in the hea's the range is somewhat greater 6Table LII9. An anal#sis of the figures
shows that, before each turn, a definite slowing down in the fermentation ta-es 'lace.
As soon as the mass is remade, when more thorough admi*ture with co'ious aeration
occurs, there is a renewal of acti$it# during which the undecom'osed 'ortion of the
$egetable matter from the outside of the 'it or hea' is attac-ed. At least three t#'es of
fermentation a''ear to be in$ol$ed, which succeed one another with great ra'idit#.
Two of these 55 those which occur between A@ degrees to 8A degrees C. and 8@
degrees to 1A degrees C. 55 are long continued. It is during these latter stages of the
'rocess that the transformation of the $egetable wastes into humus occurs,
accom'anied b# the ra'id crumbling and shrin-age of the mass. A detailed anal#sis of
the 'hases of micro5biological acti$it# and the determination of the organisms
concerned has not #et been carried out. The results, when obtained, cannot fail to
throw considerable light on the real origin of humus and should also hel' to clear u' a
large field of rather obscure organic chemistr#. This sub&ect can naturall# be more
effecti$el# studied in the mass under factor# conditions than on a small scale in 'ot
cultures or in the laborator#.
Table :4II
Uniformity of Tem#erature in the /ermenting "ass
)&e in
days
%ethod of
ta>in&
readin&s
2em+erature in
de&/ "/
%eteorolo&ical details
2o+ %iddl Botto @umidit %a=/ %in/ ,ain
e m y
2em+/
de&/ F/
2em+/
de&/ F/
in
inches
"its -- cold
weather
2 6ia&onally $2 $' $1 ## -- #' -
2- H #- #! #$
--/5 !1 5' -
2- Gertically #$ #! #!
5$ 6ia&onally ' ' '! 55 -0 '/5 -
0
1i= inch layer
removed
'1 '1 '1 55 -0 '/5 -
"its -- hot
weather
2 )t random $- $- 1 $$ '0 10$ -1 -
21 H 5' 5'/5 5' $2 100 $$ 0/2'
#eaps --
monsoon
' )t random $1 5$ $2 !2 ! -5 -
21 H 52 55 50 -'/5 !! -1 -
5 H #0 #0 #0 2/5 !$ -1 -
$0 H #0 #0 #0 -0--5 0/5 $# -
Wind is alwa#s a source of trouble and does most harm during the earl# stages of
fermentation 55 between charging and the first turn 55 b# lowering the tem'erature.
The effect is most mar-ed in the hea's 6Table L=III9 which hel's to e*'lain wh# the
'rocess is not :uite so efficient in the rains as it is in 'its during the rest of the #ear.
Table :4III
;<ect of Wind on a Hea#
)&e 9days:
2em+erature in de&/
"/
Wind<ard ;ee<ard
2hree 5' $#
First turn ## 5$
H #- 55
1econd turn '! #0
H '! '
2hird turn ' #1
H '! #0
The wind factor can be minimized during the rains b# arranging the hea's so that the#
shelter each other. The 'its must alwa#s be orientated so that the length is at right
angles to the direction of the 're$ailing wind. This gi$es each 'it a windward and a
leeward side. The first turn must alwa#s be made towards the windward side, so that
the earth wall of the 'it 'rotects the mass. Tem'orar# s'ells of cold weather of short
duration, such as occur in India, ha$e no in&urious effect 6Table LIL9. The
fermentation is so $igorous that these sudden changes of tem'erature are not able to
chec- the 'rocess. Hence in the tro'ics, com'ost houses are unnecessar#.
Table :I:
;<ect of $old Weather on the
/ermentation in A Pit
)&e 9days:
2em+erature in de&/ "/
Pit )ir 9%inimum:
1 $5 !
1 $2 11/1
1 $2 $/1
1 $2 /#
# $0 11/1
# 5 !/'
# $0 #/1
The disintegrating 'ower of the 'rocess is so intense that unbro-en stems of grass and
weeds, se$eral feet in length, are reduced in ninet# da#s to 'artiall# deca#ed
fragments onl# a few inches in length. The long continued moist heat of the
fermentation also leads to other useful results besides hel'ing to soften and brea-
down the mass. The high tem'eratures ma-e the 'rocess sanitar#, and 're$ent all
ob&ectionable smell. 4lies and other insects cannot breed in the hot mass. The seeds of
weeds are -illed in the 'rocess, as is shown b# the fact that no weeds grow on the
hea's of ri'e com'ost. To confirm this 'oint, Is. of grass seeds were mi*ed with the
bedding of two 'its. 2ermination tests of the ri'e manure ga$e negati$e results in
each case.
0ains and 7osses of .itrogen
A sim'le means of testing the efficienc# of the 'rocess is to determine the amount of
nitrogen lost. When $egetable wastes, with a carbon5nitrogen ratio in the
neighbourhood of 11;/, are com'osted under strict aerobic conditions in the 'resence
of suitable bases, there should be no loss of nitrogen whatsoe$er. If an# loss of this
element occurs, the 'rocess itself must be at fault. A careful nitrogen balance sheet has
therefore been -e't for a number of 'its and hea's, which shows that under normal
conditions no loss of nitrogen ta-es 'lace 6Table LL9. )n the contrar#, nitrogen is
gained, a''arentl# b# fi*ation from the atmos'here.
Table ::
.itrogen &alance Sheets in .ormal Pits and Hea#s
No/ 6escri+tion
2otal
nitro&en
9lb/: at
the
be&innin
&
2otal N
nitro&en
9lb/: in
the
5nished
+roduct
2otal
&ain in
nitro&en
9lb/:
Percenta&e
&ain of
nitro&en
9lb/:
Pit
1#
1tandard
91K# dun&:
2/12 '2/'$ '/2# 11/1
15 Full dun& '2/-0 '#/!- 2/1- $/$
1$ 6ry dun& '0/#1 '2/'' 1/2 $/'
1!
Full dun&
9residues lo<
in nitro&en:
2/10 '$/-- -/$- 2$/'
1 6ry dun& 2/55 '0/-0 1/15 '/
20
1tandard
91K# dun&:
2#/-' 25/!0 1/0- #/'
21
Full dun&
9half +eriod
in monsoon:
'2/'5 ''/#0 0/15 0/#5
@ea+
#2 %onsoon 22/2! 2/52 1/2# #/#
In one case, ,o. /E, in which residues 'oor in nitrogen were com'osted with the full
su''l# of dung, a $er# large amount of fi*ation too- 'lace. It will be interesting to
in$estigate cases such as these in greater detail, and to determine the e*act conditions
under which such a large $olume of free nitrogen can be fi*ed.
While losses of nitrogen do not ta-e 'lace in normal 'its or hea's, waterlogging of the
'its during the earl# rains, e$en for a short 'eriod, is at once followed b#
denitrification 6Table LLI9.
Table ::I
.itrogen &alance Sheet of Tem#orarily
Waterlogged Pits
No/
6escri+ti
on
2otal
nitro&en
9lb/: at
the
be&innin
&
2otal
nitro&en
9lb/: in
the
5nished
+roduct
2otal
&ain in
nitro&en
9lb/:
Percenta&
e &ain of
nitro&en
9lb/:
Pit
2# Full dun& '1/!0 2/$$ 2/1# $/-
25 Full dun& 2/55 2-/10 2/15 !/1
,itrogen is alwa#s lost in the first stage of the 'rocess 55 between charging and the
first turn 55 whene$er the nitrogen content of the mass is too high at the beginning
6Table LLII9.
Table ::II
$hanges in .itrogen $ontent during
the /irst Stages of the Process
No/ 6escri+tion
Percenta&
e nitro&en
at the
be&innin&
Percenta&e
nitro&en
after the
5rst turn
$esidues
poor in
nitrogen
Pit 1#
1tandard --
dry season
0/$! 0/!#
Pit 25
1tandard --
dry season
0/$' 0/$0
@ea+
#1
1tandard --
monsoon
0/$# 0/$#
$esidues
rich in
nitrogen
Pit 5
Full dun& --
dry season
1/0# 0/-0
Pit $
Full dun& --
dry season
0/!$ 0/-'
Pit #0
Full dun& --
monsoon
1/'0 1/0'
Another loss of nitrogen which has to be guarded against ta-es 'lace when the final
'roduct is -e't too long in hea's. An a''reciable loss of nitrogen ta-es 'lace e$en
when the com'ost is -e't for an e*tra month in the hea' 6Table LLIII9. After ninet#
da#s the 'rocess is com'lete, when the humus should be used as a to' dressing for
growing cro's or else ban-ed b# a''l#ing it to the land, when it becomes diluted with
such large $olumes of dr# earth that all further changes are chec-ed.
Table ::III
.itrogen 7osses during Storage in Hea#s
No/ of
Pit
Percenta&e of total
nitro&en on dry basis
after three months
Percenta&e of total
nitro&en on dry basis
after four months
- 0/0 0/!!
! 1/00 0/'
1# 0/!# 0/!1
15 0/-2 0/$!
The $haracter of the /inal Product
The ri'e com'ost consists of a brownish5blac-, finel# di$ided 'owder, of which about
E@ 'er cent will 'ass through a sie$e of si* meshes to the linear inch. The state of
di$ision of an organic manure is an im'ortant factor, second onl# to its chemical
com'osition. This 'ro'ert# enables the Indore com'ost to be ra'idl# and easil#
incor'orated, and to e*ert its ma*imum effect on the internal surface of the soil. The
carbon5nitrogen ratio is not far from the ideal figure of /);/. The nitrogen is therefore
in a stable form, which does not 'ermit of liberation be#ond the absor'tion ca'acit#
of the cro'. The 'ercentage of total nitrogen is also satisfactor#, $ar#ing from @.E to
/.@ 'er cent 6Table LLI=9.
Table ::I4
$om#osition of the /inal Product
No/ of
+it or
hea+
%aterials
used
(r&ani
c
%atter
2otal
)sh
1ilicat
es and
1and
Nitro&en P2(5 B2( "KN
1olubl
e
@umu
s
Finenes
s
@ea+
"otton-
stal>s <ith
reduced
91K#: dun&
''/2
$$/0

'#/- 1/$1 0/#! '/'!1$/5C1 11/5$ $!/15

Pit -
6ry mi=ed
residues
20/1#
-/!
-
#$/1 0/0 0/#1 1/511/2C1 5/5$ -2/'
Pit 1#
6ry mi=ed
residues
1/$$
!0/'
#
#$/'2 0/!# 0/$! 2/'511/$C1 $/2- !!/5
Pit !
6ry mi=ed
<ith full
dun&
20/1
-/!
2
#$/2-
1/00#1/0
0#
0/51 '/0510/!C1 #/!' !1/'
Pit 15
6ry mi=ed
<ith full
dun&
1!/'
!1/$
2
51/'' 0/-25 -- 2/#'12/$C1 '/!$ !2/5
Pit 5
6ry mi=ed
<ith full
dun&
1/-$
!0/2
#
50/11 0/!#1
0/#0
'
2/2'11/-C1 5/2 !#/0
$esults obtained in the monsoon
@ea+ $
%i=ed
<ithered
<eeds
21/25
-!/-
5
#-/55 0/!$2 0/#' 2/''12/'C1 #/01 -$/'
@ea+ %i=ed 22/05 --/ #-/-- 0/!0! 0/# #/1'/$C1 #/0- -!/#
10
<ithered
<eeds
5
@ea+
22
%i=ed
<ithered
<eeds
22/0
--/
1
#!/#5 0/1# 0/51 '/5 12C1 #/'1 -5/-
@ea+
'#
%i=ed
<ithered
<eeds
1/'!
!0/$
'
#!/- 0/$25 0/5 5/'115/5C1 #/2- -/#
@ea+
#0
@alf
<ithered
<eeds, half
sann
21/05
-/
5
#-/$1 0/!25 0/55 2/!5
12/-5C
1
5/$ -!/$
@ea+
#2
6ry mi=ed
residues
21/$
-!/'
2
#$/#1 0/!0$ 0/$2 '/$51'/5C1 5/'$ !#/0
The nitrif#ing 'ower of the com'ost, 'articularl# that made from mi*ed residues, is
$er# satisfactor#. +aborator# tests, carried out under conditions resembling those of
the field during the earl# monsoon rains, ga$e the results noted in Table LL=. These
figures bring out clearl# the su'eriorit# of the 'roduct made from mi*ed residues.
Table ::4
The .itrifying Po!er of Indore $om#ost under $onditions esembling Those of the
"onsoon
1/22 &m/ dry, ash-free or&anic matter and #1 m&/ nitro&en added +er 100 &m/ of air-dry soil/
%oisture durin& the e=+eriments bet<een 2' and '0 +er cent/
1am+le
)fter - days )fter 1# days )fter 21 days )fter 2! days
Nitric
nitro&e
n m&/
L
humus
nitro&e
n
nitri5e
d
%oistur
e +er
cent
Nitric
nitro&e
n m&/
L
humus
nitro&e
n
nitri5e
d
%oistur
e +er
cent
Nitric
nitro&e
n m&/
L
humus
nitro&e
n
nitri5e
d
%oistur
e +er
cent
Nitric
nitro&e
n m&/
L
humus
nitro&e
n
nitri5e
d
%oistur
Blac>
"otton
1oil
alone
9control
:
1/1 2/-
2#/-2#/
-
1/1 2/- 2'/# 1/' '/2 25/2 1/'5 '/'
Blac>
"otton
1oil I
com+o
st from
mi=ed
residue
s
1/! #/# 2'/5 1/ #/$ 2#/1 2/05 5/0 2#/5 2/5 $/1
Blac>
"otton
1oil I
com+o
st from
cotton-
stal>s
1/!5 #/5 2'/# 1/5 #/! 2'/- 2/25 5/5 2$/' 2/5 5/0
.esides its $alue as a source of readil# a$ailable nitrogen, the Indore com'ost acts as
an indirect manure. The 'ermeabilit# of the blac- cotton soil is mar-edl# im'ro$ed,
'articularl# b# the 'roduct from mi*ed residues 6Table LL=I9.
Table ::4I
In>uence of Indore $om#ost on the
Permeability of &lac3 $otton Soil
Period
of
e=+osur
e
6uration
of
+ercolatio
n
No/ of cc/ of 5ltrate
collected
Permeabilit
y ratio
Blac>
cotto
n soil
only
Blac>
cotton
soil I
com+ost
from
mi=ed
residues
Blac>
cotton
soil I
com+ost
from
cotton-
stal>s
' <ee>s 2 hours 1'2 225 220 1C1/-C1/5
# <ee>s
1/5 hours - 1$# 1'0 1C1/-C 1/'
$ hours 15 '#0 2!0 1C1/-C1/#
2he method ado+ted in carryin& out these
+ermeability tests is to maintain the moisture in the
sam+les bet<een 2' and '0 +er cent as in the case
of the nitri5cation tests/ ) <ei&hed +ortion 9150 &m/:
of the moist sam+les is churned for 5fteen minutes
<ith 500 cc/ of distilled <ater in a Bouyonco?s soil
cu+ by means of the electric mi=er/ 2he sus+ension is
then Duic>ly +oured on a 3uted a&ar 5lter, and the
volume of the 5ltrates obtained durin& eDual +eriods
measured/
The loss of 'ermeabilit# which ta-es 'lace in these soils after the earl# rains, is
'erha's the greatest obstacle to high #ields of cotton. A manure, therefore, which will
hel' to remo$e this factor, is e*actl# what the culti$ator needs. This 'ro'ert# will
'ro$e of the greatest $alue in -ee'ing al-ali in chec-, when the 'rocess is a''lied to
the close allu$ial soils of the Pun&ab and Sind.
It will be clear from the results set out in this cha'ter that a solution of the 'roblem of
utilizing the waste 'roducts of agriculture itself has been sol$ed, b# methods which
are well within the means of an# industrious culti$ator. All the recent wor- on the
'roblems of manuring 'oints clearl# to the su'reme im'ortance of organic matter of
the right t#'e. This must 'ossess a carbon5nitrogen ratio in the neighbourhood of
/@;/, and must be s#nthesized from cro' residues b# means of fungi and bacteria,
wor-ing under aerobic conditions. Clearl# the thing to do is to manufacture such a
'roduct in a com'ost factor# under strict control, and then to add the organic matter to
the soil. This has been accom'lished at Indore.
6After this cha'ter was written, a 'a'er b# Wa-sman and 2erretsen a''eared in the
issue of %coloy of Ganuar# /01/, which confirms the results set out abo$e in a $er#
remar-able wa#, The ,ew Gerse# e*'eriments deal with the influence of tem'erature
and moisture on the decom'osition of 'lant residues as a whole. The higher the
tem'erature, the more ra'id is the decom'osition of the material including the lignins.
At the highest tem'erature, 1D degrees C., the carbon5nitrogen ratio was reduced from
about /)) to //.1;/, to almost the ratio of the organic matter in normal soil. When
decom'osition was most fa$ourable and most ra'id, the final carbon5nitrogen ratio
was 'racticall# the same as that in soil humus. This is e*actl# what ha''ens in the
Indore 'rocess. The American results, which were obtained under laborator#
conditions, full# confirm our factor# e*'erience of the last four #ears in India and can
be a''lied, 'racticall# as the# stand, to the Indore 'rocess.9
Plate I3. 0urning the ompost- '1( First turn. '2( 4e#ond turn
Second turn.
)ne month after charge 6Plate IL9. The water re:uired is about three tins. The
material is cut $erticall# in two inch slices and 'iled u' with watering as before along
the em't# half of the 'it. The material should fall loosel#, under each stro-e of the
s'ade and not in lum's, so as to ensure co'ious aeration. The third and fourth
waterings, /.A tins each, are gi$en fi$e and si* wee-s after charge.
)hird turn.
Two months after charge 6Plate L9. About two tins of water are necessar#. A
rectangular hea' is made on the ground alongside the 'it or in the field, not more than
/@ ft. broad at the base, 0 ft. wide at the to' and 1.A ft. high, the material being s'aded
and 'iled with watering as before. 6When the hea' is made in the field, all the water
needed should be added at the time of carting.9 The contents of se$eral 'its ma# now
be 'laced side b# side to sa$e s'ace, to economize water and to facilitate remo$al.
The fifth and si*th waterings, /.7A tins each, are gi$en nine and ten wee-s after
charge. 4or the first time during the 'rocess, e*tra labour, namel# three men and four
women for si* hours, is re:uired for each 'it at the third turn. As the hea' can be
made either in the factor# or in the field, this additional labour can be debited to the
a''lication of the humus to the land.
Plate 3. '1( 5eneral view of the ompost Fa#tory at Indore. '2( 0he effe#t of
ompost on wheat.
Three months after charge the manure is read#, when it should be a''lied to the land.
If -e't in hea's longer than three months after charge, nitrogen is certain to be lost.
There is no great harm in 'utting the manure on the land after two months if urgentl#
re:uired, es'eciall# when the 'rocess has run for some time and e$er#thing is in full
wor-ing order.
Time-Table of O#erations
The com'lete time5table of the manufacture of com'ost, which ta-es ninet# da#s, is
gi$en in Table =.
Table 4
The $om#lete Time-table for One
$om#ost Pit
6ay Avent
1 "har&in& be&ins/
$ "har&in& ends/
10 Fun&us &ro<th established/
12 First <aterin&/
1$K1-
First turnin&, com+ost inoculated <ith
bacteria from another +it thirty days
old/
2# 1econd <aterin&/
'0K'2 1econd turnin&/
'! 2hird <aterin&/
#5 Fourth <aterin&/
$0 2hird turnin&/
$- Fifth <aterin&/
-5 1i=th <aterin&/
0 ,emoval to 5eld/
Out#ut
4ift# cart5loads of ri'e com'ost 'er 'air of o*en 'er annum can be made from the
'lant residues a$ailable on an# holding. The :uantit# can be more than doubled when
all the dung and urine earth are used, 'ro$ided of course sufficient $egetable refuse
can be secured. 4ift# to se$ent#5fi$e tins 67@@ to 1@@ gallons9 of water, according to
the season, are sufficient to ma-e one cart5load of finished com'ost. ,o e*tra labour
is re:uired other than that usuall# em'lo#ed in the cattle5shed, namel# two men and
three women. These are sufficient for the wor- connected with fort# o*en and the
're'aration of /,@@@ carts of com'ost 'er annum.
The labour needed for the annual manufacture of /,@@@ cart5loads of com'ost has
been reduced to a minimum b#; 6/9 the 'ro$ision of a water su''l#< 679 the general
design of the cattle5shed and com'ost factor# and 619 the detailed training of the
labour force to carr# out the wor- :uic-l# and without unnecessar# fatigue. This
as'ect of the manufacture of humus has been greatl# assisted b# the s#stem of
managing labour ado'ted at the Institute 6A''endi* "9.
"uring the #ear /01@, when E8@ cart5loads of com'ost were 're'ared, a careful record
of the actual time s'ent on com'ost ma-ing b# the labour em'lo#ed to loo- after the
wor- cattle, was made. It was found that one half of the time of this labour was s'ent
on the care of the cattle and one half on the ma-ing of com'ost. The total wages
debited to actual com'ost ma-ing came to %s 88/.A, i.e. to E.A annas, or nine'ence
half'enn#, 'er cart5load of finished material. "uring the 'resent #ear, /01/, the out'ut
has increased and is e*'ected to reach /,@@@ cart5loads. It is best to s'read the
com'ost on the land directl# it becomes read#, so as to facilitate the distribution of
farm wor- throughout the #ear.
"anurial 4alue of Indore $om#ost
)ne cart5load of Indore com'ost is e:ui$alent, as regards nitrogen content, to two
cart5loads of ordinar# farm#ard manure. Pro'erl# made com'ost has another great
ad$antage o$er ordinar# manure, namel# its fine 'owder# character which enables it
to be uniforml# incor'orated with the soil and to be ra'idl# con$erted into food
materials for the cro'. Ta-ing e$er#thing into consideration, Indore com'ost has about
three times the $alue of ordinar# manure. The cro's of irrigated wheat and sugar5cane,
raised on land which has been graded and afterwards manured with com'ost, are
shown in Plates L and LI.
Plate 3I. '1( 0he effe#t of ompost on sugar-#ane. '2( ompost made %y the Indore
and &d#o methods.
Chapter )
Application to Other Areas
In the 'resent cha'ter, the $arious ada'tations that will be needed, and the further
in$estigations that must be underta-en before the Indore 'rocess can be widel#
ado'ted, will briefl# be considered.
Ada#tations
As far as the tro'ics and sub5tro'ics are concerned, the 'rocess can be ado'ted as it
stands. ,o 'articular difficulties are li-el# to be encountered at an# stage. After the
collection, storage and admi*ture of the raw materials, including dung and urine earth,
the two chief factors on which success de'ends are; 6/9 the maintenance of a high
tem'erature in the 'its or hea's< and 679 ade:uate aeration throughout the
manufacture. With ordinar# care, tem'erature difficulties are unli-el# to occur, as the
dail# mean in these regions is alwa#s high, and the occasional cold s'ells are of short
duration. All that is needed is the 'ro'er orientation of the 'its or hea's to 're$ent
o$erdue cooling b# high winds, 'articularl# during the inter$al between charging and
the first turn. The maintenance of the correct degree of aeration re:uires more care.
The chief difficult# li-el# to arise is the flooding of the 'its after hea$# rain or b# the
rise of the ground water. The material then becomes thoroughl# soa-ed, and ade:uate
aeration is im'ossible. If this o$erwatering cannot be 're$ented b# catch drains, 'its
will ha$e to be gi$en u' and the manufacture conducted in hea's on the surface.
"irect wetting through hea$# falls does little or no 'ermanent harm 6but see Cha'ter
A, Table LI for the tem'orar# effects9. This was clearl# established at Indore during
the monsoon of /01@, when the total rainfall was fort#5fi$e inches, most of which was
recei$ed between IA Gune and /A Se'tember. This included fi$e falls of o$er two
inches and two of o$er fi$e inches in twent#5four hours. In s'ite of these hea$#
down'ours, the con$ersion 'roceeded e$enl# and without difficult#< there was little or
no loss of soluble nitrogen b# leaching< the amount of moisture absorbed from the
rainfall did not interfere with the o*#gen su''l#. 4or these reasons it is not necessar#
in warm countries to carr# on the manufacture under co$er. The erection and
maintenance of sheds therefore need not be considered.
In the dam'er areas of the tro'ics li-e 'arts of Africa and the West Indies, which do
not 'ossess a cattle force at all com'arable with that of India, a difficult# in
maintaining the correct carbon5nitrogen ratio of the mi*ture ma# occur. There ma# be
insufficient dung and urine earth for con$erting the large :uantities of $egetable
wastes which are a$ailable. The shortage can be made u' b# the use of nitrate of soda
or b# the Adco 'owders. If such artificials are em'lo#ed, it will be a great ad$antage
to ma-e use of soil as the 'rinci'al base for -ee'ing the general reaction uniform and
within the o'timum range. Soil is the best base for neutralizing acidit# and for
absorbing ammonia and is far more effecti$e than lime or wood ashes. This material
'ossesses two other im'ortant ad$antages in the ma-ing of com'ost. In the first 'lace,
the soil colloids are $er# retenti$e of moisture and so hel' to -ee' the water content of
the mass stead#. In the second 'lace, the colloids co$er the $egetable matter with a
thin adherent film which can retain in situ all the materials 55 combined nitrogen and
minerals, soluble carboh#drates, water and o*#gen essential for the ra'id de$elo'ment
of the micro5organisms. The result is that there is no dela# in the brea-ing down of the
$egetable wastes and in the s#nthesis of microbial tissue. When earth is omitted from
the mi*ture, two difficulties at once arise. The su''l# of moisture for the
microorganisms is intermittent< the general reaction becomes inconsistant. "ela#s
ensue. 4or these reasons, the Adco 'rocess could easil# be im'ro$ed b# the &udicious
use of earth. If lime were omitted from the Adco mi*ture, the freight on this item
could be sa$ed and the usefulness of the rest of the 'owder increased.
In those areas of the tem'erate regions where winter occurs, one im'ortant
modification of the 'rocess ma# be needed. As will be e$ident from a stud# of the
results set out in Cha'ter =, one of the difficulties against which 'ro$ision has to be
made is the lowering of the tem'erature of the fermenting mass b# cold and wind. 4or
the micro5organisms to com'lete the con$ersion in ninet# da#s, the hea's must be
-e't at a high tem'erature throughout. ,o difficulties are li-el# to arise during the
summer. Trouble howe$er is li-el# during the colder months 55 ,o$ember to A'ril.
"uring this 'eriod the fermentation ma# ha$e to be carried out in sheds or in com'ost
houses on the Ga'anese 'rinci'le. !an# e*isting farm buildings could be ada'ted for
the 'ur'ose< the ideal structure howe$er would ha$e to be designed 55 a tas- which
will be lightened after a careful stud# of the methods in use in those areas of Ga'an
where com'ost houses are the rule.
The difficult# of ado'ting the s#stem in countries li-e Canada, the United States and
2reat .ritain, where labour is dear and scarce, will be sol$ed b# the mechanization of
the 'rocess. The first ste' would be for one or two of the e*'eriment stations to
transform all their $egetable wastes into com'ost b# hand labour regardless of
e*'ense, and then to determine the $alue of the 'roduct in maintaining cro'
'roduction at a high le$el. The full 'ossibilities of humus will onl# a''ear when the
dressings of com'ost are su''lemented b# the addition of suitable artificials. The
combination of the two, a''lied at the right moment and in 'ro'er 'ro'ortions, will
o'en the door to the intensi$e cro' 'roduction of the future. Humus and artificials will
su''lement one another. 4urther, the artificials must not be confined to those which
merel# su''l# nitrogen, 'hos'hates and 'otash. Substances li-e lime and sul'hur,
which flocculate the soil colloids and so im'ro$e the filth, must be included.
In other words, the manuring of the future wild ha$e to be both direct and indirect.
/urther In%estigations
In the tro'ics and sub5tro'ics, an im'ortant as'ect of the 'rocess is its a''lication to
the future sanitation of the $illage. The fact that fort# o*en are -e't at the Institute of
Plant Industr#, Indore, and that com'ost is manufactured throughout the #ear, without
the slightest smell and without the breeding of flies, indicates clearl# the line of
ad$ance in dealing with $illage sanitation. All that a''ears to be needed is to ada't the
Indore 'rocess 6which em'lo#s cow5dung and urine earth9 to the use of night soil, and
to utilize the 'resent sanitar# ser$ices in showing the 'eo'le how to transform the
$illage wastes 6including all forms of litter of $egetable origin9 into com'ost. ,o
difficulties are li-el# to be e*'erienced in the actual con$ersion of the waste 'roducts
of the rural 'o'ulation into humus. The 'rocess will be more ra'id than when cow5
dung is used; a factor which is all to the good. .esides the $aluable com'ost that will
be obtained, a number of other ad$antages will follow. %ural h#giene will enter on a
new 'hase. The fl# nuisance will disa''ear. Practicall# all the infection, which is now
carried b# these insects from filth to the food and water su''l# of the 'o'ulation, will
be automaticall# destro#ed b# the combination of high tem'erature, high humidit#
and co'ious aeration of the com'ost hea's. In the tro'ics 'arasites li-e hoo-worm
will tend to decrease in numbers. A ra'id im'ro$ement in the general health and the
amenities of the $illage will ensue. What is needed to bring about these results is the
wor-ing out of a sim'le 'rocess on the lines of the one described in this boo-. It will
not 'ro$e a difficult. It will be eas# to5design a series of screened 'its and screened
areas in the neighbourhood of an Indian $illage, and to teach the swee'ers how to
carr# on the manufacture of com'ost without smell and without the breeding of flies.
The conditions which render these two nuisances im'ossible will at the same time
destro# 'racticall# all the harmful 'arasites and germs which now infect the
'o'ulation. Pro$ided the wor- is carried out b# the $illage sca$engers, no caste
difficulties are li-el# to arise. The 'rocess can easil# be welded into the e*isting
$illage s#stem. A beginning has been made in the direction indicated b# !r. 4. +.
.ra#ne, I.C.S., "e'ut# Commissioner of Ghelum 6formerl# "e'ut# Commissioner of
2urgaon9. !r. .ra#ne has designed a latrine 'it, which without much difficult# could
be 'erfected for use throughout the tro'ics and sub5tro'ics. The method will ha$e to
be ada'ted both to dr# weather and to monsoon conditions, and will ha$e to be
wor-ed for a #ear or two under strict microbiological and chemical control before
being brought to the notice of the 'eo'le. Wor- on these lines has alread# been started
in the model $illage belonging to the Institute of Plant Industr# at Indore. If, as seems
certain, a 'racticable method can be de$ised, ste's will at once be ta-en to get it ta-en
u' in the $illages of the Central India and %a&'utana States. Its s'read to the rest of
India, and all o$er the tro'ics and subtro'ics, will be a matter of a $er# few #ears.
The moment a suitable method of dealing with the sanitation of the $illage has been
designed and the influence of the 'rocess on the general health of the 'eo'le and on
the fertilit# of the fields becomes manifest, the results can be carried further. The
'ublic health of the militar# cantonments and of the smaller towns can then be
considered as one sub&ect. In 'lace of the 'resent e*'ensi$e di$ision of those as'ects
of the general 'roblem of sanitation, which deal with solid wastes, into a number of
im'erfectl# related items, such as 55 the dis'osal of night soil, the use of disinfectants,
the collection and destruction b# burning of $egetable wastes including fallen lea$es,
the 're$ention of the fl# nuisance, the 'urlfication and safeguarding of the water
su''l# and the inoculation of the 'o'ulation against such diseases as enteric fe$er and
cholera 55 it will be 'ossible to transform these waste 'roducts of the 'o'ulation into
$aluable humus in a scientific wa#, and so a$oid most if not all the e*isting
difficulties. Such results, as far as urban areas are concerned, will naturall# be the
wor- of #ears. In the $illages, howe$er, 'rogress should be ra'id. The first im'ortant
ste' on the road has alread# been ta-en in the form of the Indore 'rocess. It will not
be a difficult matter to e*'and the o'ening which has been made. +ittle increase in
'ublic e*'enditure will be called for. The funds and staff, now de$oted to rural
h#giene, can at once be deflected to the manufacture of com'ost and to increasing the
'roduce of the soil.
Appendi* A
%he !anurial Proble' in India
The manurial 'roblems of India were considered in detail b# the recent %o#al
Commission on Agriculture in India which, after an e*tensi$e stud# of the sub&ect
lasting more than two #ears, re'orted in /07E. That section of the re'ort which deals
with fertilizers is re'rinted in full below. A stud# of this account will bring home to
the in$estigator and to the general reader the e$ils which in$ariabl# result from the
fragmentation of an# large agricultural 'roblem.
6*tract from the Report of the Royal Commission on Ariculture in India# Bombay#
,-./, ''. E@501.9
/ertilizers
E@. F)f the 'rinci'al 'lant5food materials in which the soils of India are deficient b#
far the most im'ortant 6e*ce't in 'arts of the cr#stalline tracts where the deficienc# of
'hos'hates ma# be more serious9 is nitrogen, and the manurial 'roblem in India is, in
the main, one of nitrogen deficienc#. India, as is well -nown, de'ends almost
e*clusi$el# on the recu'erati$e effects of natural 'rocesses in the soil to restore the
combined nitrogen annuall# remo$ed in the cro's, for but little of this is returned to
the soil in an# other wa#. !uch of the farm#ard manure a$ailable is burnt as fuel
whilst a large :uantit# of combined nitrogen is e*'orted in the form of oil seeds, food
and other grains, and animal 'roducts such as hides and bones. This loss is in no wa#
com'ensated b# the im'ortation of nitrogenous fertilizers, for /07A57> was the first
#ear which the im'orts of sul'hate of ammonia into this countr#, which amounted
onl# to 8,D78 tons, e*ceeded the e*'orts and was also the first #ear in which the
greater 'art of the 'roduction of this fertilizer b# the Tata Iron and Steel Com'an# at
Gamshed'ur and in the coalfields of .engal and .ihar and )rissa was consumed in
India. In these circumstances, it is fortunate that the recu'erati$e 'rocesses in the soil
are more 'ronounced in tro'ical and sub5tro'ical than in tem'erate regions. Although
it has been stated in e$idence before us that it has not been established that im'ro$ed
and higher #ielding $arieties of cro's, more es'eciall# of wheat and sugar5cane, ta-e
more from the soil than the $arieties the# re'lace, and that their culti$ation on 'resent
lines will not, therefore, be followed b# an# loss of 'ermanent fertilit#, we are of
o'inion that there is &ustification for the $iew that im'ro$ed cro's generall# re:uire,
for their fullest de$elo'ment, more liberal manurial treatment than those ordinaril#
grown. The sub&ect is one which re:uires careful stud# b# the agricultural
de'artments in India and should form an essential 'art of the in$estigations discussed
in the following 'aragra'h.
"anurial ;8#eriments
E/. An acceleration of the recu'erati$e 'rocesses in the soil can be effected b#
im'ro$ed agricultural methods, b# ade:uate soil aeration, &udicious rotations and the
culti$ation of green5manure cro's. The loss of combined nitrogen can also be 'artiall#
made u' b# the a''lication of natural and artificial manures. With certain definite
e*ce'tions, howe$er, such as, for instance, sugar5cane and the more $aluable garden
cro's, it has #et to be determined for what conditions and for what cro's artificial
manures can be 'rofitabl# used to stimulate cro' 'roduction in India. In this
conne*ion, we ha$e been im'ressed b# the im'ortance of research into the
fundamental 'roblems connected with losses in nitrogen and with nitrogen
recu'eration. We saw something of the wor- in this field which was being carried on
at Pusa b# "r. Harrison and at ,ag'ur b# "r. Annett. Although, e$er since the
reorganization of the agricultural de'artments in /0@A, manurial e*'eriments ha$e
engaged a large 'art of their time and energies and ha$e been carried out on e$er#
agricultural station in India, it cannot be said that the agricultural e*'erts are e$en #et
in a 'osition to gi$e satisfactor# ad$ice to the culti$ator in regard to the use of
manures. A large amount of data has been collected but it has not been studied
s#stematicall# or reduced to a form which would enable clear and definite conclusions
to be drawn. The 'roblem re:uires to be studied in three as'ects; in relation, in the
first instance, to the cro's which are de'endent solel# on rainfall, in the second, to
cro's which are grown on irrigated land, and lastl#, to the 'lantersF cro's and intensi$e
culti$ation such as that of sugar5cane and garden cro's. It is hardl# necessar# to 'oint
out that the use of nitrogenous or other artificial fertilizers is not 'rofitable in all
conditions. Where cro' 'roduction is limited b# a small rainfall, the annual additions
of combined nitrogen to the soil as the result of natural 'rocesses ma# be sufficient to
meet the needs of a cro' the out5turn of which is limited b# the moisture a$ailable. It
has, for e*am'le, been found in the Central Pro$inces that the a''lication of fertilizers
benefits dr# cro's, including unirrigated cotton, onl# in #ears when the rainfall is
ade:uate and that, in 'articular, it does not benefit wheat which, in that 'ro$ince, is
grown on rainfall onl#. The 'lanting communit#, which has its own s'ecialist officers,
needs no ad$ice from the agricultural de'artments in regard to the economic use of
manures. We would, howe$er, ta-e this o''ortunit# of stressing the $alue of close
touch between the communit# and the de'artments in regard to this and other
agricultural matters It is essential that the de'artments should be in a 'osition to gi$e
the ordinar# culti$ator, both of irrigated and unirrigated cro's, definite guidance on
the 'oint. The first ste' is the careful stud# of the e*isting material and the correlation
of the results hitherto obtained. The second ste' is the formulation of a 'rogramme of
e*'eriment with the ob&ect of ascertaining, with all 'ossible accurac#, the e*tent to
which fertilizers can be used with 'rofit. This 'rogramme should include the la#ing
out of a short series of 'ermanent manurial 'lots, on lines a''ro'riate to conditions in
India, on 'ro$incial e*'erimental farms. )nl# b# conducting manurial e*'eriments
o$er a number of #ears will it be 'ossible to com'ile such records as would ma-e a
substantial contribution to the -nowledge of the 'roblems of manures and manuring
under tro'ical and sub5tro'ical conditions about which little is #et -nown. The
scientific $alue of continuous e*'eriments de'ends on accurate methods of collection
of all rele$ant data with a $iew to their subse:uent correlation. All such schemes for
manurial trials would ordinaril# be drawn u' b# the "irector of Agriculture in close
consultation with the agricultural chemist and the de'ut# directors of agriculture
under whose immediate su'er$ision the e*'eriments would be conducted. We wish
es'eciall# to em'hasize the im'ortance of manurial e*'eriments on unirrigated land
as the culti$ator of such land, who runs, with his $er# limited financial resources, the
ris- of losing his cro' in an unfa$ourable season, stands most in need of guidance in
this matter. The stud# of the a$ailable data and the formulation of an ordered
'rogramme to re'lace the 'resent somewhat ha'hazard methods of dealing with the
'roblem would, we thin-, 'ro$ide sufficient wor- to &ustif# an officer of the
Agricultural "e'artment being 'laced on s'ecial dut# for a limited 'eriod, but we
'refer to ma-e no definite recommendations on this 'oint and to lea$e it to the
consideration of the local go$ernments. +ocal conditions $ar# so greatl# between
'ro$ince and 'ro$ince, es'eciall# in regard to unirrigated land, that it does not a''ear
necessar# to attach an officer to Pusa s'eciall# to assist the 'ro$inces in this
in$estigation. The Council of Agricultural %esearch should be in a 'osition to ad$ise
as to the manner in which the e*'eriments can best be conducted so as to secure
uniformit# of method as far as 'ossible and to render the results obtained in one
'ro$ince of some $alue to other 'ro$inces.
Internal Sources of Su##ly and their 2e%elo#ment
5a6 /armyard "anure
E7. The first :uestion which arises, in considering the internal su''lies of nitrogen
a$ailable in India and the methods b# which these can best be de$elo'ed, is that of the
use of farm#ard manure as fuel. The $iew is generall# held that it is the absence of a
sufficient su''l# of firewood which, o$er large 'arts of India, com'els the burning of
cow5dung as fuel. .ut it must be recognized that there is often a definite 'reference
for this form of fuel, as its slow burning character is regarded as ma-ing it s'eciall#
suitable to the needs of the Indian housewife. Thus we are informed that, in .urma,
immigrant labourers from India 'ersist in using cow5dung as fuel although an
abundant su''l# of firewood is readil# a$ailable. )ur e$idence does not suggest an#
alternati$e fuel for domestic 'ur'oses in districts where wood and coal are dear. In
some tracts, cotton5stal-s, the dr# stubble and stal-s of tur 6Cajanus indicus9, the 'ith
of &ute and sann hem' and the bagass of sugar5cane, where the use of the !c2lashan
furnace lea$es a sur'lus which is not re:uired for boiling the &uice, could be utilized
for fuel to a far greater e*tent than the# are at 'resent. 4uel 'lantations, more
es'eciall# irrigated 'lantations, the formation of which we discuss in Cha'ters =III
and L, can assist onl# in a $er# limited area. In our $iew, the agricultural de'artments
ha$e a difficult tas- to 'erform in attem'ting to 'romote the utilization of farm#ard
manure for its 'ro'er 'ur'ose. Pro'aganda in this direction can onl# 'ro$e effecti$e if
an alternati$e fuel is suggested and if the culti$ator can be sufficientl# imbued with a
sense of thrift to induce him to burn that which will 'robabl# seem to him a less
satisfactor# substance. There has been little ad$ance in regard to the 'reser$ation of
manure since "r. =oelc-er wrote his re'ort on Indian agriculture in /E01. The 'ractice
of 'ro$iding litter for cattle is rarel#, if e$er, ado'ted e*ce't on go$ernment farms. ,o
efforts are made b# the culti$ator to 'reser$e cattle urine. !anure 'its are still seldom
found in Indian $illages. Where the# do e*ist, no attem'ts are made to 'reser$e the
manurial $alue of the contents or to safeguard the 'ublic health b# co$ering the
material with earth.
5b6 $om#osts
E1. While the tas- is difficult, there is no doubt that something can be done to
'romote the better 'reser$ation of such farm#ard manure as is not di$erted to
consum'tion as fuel, b# using it as a com'ost with $illage swee'ings, lea$es, and
other decom'osed $egetable matter. In this conne*ion, we are im'ressed b# the results
achie$ed in the 2urgaon district of the Pun&ab, where man# $illages ha$e, as a direct
conse:uence of 'ro'aganda, ado'ted the 'ractice of de'ositing in 'its all $illage
swee'ings and refuse, along with a 'ro'ortion of cow dung. The effects on cro's to
which such manure has been a''lied, and on the sanitation and general amenities of
the $illages, were most mar-ed. There is no reason wh# efforts on similar lines should
not be made in other 'arts of the countr#. The Indian culti$ator has much to learn
from the Chinese and the Ga'anese culti$ator in regard to the manufacture of
com'osts. Artificial fertilizers are used as little in China as the# are in India< but there
is no organic refuse of an# -ind in that countr# which does not find its wa# bac- to
the fields as a fertilizer. ,ot onl# is all human waste carefull# collected and utilized,
but enormous :uantities of com'ost are manufactured from the waste of cattle, horses,
swine and 'oultr#, combined with herbage straw, and other similar waste. 2arbage
and sewage are both used as manure. The agricultural de'artments in India are full#
ali$e to the necessit# for instructing the culti$ator in the better 'reser$ation of manure
and the use of com'osts, but there is great sco'e for an e*tension of their acti$ities in
this res'ect. 4or e*am'le, the 'ossibilities of manufacturing s#nthetic farm#ard
manure from waste organic material on the lines wor-ed out at %othamsted deser$e to
be full# in$estigated. At %othamsted, research was at first directed towards
disco$ering artificial means whereb# the decom'osition of straw might be effected.
Straw contains three essentials to 'lant growth, $iz. nitrogen, 'hos'hate and 'otash.
The wor- 'ro$ed successful and a method was de$ised for treating large :uantities of
straw for the 're'aration of manure. %eagents were subse:uentl# disco$ered which
were ca'able of bringing about the ra'id rotting, not onl# of straw but also of other
'lant residues, and thus of 'roducing a $aluable organic manure at a moderate cost.
S#nthetic farm#ard manure is being 're'ared b# the de'artments of agriculture in
!adras and the Central Pro$inces. The agricultural de'artment in .engal, following
the $aluable lead gi$en b# %othamsted, has attem'ted the manufacture of artificial
farm#ard manure on a considerable scale. Cattle urine and washings from cattle5
sheds, mi*ed with bone meal, ha$e been used with immediate success. Weeds, $arious
grasses, sugar5cane trash, refuse, straw, 'ric-l#5'ear, etc., ha$e all 'ro$ed ca'able of
brea-ing down into e*cellent material a''ro*imating more or less closel# in
a''earance and in com'osition to that of cow5dung. *'eriments ha$e also been
made in .urma but ha$e not so far 'ro$ed successful. =aluable wor- on the
're'aration of com'osts from night soil and refuse and from cattle urine, weeds, etc.,
is being done b# "r. 4owler at Cawn'ore. In uro'e, wor- of this character has now
emerged from the e*'erimental stage and 'rocesses de$ised for dealing with $arious
classes of materials are alread# on the mar-et. In India, howe$er, the de'artments
concerned ha$e still to de$ise and introduce a 'ractical method which can be used
with 'rofit b# the ordinar# culti$ator on his own land.
The manurial $alue of earth obtained from the sites of abandoned $illages is
recognized in man# 'arts of India. The :uantities a$ailable are, howe$er, negligible in
relation to the manurial re:uirements of the countr#.
5c6 .ight Soil
E8. Pre&udice against the use of night soil has deterred the culti$ator in India from
utilizing to the best ad$antage a $aluable source of combined nitrogen. There is,
howe$er, e$idence that this 're&udice is wea-ening and that, where night soil is
a$ailable in the form of 'oudrette, it is tending to disa''ear. 4rom the 'oint of $iew of
'ublic health, the use of 'oudrette is 'referable to that of crude night soil and, gi$en
co5o'eration between agricultural de'artments and munici'al authorities, there is
ho'e that the manufacture of 'oudrette should 'ro$e 'rofitable to munici'alities and
beneficial to the culti$ators in their neighbourhood. The methods of con$erting night
soil into 'oudrette ado'ted at ,asi- and elsewhere in the .omba# Presidenc# ha$e
been highl# successful and a''ear well worth stud# b# other munici'alities. The
ad$antages of this s#stem of dealing with night soil a''ear to us to &ustif# a
recommendation that the de'artments of local self5go$ernment in all 'ro$inces should
bring them to the notice of all munici'al authorities and should also ta-e ste's to
establish a centre at which members of the munici'al sanitar# staffs can recei$e a
suitable training in this method of dis'osing of night soil. The agricultural
de'artments should -ee' a watchful e#e on all e*'eriments in the con$ersion of night
soil into manure and should themsel$es conduct such e*'eriments. Where munici'al
authorities in an# 'art of the countr# are in a 'osition to su''l# it, the agricultural
de'artments should assist them to find a mar-et b# arranging demonstrations of the
$alue of night soil as manure on 'lots in the neighbourhood of the towns.
Another wa# in which night soil can be con$erted into a form in which its use is less
obno*ious to the culti$ator is b# the ado'tion of the acti$ated sludge 'rocess. This
'rocess reduces sewage, b# the 'assage of air through it, to a 'roduct which can either
be used as re:uired in the form of effluent from the sewage tan-s or dried and sent
where there is a demand for it. The acti$ated sludge 'rocess is suitable onl# for towns
which ha$e a sewage s#stem. It is much more e*'ensi$e than con$ersion into
'oudrette but has the ad$antage of conser$ing a larger 'ercentage of nitrogen. U' to
the 'resent, this s#stem has been ado'ted in India on an# considerable scale onl# at
Tatanagar. The 'ossibilit# of selling the 'roduct at a 'rice that would #ield a fair
return on the cost of manufacture must de'end u'on a careful sur$e# of all the
rele$ant factors, including the local mar-et for the 'roduct. In estimating the cost of
the necessar# 'lant, due regard should be 'aid to the cost which would be in$ol$ed in
installing an# alternati$e method of sewage dis'osal, and, if it should 'ro$e 'ossible
to 'lace a $aluable fertilizer at the dis'osal of the culti$ators at a 'rice the# can afford
to 'a#, without ris- of im'osing an# additional net charge u'on the local rate'a#ers,
we thin- that it is in the 'ublic interest that such schemes should be ado'ted.
5d6 7eguminous $ro#s
EA. Another indigenous source of combined nitrogen to which increasing attention is
now being 'aid b# the agricultural de'artments in India, is leguminous cro's and
green5manures. The $alue of leguminous cro's in his rotation has alwa#s been
recognized b# the culti$ator and the wor- before the agricultural de'artments in
regard to these cro's lies not so much in 'o'ularizing the 'rinci'le of their culti$ation
as in disco$ering the $arieties of leguminous cro's best suited to increase the soil
fertilit# and in recommending such $arieties to the culti$ators. %ecent research has
drawn attention to the fact that such cro's $ar# greatl# in their 'ower of fi*ing
nitrogen in the soil and should not be regarded as of e:ual $alue. !oreo$er, it is onl#
when the leguminous cro' is grown for green5manure that, in all cases, the soil gains
in nitrogen. !r. Howard instances gram as a cro' which im'ro$es the soil and Ga$a
indigo as a cro' which seriousl# de'letes the su''l# of combined nitrogen.
5e6 0reen-"anures
E>. The agricultural de'artments in India ha$e de$oted much time and attention to
wor- on green5manure cro's with a $iew to disco$ering the cro's which can best be
used for green5manure, the time at which the# should be grown and the manner in
which the# should be a''lied. Their wor- has shown that sann hem' on the whole
gi$es the best result and it would doubtless be more often grown for use as green5
manure were it not that it ma# e*haust so much of the moisture in the soil that, when
it is 'loughed in, there is not sufficient left both to decom'ose it and to enable a
second cro' to grow. !uch e*'erimental wor- is still, therefore, re:uired to disco$er
the green5manure cro's which can best be included in the culti$atorsF rotations. The
economics of green5manure cro's from the 'oint of $iew of the small culti$ator also
re:uire to be wor-ed out. The small culti$ator is naturall# hesitant about growing a
cro' which onl# indirectl# brings him an# financial ad$antage. With his slender
resources, it is indeed not unreasonable for him to ta-e the $iew that he cannot afford
to sacrifice e$en a catch cro' in this wa# and it is therefore not until the agricultural
de'artments are in a 'osition to demonstrate to him be#ond a shadow of doubt the
'a#ing nature of green5manure cro's on small holdings that these de'artments will be
&ustified in 'ersuading the small culti$ator to ado't them or that their ad$ocac# of
them will stand an# chance of success. In the 'resent state of -nowledge, such cro's
would a''ear an e*'edient to be ado'ted b# the larger landholder and, for the small
culti$ator, a leguminous cro' in his rotation would seem to hold out better 'ros'ects
of benefit.
The 'ossibilit# of growing such cro's as dhaincha and ground5nut, the lea$es of
which can be used as green5manure without interfering with the commercial $alue of
the cro', is worth consideration. The use of ground5nut in this wa# for green5manure
would furnish an additional reason for e*tending the area of this $aluable cro'. In the
case of cro's of a wood# nature such as sann hem', it must, howe$er, be remembered
that their utilit# as green5manure for the succeeding rabi cro's de'ends to a large
e*tent on the 'resence of sufficient moisture in the soil to rot the dr# stems and roots.
In !adras, the Pun&ab and the Central Pro$inces, the e*'eriment has been made of
encouraging the culti$ation of green5manure cro's under irrigation b# the remission
of the charge for water from go$ernment sources or irrigation. The fact that the results
ha$e so far been disa''ointing ma# be due to a failure to accom'an# the remission
with sufficient 'ro'aganda as to the ad$antages to be deri$ed from the growing of
these cro's. We thin- that the continuance of the concession and its e*tension to other
areas should be conditional on its being accom'anied b# an acti$e cam'aign of
'ro'aganda, directed 'articularl# to the larger landholder rather than the small
culti$ator. All areas where the concession is made should be -e't under regular
e*amination. If, after a 'eriod of fi$e to ten #ears, it should a''ear that the concession
gi$en in regard to water charges has failed to achie$e its main 'ur'ose, it should be
rescinded.
5f6 ?il $a3es
ED. The loss to India of a $aluable source of combined nitrogen as the result of the
e*'ort of so large a 'ro'ortion of its 'roduction of oil seeds was em'hasized b# man#
witnesses before us. The #ield and e*'orts of oil seeds during the last fifteen #ears are
shown in the following table.
Totals by /i%e -ear Periods
"otton
1eed
.round
-nut
,a+e
and
%ustar
d
;insee
d
1esamu
m
2otal of
"olumn
s 2-$
2otal of
all (il
1eeds
1 2 ' # 5 $ - !
110-11 to 11#-15
Mield 9?000
tons:
!,#1 ',#-5 $,12 2,5#1 2,'5# 22,1!
A=+orts 9?000
tons:
1,125 1,0'5 1,1# 1,!' ## 5,-!$ $,!'2
Percenta&e
of A=+orts to
yield
1' '0 1 -! 21 25 -
115-1$ to 11-20
Mield 9?000
tons:
!,5#5 #,-5! 5,'$2 2,1-1 2,10# 22,#0 -
A=+orts 9?000
tons:
'!- 5$- #5 1,2!' 1$$ 2,!! ',#0!
Percenta&e
of A=+orts to
yield
#/5 12 5 ! 12/5 -
120-21 to 12#-25
Mield 9?000
tons:
10,-'' 5,-!$ 5,$02 2,20' 2,''$ 2$,$$0 -
A=+orts 9?000
tons:
$!$ 1,2#0 1,1!1 1,'-$ 11 #,$02 5,11$
Percenta&e
of e=+orts to
yield
$/5 21 21 $2 5 1- -
2otal of 15 years 110-11 to 12#-25
2otal Mield
9?000 tons:
2-,$- 1#,01 1-,0' $,15 $,-# -2,51! -
2otal A=+orts
9?000 tons:
2,1! 2,!#2 2,!25 #,$#2 -- 1',2!$ 15,'5$
Percenta&e
of e=+orts to
yield
! 20 1$/5 $- 11/5 1! -
These figures indicate that, of the out5turn of the seed of cotton, ground5nut, ra'e and
mustard, linseed and sesamum, the e*'orts amount to an a$erage of eighteen 'er cent
and the# suggest the loss which the soil of India suffers b# the e*'ort of a $aluable
b#5'roduct on the assum'tion that the whole of the nitrogen contained might be
returned to the soil. Under e*isting 'ractice, indeed, much of this material would
'robabl# be fed to cattle and subse:uentl# dissi'ated as fuel. .ut it is not sur'rising
that the $iew that an e*'ort ta* on oil seeds and oil ca-es within the 'urchasing 'ower
of the culti$ator has found much fa$our and e$en recei$ed the su''ort of the .oard of
Agriculture in /0/0 and of the ma&orit# of the Indian Ta*ation n:uir# Committee,
but not that of the Indian 4iscal Commission. Some witnesses before us went further
and urged the total 'rohibition of e*'ort. Whilst we full# recognize the ad$antages to
Indian agriculture which would follow from a greatl# e*tended use of certain oil
ca-es as a manure for the more $aluable cro's such as sugar5cane, tobacco, cotton and
tea, we cannot but feel that those who suggest the attainment of this ob&ect b# the
restriction or 'rohibition of e*'orts ha$e failed to realize the economic im'lications of
their 'ro'osal. In the first 'lace, it must be remembered that India has no mono'ol# of
the worldFs su''lies of oil5seeds and is not e$en the chief su''lier of those seeds. The
worldFs linseed mar-et is controlled b# the Argentine cro' and the sesamum mar-et b#
the Chinese cro'. The com'etition of West Africa in the su''l# of edible oils is
becoming increasingl# serious. In these circumstances, it is an economic a*iom that
an e*'ort dut# will be borne b# the 'roducer and that the culti$ator will, therefore,
recei$e a lower 'rice for the oil seeds e*'orted. The acreage under oil seeds in .ritish
India is still considerabl# below the 're5war le$el and the tendenc# to re'lace oil
seeds b# other cro's which ma# be inferred from this would undoubtedl# be greatl#
accentuated if an# effecti$e restrictions on e*'ort were im'osed. The immediate fall
in 'rice, which would result from such restrictions, would tend to a reduction of area
and conse:uentl# of out5turn. $en if such a fall in 'rices were obtained b# the
method ad$ocated, the gain to the culti$ator :ua consumer would be far more than
counterbalanced b# the disad$antage to the culti$ator :ua grower b# the loss of the
income he at 'resent deri$es from his e*'ort mar-et. In the second 'lace, it ma# be
argued that if the Indian oil5crushing industr# were full# de$elo'ed to deal with the
'resent out5turn of oil seeds, then the area might remain at its 'resent le$el and there
would grow u' a considerable e*'ort of oil, while the ca-e would remain to be used
as a feeding stuff or manure. The mar-et for oil in this countr# is, howe$er, a $er#
limited one and will remain so until India has reached a more ad$anced stage of
industrial de$elo'ment. The oil5crushing industr# would, therefore, ha$e to de'end
mainl# on the e*'ort mar-et for the sale of its main 'roduct. The 'roblem of chea'
and efficient trans'ort to the great industrial centres of the west 'resents almost
insurmountable difficulties. )il5crushers in India would find themsel$es in
com'etition with a well5established and highl# efficient industr# and there is little
reason to belie$e that their costs of 'roduction or the :ualit# of their 'roduct would
enable them to com'ete successfull# with that industr#. In the third 'lace, e$en if
restriction on e*'orts succeeded in reducing the 'rice of oil ca-es, this would mean
that a section of the agricultural communit# would be 'enalized for the benefit of
another and much smaller section, for the growers of oil seeds would 'robabl# not be
those who would ma-e the most use of the oil ca-es.
A similar line of reasoning a''lies to oil ca-es, the a$erage e*'orts of which from
India for the fi$e #ears ending /07A57> were />A,>@@ tons, against a negligible
im'ort. The oil ca-es e*'orted from India are a far less im'ortant factor in the worldFs
su''l# than are the oil seeds and, in these circumstances, the burden of the dut# would
be entirel# borne b# the 'roducer, in this case the crushing industr#. There can, in our
$iew, be little doubt that the effect of a dut# on oil ca-es, with or without a dut# on oil
seeds, would be the curtailment of oil5crushing acti$ities and a diminution in the
a$ailable su''l# of oil ca-es, in other words, it would ha$e effects entirel# different
from those desired b# its ad$ocates. It is not, therefore, b# an# restriction on trade that
Indian agriculture is li-el# to rea' greater ad$antages from the su''l# of combined
nitrogen a$ailable in the large cro's of oil seeds she 'roduces. The onl# methods b#
which these ad$antages can be secured are b# the natural de$elo'ment of the oil5
crushing industr# cou'led with great changes in cattle management and in the use of
fuel. The :uestion how far the de$elo'ment of the industr# can be 'romoted b#
2o$ernment assistance in the matter of o$ercoming difficulties of trans'ort and in the
form of technological ad$ice in regard to im'ro$ed methods of manufacture and
standardization is one for the de'artments of industries rather than the de'artments of
agriculture. An e*tension of the oil5crushing industr# would undoubtedl# tend to
'romote the welfare of Indian agriculture and we would commend the in$estigation of
its 'ossibilities to the earnest consideration of all local go$ernments.
5g6 Sul#hate of Ammonia
EE. The im'ortant 'otential sources of su''l# of combined nitrogen discussed in the
'receding 'aragra'hs are su''lemented to a small though increasing e*tent b# the
sul'hate of ammonia reco$ered as a b#5'roduct from coal at the Tata Iron and Steel
Com'an#Fs wor-s at Gamshed'ur and on the coalfields of .engal and .ihar and
)rissa. There has been a $er# mar-ed increase both in the consum'tion and
'roduction of this fertilizer in India in recent #ears. )f the 8,81> tons 'roduced in
/0/0, all but 8D7 tons were e*'orted and there were no im'orts. In /07A, of the
estimated 'roduction of /8,DD/ tons, >,10A tons were retained in India. With three
e*ce'tions, all the 'roducers of sul'hate of ammonia in India ha$e &oined the .ritish
Sul'hate of Ammonia 4ederation which, through its Indian agents, is conducting
acti$e 'ro'aganda to 'romote the use of artificial fertilizers and has established a
number of local agencies in agricultural areas in se$eral 'ro$inces. The manner in
which this source of su''l# is being de$elo'ed is $er# satisfactor# and it is still more
satisfactor# that a mar-et for increasing :uantities of the sul'hate of ammonia
'roduced in India is being found in the countr#. The im'ortance of the 'rice factor
need hardl# be stressed, for though the 'resent a$erage 'rice of %s. /8@ 'er ton free
on rail at Calcutta is much lower than that which 're$ailed immediatel# after the War,
it is sufficientl# high to 'reclude the a''lication of sul'hate of ammonia to an# e*ce't
the most $aluable of the culti$atorsF cro's, such as sugar5cane or garden cro's.
5h6 Arti1cial .itrogenous /ertilizers
E0. A method of increasing the internal su''lies of combined nitrogen in India, the
ado'tion of which has recei$ed 'owerful su''ort, is the establishment of s#nthetic
'rocesses for obtaining combined nitrogen from the air in forms suitable for use as
fertilizers. The Indian Sugar Committee was of o'inion that, from the 'oint of $iew of
the de$elo'ment of the sugar industr# alone, the successful introduction of s#nthetic
'rocesses in India was a matter of the first im'ortance. That Committee recommended
that the 'ossibilities of utilizing the h#dro5electric schemes, which were at that time
under in$estigation in the Pun&ab and the United Pro$inces, for the fi*ation of
nitrogen should be thoroughl# e*amined and that, if it were found that electric energ#
could be obtained at a rate a''ro*imating to %s. >@ 'er -ilowatt #ear, a unit 'lant of
sufficient size to afford trustworth# information should be installed. )f the three
'rocesses in use for the fi*ation of atmos'heric nitrogen, the arc 'rocess, the
c#anamide 'rocess and the manufacture of ammonia b# direct s#nthesis, the
Committee considered the c#anamide 'rocess as the one which offered the best
'ros'ects of success in India but drew attention to the 'ossibilities of the Haber
'rocess for obtaining s#nthetic sul'hate of ammonia.
The 'osition has changed greatl# since the re'ort of the Sugar Committee was written.
The full effects of the di$ersion of the ca'ital, enter'rise and, abo$e all, the research
de$oted to the manufacture of munitions to the 'roduction of 'eace time
re:uirements, had not been felt in /07@. Since then, it has resulted in a fall in the
worldFs 'rice of nitrogen b# fift# 'er cent, and there are 'ros'ects of still lower 'rices
in the near future. We see no reason to :uestion the $iew which was 'laced before us
in the course of the e$idence we too- in +ondon that, in 'resent circumstances, onl#
$er# large units with a minimum ca'acit# of about /A@,@@@ tons of 'ure nitrogen 'er
annum can be e*'ected to 'a# e$en under the most fa$ourable conditions in 2reat
.ritain and on the Continent of uro'e and that conditions in India ma-e it much less
li-el# that e$en a unit of that ca'acit# would 'ro$e a 'a#ing 'ro'osition. The
'ossibilities of manufacturing nitrogen from the air in India ha$e alread# been
e*hausti$el# e*amined b# a leading firm of chemical manufacturers in ngland,
which has decided against 'roceeding with the 'ro&ect. It is 'robable that no factor#
on a scale which could be contem'lated b# an# local go$ernment, or e$en b# the
Im'erial 2o$ernment, would be in a 'osition to 'roduce s#nthetic nitrogenous
fertilizers at a 'rice less than that at which the# can be im'orted. The whole ob&ect of
establishing such a factor#, that of 'roducing fertilizers at a 'rice which would 'lace
them within the reach of a far greater 'ro'ortion of the agricultural communit# than is
at 'resent in a 'osition to use them, would be defeated if a 'rotecti$e dut# were
im'osed to enable its out5turn to com'ete against im'orted su''lies. It is also to be
ho'ed that, should the demand for artificial fertilizers in India ma-e it worth while,
'ri$ate enter'rise will come forward to erect s#nthetic nitrogen wor-s in this countr#.
While the economics of the industr# remain as the# stand to5da#, we are unable to
recommend an# further in$estigation into the sub&ect under go$ernment aus'ices.
$entral Organization for esearch on /ertilizers
0@. The discussion of the :uestion of nitrogenous fertilizers would not be com'lete
without mention of the 'ro'osal 'laced before us b# the .ritish Sul'hate of Ammonia
4ederation, +td., and ,itram, +td., for the establishment b# the 2o$ernment of India
of a central fertilizer organization on which the Im'erial and 'ro$incial agricultural
de'artments as well as the im'ortant fertilizer interests would be re'resented. The two
com'anies, which are alread# s'ending 71,@@@ 'ounds annuall# on research and
'ro'aganda in India, e*'ressed their willingness to increase this amount to A@,@@@
'ounds, the additional amount to be handed o$er to a central organization constituted
in the manner the# suggest, 'ro$ided that an e:ual sum is contributed b# 2o$ernment.
The com'anies ha$e made it clear that the research and 'ro'aganda the# contem'late
would be on the use of fertilizers generall# and would not in an# wa# be confined to
that of the 'roducts the# manufacture or sell. This offer, though not disinterested is
undoubtedl# generous and we ha$e gi$en it our most careful consideration. We regret,
howe$er, that we are unable to see our wa# to recommend its acce'tance. We cannot
but feel that, whate$er safeguards were im'osed, the wor- of, and the ad$ice gi$en b#,
an organization, at least half the cost of which was borne b# firms closel# interested in
the sub&ect matter of the in$estigation, would be sus'ect and would thus be de'ri$ed
of much of its usefulness, es'eciall# since, as we ha$e 'ointed out, the agricultural
de'artments in India are not #et in a 'osition to 'ronounce authoritati$el# on the
relati$e ad$antages of natural and artificial fertilizers. We, therefore, consider it
'referable that the agricultural de'artments should remain entirel# inde'endent in this
matter but we need hardl# sa# that we would welcome the establishment b# the two
firms mentioned, or b# an# other fertilizer firms, of their own research stations in
India wor-ing in the fullest co5o'eration with the agricultural de'artments, the Indian
Tea Association, the Indian Central Cotton Committee and an# other bodies interested
in the fertilizer :uestion. So much wor- remains to be done on the manurial 'roblems
of India that it is desirable that e$er# 'ossible agenc# should be em'lo#ed on it. To
the su''l# b# the fertilizer interests of free sam'les for trial b# the agricultural
de'artments there can, of course, be no ob&ection, but we do not consider that an#
financial assistance be#ond what is in$ol$ed in this should be acce'ted. In coming to
this conclusion, we ha$e not o$erloo-ed the fact that the %othamsted *'erimental
Station acce'ts grants from fertilizer interests to meet the cost of e*'eriments with
their 'roducts. %othamsted is not, howe$er, a go$ernment institution and, further, the
e*'eriments it carries out are onl# underta-en on the clear understanding that the
information obtained is not to be used for 'ur'oses of 'ro'aganda. The conditions at
%othamsted are thus entirel# different from those under which it is 'ro'osed that the
central fertilizer organization in India should function.
&ones and &one "eal
0/. ,itrogen deficienc# can be remedied to some e*tent b# the a''lication of bones
and bone meal. This form of fertilizer is, howe$er, of greater $alue as a means of
rectif#ing the deficienc# of 'hos'hates which, as we ha$e 'ointed out, is more
'rominent in 'eninsular India and +ower .urma than that of nitrogen. As with other
forms of combined nitrogen, an im'ortant :uantit# of this fertilizer is lost to India b#
a failure to a''l# it to the soil and b# e*'ort. *ce't in the War 'eriod, the total e*'ort
of bones from India has shown little $ariation in the last twent# #ears. The a$erage
e*'orts for the fi$e #ears ending /0/85/A were 0@,8A7 tons, $alued at %S.>8.7@ la-hs.
4or the fi$e #ears ending /07857A the# were ED,EE/ tons, $alued at %s. 0A.08 la-hs. In
/07A57> the# were E8,70D tons $alued at %s. E0./> la-hs and in /07>57D /@@,@@A tons
$alued at %s. 0D.D> la-hs. The im'orts of bone manures are negligible. Practicall# the
whole of the e*'orts are in the form of the manufactured 'roduct, that is in the form
of crushed bones or of bone meal, the highest figure for the e*'ort of uncrushed bones
in recent #ears being A8A tons in /07857A. )nl# a $er# small 'ro'ortion of the bone
manure manufactured in India is consumed in the countr#. "uring the War 'eriod,
when 'rices were low, freight s'ace difficult to obtain and e*'ort demand wea-, it
was estimated that not more than ten 'er cent of the total 'roduction was consumed in
India, and this at a time when the 'rices of all Indian agricultural 'roduce were
e*ce'tionall# high. n:uiries we ha$e made show that there is no reason to belie$e
that the 'ercentage retained for internal consum'tion has increased since the close of
the War. !an# witnesses before us ad$ocated that the hea$# drain of 'hos'hates
in$ol$ed in the large e*'ort of bones from this countr# should be ended b# the total
'rohibition of e*'orts and this 'ro'osal recei$ed the su''ort of the .oard of
Agriculture in /0/0, whilst the ma&orit# of the Indian Ta*ation n:uir# Committee
recommended the im'osition of an e*'ort dut#. 4or much the same reasons as those
for which we ha$e re&ected the 'ro'osal for an e*'ort dut# on oil seeds and oil ca-es,
we are unable to su''ort this recommendation. As was 'ointed out b# the .oard of
Agriculture in /077, local consum'tion, e$en in the most fa$ourable conditions in
recent #ears, has accounted for such a small fraction of the total 'roduction that the
industr# could not continue to e*ist on that fraction, and the im'osition of an e*'ort
dut# would in$ol$e a serious danger of its e*tinction through the closing down of its
mar-ets. 4urther, an# restrictions on e*'ort would de'ri$e one of the 'oorest sections
of the 'o'ulation of a source of income of which it stands badl# in need.
4or slow growing cro's such as fruit trees the rough crushing of bones is sufficient,
but for other cro's fine grinding is re:uired. The crushing mills are at 'resent located
almost entirel# at the 'orts and, in order to get bone manures to the culti$ator, the
establishment of small bone5crushing factories at u'5countr# centres where sufficient
su''lies of bones are a$ailable has been ad$ocated. A far more thorough in$estigation
of the economics of the bone5crushing industr# than has #et been carried out is, we
consider, re:uired before the establishment of such mills can safel# be underta-en b#
'ri$ate enter'rise. The first essential is to obtain definite data in regard to the 'rice at
which, and the cro's for which, the use of bone meal is ad$antageous to the culti$ator.
We suggest that the agricultural de'artments should ta-e earl# ste's to collect these
data. The de'artment of 2o$ernment res'onsible should also in$estigate the cost of
'rocessing bones with s'ecial reference to those districts in which the de$elo'ment of
h#dro5electric schemes gi$es 'romise of a su''l# of chea' 'ower. It should then be a
com'arati$el# eas# matter to determine whether the le$el of 'rices is such as to &ustif#
an# attem'ts on the 'art of 2o$ernment to interest 'ri$ate, or 'referabl# co5o'erati$e,
enter'rise in the establishment of bone5crushing mills in suitable centres. In
determining the le$el of 'rices, allowance should be made for the ad$antage which
local mills will en&o# in com'etition for local custom with the large units at the 'orts
through the sa$ing to the local concerns of the two5wa# trans'ortation charges borne
b# the 'roduct of the 'ort mills.
/ish "anures
07. +ittle need be said about fish manures which are another source of su''l# of both
'hos'hates and nitrogen. The e*'ort of these from India for the fi$e #ears ending
/07A57> a$eraged />,DD8 tons $alued at %s. /0.08 la-hs. In /07>5?D onl# D,8@8 tons
were e*'orted $alued at %s. 0.7/ la-hs. *ce't for a negligible e*'ort from .omba#
and Sind, the e*'orts of fish manures are confined to the west coast of !adras and
'arts of .urma.
The arguments against the 'rohibition of the e*'ort of bones or for the im'osition of
an e*'ort dut# a''l# e:uall# to fish manures. An# restriction of e*'ort would in$ol$e
most serious hardshi' on the small and im'o$erished fishing communities of the two
'ro$inces, and cannot, therefore, be &ustified. The onl# measures which can be
underta-en to lessen the e*'ort of fish manures, without damage to the fish5oil
industr# or the curtailment of the amount of fish caught, are measures to establish that
such manures can be 'rofitabl# used for Indian agriculture at the 'rice obtained for
them in the e*'ort mar-et.
.atural Phos#hates
01. %eference should be made here to the e*tensi$e de'osits of natural 'hos'hates
which are to be found in the Trichino'ol# district of !adras and in South .ihar. In
neither tract do these 'hos'hates e*ist in a form in which the# can be utilized
economicall# for the manufacture of su'er'hos'hate< and their em'lo#ment in
agriculture has been limited to a''lications of the crude material in 'ul$erized form.
This source of su''l# does not offer an# im'ortant 'ossibilities.F
Appendi* +
"o'e Aspects of "oil I'pro,e'ent in -elation to
Crop Production
&y 0. $lar3e' $.I.;.' /.I.$.' ".7.$.
6Proceedins of the Se"enteenth Indian Science Conress, Asiatic Societ# of .engal,
Calcutta, /01@, '. 71.9
I AS3 #our 'ermission to direct #our attention to some as'ects of soil im'ro$ement in
relation to cro' 'roduction. I 'ro'ose to 'ass in brief re$iew some of our 'roblems
and then to touch on the wor- to which m# colleagues, 3han Sahib Shei-h
!ohammad ,aib Husain, %ai Sahib S. C. .aner&ee, and m#self ha$e de$oted a
number of #ears at the Shah&ahan'ur %esearch Station. !# sub&ect is directl#
connected with the su''l# of the first necessit# of life, namel#, food. .# what
methods is the world going to continue to feed its growing 'o'ulationJ It is increasing
at the rate of nearl# twent# millions a #ear, and it cannot be suddenl# chec-ed. Can
food be found for all these e*tra mouths, or will the 'ressure on our land resources
become unbearable, and end in disasterJ That is the colossal 'roblem facing the world
in the ne*t few generations. It must be met either b# a continual e*'ansion of
culti$ation, or an intensification of 'roduction on land alread# culti$ated.
How do we stand in India in res'ect to these :uestionsJ I ha$e 'roceeded in a
somewhat em'irical fashion to ascertain the relation between 'o'ulation and arable
land. I ha$e selected, in ma-ing m# estimate, the figures used in international
statistics, the total area sown and the current fallows. I ha$e deducted the area
re:uired for the 'roduction of e*'orted cotton, food grains, oil seeds, &ute, and tea,
which account for about eight# 'er cent of the $alue of our e*'orts. This estimate is
admittedl# rough and must be regarded as suggesti$e rather than as an e*act measure,
but it is sufficientl# near to illustrate m# 'oint.
I ha$e ta-en the #ear /077571, following the census #ear /07/, and the #ear /07A57>.
In /077571 the total area sown in that 'art of India for which agricultural returns are
made was 17D million acres, >/ were under fallow, ma-ing a total of 1EE million
acres. 4rom this ma# be deducted as 'roducing e*'orted material for cotton /8, for
food grains 0, for oil seeds A, for &ute 7 for tea @.> million acres, or 1/ million acres in
round numbers. So that 1AD million acres are left to su''l# the re:uirements in home
'roduced food and other essential commodities of the 707 million 'eo'le who li$e in
the territor# co$ered b# these figures, $iz. /.7 acres 'er unit 'o'ulation.
A similar calculation for /07A57> gi$es the same result. I ha$e selected for a summar#
com'arison the United States of America and 4rance, two countries 'ossessing 'oints
of resemblance to India. In both, as in India, agriculture is of 'redominant im'ortance.
In the United States 1A> million acres are in culti$ation; >A million 'roducing
e*'orted material ma# be deducted from this, lea$ing 70/ million acres of culti$ated
land de$oted to su''l#ing a 'o'ulation of a''ro*imatel# //7 million, or 7.> acres 'er
unit of 'o'ulation. The dominant characteristic of American economic life has
hitherto been abundance of land resources. 4rance, a countr# which is largel# self5
su''orting, has 1>.1 million hectares of culti$ated land for a 'o'ulation of 10.1
million, a''ro*imatel# 7.1 acres for each head of the 'o'ulation.
In considering these figures we ha$e to allow for the fact that the $egetarian diet
ado'ted b# our 'eo'le is more economical of the resources of the soil than the diet of
the 'eo'le of the United States and 4rance. +i$ing is chea' in India, but when all has
been said that can be said, we are left with the 'lain fact before us that we ha$e one5
half the area of culti$ated land for a unit of 'o'ulation.
The 'ast e*'erience of the world shows that, as long as new land of the necessar#
:ualit# is a$ailable, increased food will be obtained less b# increased s-ill and
e*'enditure on old land than b# ta-ing u' new land. )ur ma' has shown for se$eral
decades well o$er a hundred million acres in the .ritish 'ro$inces of India classified
as culturable waste. Wh# is not new land coming into culti$ationJ I cannot gi$e a
com'lete answer. ,o such 'rocess can be obser$ed in stead# o'eration on a scale
sufficient to raise the 'er ca'ita area of culti$ation to a le$el which will meet our food
re:uirements. Some recent settlements in this 'ro$ince show an increase in culti$ation
of onl# one to three 'er cent in thirt# #ears, while in others the area is stationar#. 4or a
number of reasons the area of culturable waste gi$es an unreal conce'tion of our
resources. !uch of the land thus classified includes areas 'h#sicall# ca'able of being
em'lo#ed for cro's onl# when our need is so e*treme that considerations of cost of
utilization are relati$el# secondar#. 4ift# 'er cent we -now is situated in .urma and
Assam, out of the s'here of action of our chief agricultural races. A great deal is in
tarai tracts where health reasons 're$ent e*tensi$e settlement. +and is coming under
the 'lough, to some e*tent, in the $illages of the Sarda Canal area in these 'ro$inces,
and will do so elsewhere as irrigation schemes mature, but in India, as in other 'arts
of the world, new land of the necessar# :ualit# for food cro's is no longer eas# to
find.
This brings me to the first 'art of m# argument 55 the necessit# of increasing the acre
#ield of land now under the 'lough if an am'le su''l# of food and the home5grown
necessaries of life is to be assured to the Indian wor-er, and his standard of li$ing
raised abo$e subsistence le$el. It is a difficult 'roblem but it is not insoluble.
When I considered this matter some months ago, I as-ed m#self three :uestions;
1/ What factors are in our favour, and <hat are a&ainst us, <hen <e
be&in to intensify our cultivationN
2/ Will the >no<led&e and e=+erience of other countries hel+ to
accelerate our +ro&ressN What ne< >no<led&e do <e nee
'/ What is the Duantitative measure of the result <e may e=+ectN
I 'ro'ose to gi$e #ou the answers that suggested themsel$es to me, based on
conditions in these 'ro$inces where m# e*'erience has been gained.
We ha$e in our fa$our two things. In the first 'lace, soil that is eas# to manage and
:uic-l# res'onds to treatment, and, secondl#, agricultural wor-ers attached to their
calling and 'ossessing a strongl# de$elo'ed land sense which, b# some curious twist
in our ma-e5u', can onl# be ac:uired in childhood. We shall not come u' against a
shortage of agricultural wor-ers of the -ind that is hindering de$elo'ment in Australia
and Canada. In these countries, a high degree of s-ill has to be directed to econom# of
labour b# the use of machiner# and labour5sa$ing de$ices. In India, our efforts will
ha$e to be de$oted to economizing land. We are better 'laced than most countries as
regards the 'rimar# essential for increasing 'roduction 'er unit of land, namel#, man5
'ower. (ou ma# as- me, FWhat is dela#ing our 'rogress with two such assetsJF This
o'ens u' a wide sociological stud#. I belie$e ignorance and a larger share of ill5health
than should fall to the lot of an a$erage being 'la# a 'art. The stimulus re:uired seems
to be education of a rural t#'e. I cannot, howe$er, 'ursue this issue, and return to m#
agricultural te*t.
We ha$e to contend against difficult weather conditions and short growing seasons
re:uiring earl# maturing and s'ecialized $arieties of cro's. The Howards, in )he
0e"elopment of Indian Ariculture, describe gra'hicall# the effect of the monsoon on
the soil and on the 'eo'le. It is indeed the dominant factor in rural India.
We shall alwa#s at inter$als e*'erience #ears of short rainfall and this fact gi$es
additional force to m# argument for increasing the acre #ield in fa$ourable seasons b#
im'ro$ed soil management if we are to a$oid star$ation. !uch has been done to
intensif# #ields without an# commensurate increase of labour on soil im'ro$ement b#
the introduction of more hea$il# cro''ing $arieties. I need onl# :uote as e*am'les
wheat and cotton in the Pun&ab and wheat and sugar5cane in the United Pro$inces,
which are adding crores to the culti$atorsF income. Indian conditions, howe$er, test
the s-ill of the 'lant breeder $er# se$erel# and further ste's in im'ro$ement in this
direction are not going to be easil# won.
I now 'ass on to that 'art of m# sub&ect which has greater interest for a scientific
audience than some of the stubborn facts I ha$e 'laced before #ou. I mean the
consideration of some as'ects of recent wor- on soil im'ro$ement and the lines on
which en:uir# ma# be directed in India.
Since .oussingault introduced the method of e*act field e*'eriment in /E18, research
on the soil and the conditions of cro' growth has been continuous in uro'e and
America. The methods of a''roach ha$e become more e*act with each ad$ance in
'ure science. We, therefore, start our wor- on soil im'ro$ement in India with tools
read# made. In$estigations carried out in other countries ha$e gi$en us the 'rinci'les
in$ol$ed and often the techni:ue of methods of research. )ur wor- for the moment is
to a''l# them to conditions where soil 'rocesses differ widel# both in intensit# and
time of occurrence, from those of tem'erate climates. I ha$e been im'ressed b# the
desirabilit# of a''l#ing to our 'roblems a conce'tion de$elo'ed in recent #ears b# the
Cambridge and %othamsted wor-ers, which has gi$en a new and wider significance to
the field e*'eriment. The final #ield gi$es us no indication of what ha''ens during the
'lantFs life or how it res'onds to factors o'erating at successi$e stages of growth. The
modern method ma-es :uantitati$e obser$ations of cro's throughout the 'eriod of
growth and e*amines the results b# statistical methods This is nothing more than
reducing to e*act measurement and scientific treatment the obser$ations which e$er#
'ractical farmer ma-es but does not formulate. The ad$antage is ob$ious. Information
co$ering a wider range than the old t#'e of field e*'eriment can be obtained in a few
#ears, instead of ta-ing generations. (ou will remember that +awes and 2ilbert
waited twent# #ears before discussing the results of their e*'eriments. The field
e*'eriment lasting twent# or more #ears no longer fulfils our re:uirements. We want
results in a reasonable time, accom'anied b# 'roof of their reliabilit#, which will tell
us not onl# the final #ield but how that #ield is obtained.
This leads u' to another conce'tion, namel#, the critical 'eriods of cro's which will
re'a# closer :uantitati$e stud# in a countr# characterized b# singularl# short growing
'eriods and ra'idl# changing conditions. .# critical 'eriod, I mean the relati$el# short
inter$al during which the 'lant reaches the ma*imum sensibilit# to a gi$en factor and
during which the intensit# of that factor will ha$e the greatest effect on #ield. These
'eriods seem to be associated with some 'hase of growth in which the 'lant is
undergoing modifications demanding the ra'id formation and mo$ement of food
material. Italian wor-ers ha$e found that the twent# da#s before the cro' comes into
ear constitutes an im'ortant critical 'eriod for wheat in relation to humidit# and soil
moisture. If during this 'eriod these factors are in defect of the minimum needed for
the normal de$elo'ment of the 'lant, the cro' will be small e$en if there is abundance
throughout the rest of the $egetati$e 'eriod.
)ur obser$ations at Shah&ahan'ur indicate that two 'eriods in the growth of sugar5
cane ha$e s'ecial significance; 6/9 !a# and earl# Gune when the tillers and root
s#stem are de$elo'ing< and 679 August and Se'tember when the main storage of sugar
ta-es 'lace. A chec- recei$ed at either of these 'eriods 'ermanentl# reduces the #ield.
The acre #ield of sugar is 'ositi$el# and closel# correlated with the amount of nitrate
nitrogen in the soil during the first 'eriod, and with soil moisture and humidit# in the
second 'eriod.
4ood cro's 're5eminentl# demand combined nitrogen. (ou will remember how Sir
William Croo-es startled the world thirt# #ears ago b# the statement that the wheat5
eating races were in deadl# 'eril of star$ation owing to the ra'id e*haustion of soil
nitrogen. The age in which he li$ed had become accustomed to abundant su''lies of
chea' food from the great 'lains of the American Continent. 4ertilit# accumulated
since the glacial 'eriod b# lu*uriant 'lant growth and bacterial acti$it# suddenl#
became a$ailable for e*'loitation, and was 'lundered at an a''alling rate b# rough
and read# methods of culti$ation. ,itrogen was disa''earing from the soil out of all
'ro'ortion to the amount reco$ered in the cro'. The e*traordinar# fertilit# of some of
these new regions is shown b# the data recorded b# Shutt, an acre of soil to a de'th of
one foot containing from 7@,@@@ to 7A,@@@ lb. )f nitrogen in an acre foot of soil in
these 'ro$inces, which lies between the limits of /,@@@ and 1,@@@ lb. I shall refer to
this again shortl#.
Croo-es was almost the first to realize that there was a limit to chea' 'roduction from
new land, but his forecast was too gloom#. He $isualized the e*haustion of the chief
granar# of the western world within a generation or two. In some im'ortant res'ects
he misa''rehended the 'roblem. He did not -now as we -now now that other
agencies ste' in and sto' the 'lunder of the soil before it has gone too far. It is onl#
under im'ro'er methods of cro''ing and culti$ation that 'ermanent soil deterioration
is a real and dangerous 'henomenon. +and 'ro'erl# handled does not become
e*hausted. !uch of the land of uro'e has been culti$ated since the da#s of the
%omans or e$en earlier. It is, if an#thing, more fertile than e$er. In India, we ha$e in
e*istence a method of farming which has maintained for ten centuries at least a
'erfect balance between the nitrogen re:uirements of the cro's we har$est and the
'rocesses which recu'erate fertilit#.
When we e*amine the facts, we must 'ut the ,orthern Indian culti$ator down as the
most economical farmer in the world as far as the utilization of the 'otent element of
fertilit# 55 nitrogen 55 goes. In this res'ect he is more s-ilful than his Canadian brother.
He cannot ta-e a hea$# o$erdraft of nitrogen from the soil. He has onl# the small
current account 'ro$ided b# the few 'ounds annuall# added b# nature, #et he raises a
cro' of wheat on irrigated land in the United Pro$inces that is not far remo$ed from
the Canadian a$erage. He does more with a little nitrogen than an# farmer I e$er
heard of. We need not concern oursel$es with soil deterioration in these 'ro$inces.
The 'resent standard of fertilit# can be maintained indefinitel#. This is not m# te*t.
Production must be raised if we are to li$e in reasonable securit# and comfort.
In one res'ect Croo-es was right. He foresaw that the intensification of 'roduction
re:uired more combined nitrogen than the limited su''lies furnished b# the
distillation of coal and the nitrate de'osits, to counterbalance the colossal wastage
which ci$ilization and urban life bring about. The fi*ation of atmos'heric nitrogen
was, as he 'ut it, $ital to the 'rogress of ci$ilized humanit#. This 'roblem has been
sol$ed in the last ten #ears and is one of the remar-able achie$ements of a''lied
science. It could ha$e been sol$ed sooner if mone# had been forthcoming for long5
range research, but it too- the War to bring us to our senses. Thirt# #ears ago, the
fi*ation of 70.8 grams of a mi*ture of nitrogen and o*#gen at the e*'enditure of one
horse5'ower was recorded as a scientific achie$ement. In /07E570 the estimated
'roduction of nitrogen com'ounds b# s#nthetic 'rocesses was e:ui$alent to /.1
million metric tons of 'ure nitrogen, or o$er > million long tons of sul'hate of
ammonia, which can be sold at 'rices low in com'arison with the 'rices of
agricultural 'roduce. We are entering on an era of nitrogen 'lent# which is bound to
react fa$ourabl# on the worldFs food 'roduction. )ne of our 'roblems is to find out
how we can ma-e use of this disco$er# in India. The 'robabilit# is that the full benefit
of fertilizers will be realized onl# on land reasonabl# su''lied with organic matter.
I ma# be allowed here to sound a note of warning. 2reat as are the 'ossibilities
offered b# s#nthetic nitrogen com'ounds there is danger in ad&usting our standards of
li$ing to increased 'roduction based entirel# on im'orted fertilizers. The# ma# be cut
off suddenl# b# international disturbances. The War is too near an e*'erience and the
'romise of uni$ersal 'eace too uncertain to ignore this side of the :uestion altogether.
It will be but a wise 'recaution to establish their manufacture in India when the
correct wa# of using them has been wor-ed out their $alue demonstrated, and a
demand created.
)ur 'roblem is more com'le* than the sim'le addition of nitrogen com'ounds to the
soil. We ha$e to face under 'eculiar conditions of climate the :uestion of controlling
moisture, organic matter, and air su''l# in the soil, of regulating the su''lies of
nitrogen so that it ma# be a$ailable in the right form and :uantit# when the 'lant most
needs it, so that none ma# be wasted, and to ma-e use to the utmost of those 'rocesses
b# which nature su''lies nitrogen free of charge. These 'roblems centre around the
changes which organic material undergoes in the soil and the nitrogen transformations
which accom'an# them.
We ha$e two methods of soil im'ro$ement 'ossessing enormous 'otentialities for
increasing cro' 'roduction and so sim'le in o'eration that the# can be used b#
e$er#bod#;
1/ the +re+aration of Duic>-actin& manures from <aste or&anic
materialF
2/ the use of &reen manure cro+s/
I do not 'ro'ose to discuss recent wor- on the first method. The 'ractical details ha$e
been wor-ed out thoroughl# b# the Howards at Indore, and b# 4owler, %ichards, and
their co5wor-ers at Cawn'ore. A 'a'er on this sub&ect is going to be 'laced before #ou
b# "r. 4owler. I will not antici'ate what he is going to sa# be#ond remar-ing that the
results which he has allowed me to e*amine 'lace in our hands a method of the
greatest $alue for increasing the out5turn of rabi cro's which re:uire in this 'ro$ince a
:uic-er acting manure than that 'ro$ided b# turning in a green cro'.
We ha$e been wor-ing for some #ears at Shah&ahan'ur on the utilization of green5
manure for sugar5cane. We ha$e 'loughed in on an a$erage of three #earsF
obser$ations,7/E maunds 'er acre of sanai 6Crotalaria juncea9 which adds A@ maunds
of dr# organic material and DA lb. of nitrogen to each acre. We ha$e succeeded in
raising cro's to EA@ maunds 'er acre without the addition of an# fertilizing agent
other than the sanai 'roduced b# the land itself.
I gi$e below the results of 7D randomized 'lots in the treated and unbtreated fields in
/07E.
1u&ar-cane
maunds 9!2
2K- lb/: +er
acre
,a< 1u&ar
maunds
+er acre
6ry %atter
maunds
+er acre
.reen-
manure
!#- O '2 !-/0 O '/$
2#$/1 O
!/0
"ontrol $# O 22 $-/2 O 2/$
200/1 O
$/$
The illustration shows the cro' in the field 6Plate LII9.
Plate 3II. 5reen-manure e6periment, 4hah7ahanpur, 192!-29
The 'ractical result is worth %s. 0@ 'er acre. )ur 'roblem is to find out the conditions
of culti$ation necessar# to decom'ose sanai in such a wa# that; 6/9 well5aerated soil
containing sufficient organic matter to 're$ent ra'id dr#ing out is read# for the cro' in
!arch< and 679 the nitrogen e*changes are such that this element is 'rotected from
loss until it is wanted, and is then 'resent in a form which can be ra'idl# mineralized
for the use of the #oung cro'.
)ur method of soil treatment is to bring about the earl# stages of decom'osition in the
'resence of am'le moisture. The rainfall after the sanai is 'loughed in is carefull#
watched. If it is less than fi$e inches in the first fortnight of Se'tember the fields are
irrigated. In this wa# we secure in most of our soils an abundant fungal growth as the
land slowl# dries. We 're$ent large accumulations of nitrates in the autumn, which
ma# be lost before the sugar5cane is sown, and concentrate the nitrogen in easil#
decom'osable organic form in m#celial and microbial tissue, until it is wanted in
mineral form in the s'ring.
Throughout the e*'eriments we ha$e made estimates of nitrate. The cur$es show the
accumulation of nitrogen in the first foot of fallow 'lots in the treated and control
fields in /07E and /070 6Plate LIII9.
Plate 3III. 5reen-manure
e6periment, 4hah7ahanpur, 192!-
29 '5raph(
Full-size image
The accumulation of nitrate reaches its ma*imum in !a# and Gune &ust before the first
hea$# rain. At this time the cro' is about one5third grown. We ha$e not obser$ed an#
subse:uent large formation of nitrate u' to the com'letion of growth in )ctober. The
final #ields are in 'ro'ortion to the mineral nitrogen 'resent in the first 'eriod and this
suggests at once the im'ortance of a$ailable nitrogen in the earl# stages of the growth
of sugar5cane. This $iew is b# no means a new one. It has recentl# been de$elo'ed b#
2regor# at South 3ensington and %othamsted, who found that barle# absorbed 0@ 'er
cent of its total nitrogen when it had made about one5third of its growth. If it is
substantiated b# further wor- and found to a''l# to all cro's it gi$es a clue to se$eral
im'ro$ements in soil management.
In our studies in conne*ion with the intensification of sugar5cane culti$ation we ha$e
been influenced b# American in$estigations and methods, more s'eciall# those of the
wor-ers led b# Wa-sman, who ha$e studied the decom'osition of cellulose and dead
organic material in the soil. The# ha$e shown that the structure of the carbonaceous
energ# material in the soil largel# determines the t#'e of decom'osition and the
nitrogen transformations. If moisture and tem'erature conditions are fa$ourable, the
decom'osition of cellulosic energ# material, the chief constituent of green5manure, is
mainl# accom'lished b# fungous acti$it# resulting in the formation of large :uantities
of m#celial tissue and the remo$al of nitrogen tem'oraril# from the reach of higher
'lants. The s#nthesized material is later decom'osed b# other micro5organisms
forming mineral nitrogen and humic material, and a definite 'eriod of time is re:uired
to com'lete these changes. A large $olume of wor- has been 'ublished in the last fi$e
#ears. It e*'lains much that was obscure regarding the utilization of green5manure in
India, 'articularl# the time factor to which Howard drew attention man# #ears ago.
I now a''roach the last and most difficult 'art of m# tas-, to estimate the increased
'roduction we ma# loo- for b# the a''lication of scientific methods to our
agriculture. What I am going to sa# will be more readil# understood if I gi$e the
'roduction of wheat in a few countries for the cro' sown in /07>, which was, on the
whole, a good #ear throughout the world. It is as follows;
*nited ProvincesC 7rri&ated
12/2 mds/ +er
acre/
*nited ProvincesC
*nirri&ated
! /2 mds/ +er
acre
"anada
1'/2 mds/ +er
acre
*/1/)/
10/- mds/ +er
acre
France
1'/0 mds/ +er
acre
.ermany
1-/ 5 mds/ +er
acre
.reat Britain
22/5 mds/ +er
acre
Bel&ium
2$/' mds/ +er
acre
A glance at these figures shows what an immense 'otential increase of 'roduction is
o'en in man# countries, es'eciall# in America and India. The 'h#sical 'ossibilit# or
'erha's e$en the limit of 'roduction in the United Pro$inces is shown b# the #ield
obtained at the Shah&ahan'ur %esearch Station. In /07> it was 7E.E maunds 'er acre.
In the last ele$en #ears, including two in which the wheat cro' was a 'artial failure,
781 acres ha$e #ielded A,08A maunds or 78.8 mounds 'er acre. Soil and climate do
not im'ose a serious restriction on 'roduction. We cannot, howe$er, ta-e one stri-ing
instance of large #ields achie$ed on a small acreage under fa$ourable conditions as
the basis of an estimate of the future 'roduction of the countr# as a whole. The actual
le$el in an# countr# is bound to be behind the ideal, no matter how well de$elo'ed
educational and 'ro'aganda machiner# ma# be.
It is safer, if such a course be 'ossible, to consider a$erage results obtained in
countries which ha$e been com'elled to em'lo# intensi$e methods, but we ha$e no
ade:uate basis of com'arison with our conditions. There is no e*am'le of a tro'ical
or semi5tro'ical countr# in which scientific ha$e been a''lied o$er a wide area b#
inde'endent and unsu'er$ised wor-ers.
Sugar5cane culti$ation in Ga$a is often :uoted as an e*am'le of what can be done. It
illustrates the combined effect of strictly super"ised labour and scientific methods on
about one million acres of land, carried out with the ob&ect of gaining the highest
'ossible interest on "utch ca'ital. It does not illustrate what we are aiming at in India
55 agricultural im'ro$ement initiated and carried through b# the 'eo'le themsel$es, as
the result of education and u'lift, on 1@@ million acres.
+et us e*amine the course of e$ents in uro'e and America and learn what we can
from them.
In medie$al ngland the #ield of wheat was se$en maunds 'er acre. When the
consolidation of holdings was com'leted b# the enclosures in about the last :uarter of
the eighteenth centur# the #ield rose to fourteen maunds 'er acre. It remained at this
le$el until /E8@ when a further ad$ance was made 'ossible b# the use of better
methods and the introduction of nitrogen fertilizers. .# /ED@ the #ield had risen to
twent# maunds 'er acre.
In America low #ields and a growing industrial 'o'ulation are causing uneasiness. .#
stud#ing agricultural conditions in other countries the conclusion has been reached
that fort#5se$en 'er cent re'resents a 'ossible all5round increase of 'roduction on the
'resent cro''ed area. *'erts do not agree as to the 'robable increase in the ne*t few
decades. This is 'laced between the limits of ten and thirt# 'er cent. These figures are
based on considerations of labour. This, as I ha$e said, scarcel# enters into our
'roblem in India. We ha$e more 'eo'le em'lo#ed in agriculture 'er unit of culti$ated
land than an# other countr#, with the 'ossible e*ce'tion of China and Ga'an.
The im'ro$ement of sugar5cane culti$ation e*tends o$er 7,E/@,@@@ acres in eighteen
districts in the United Pro$inces and gi$es some indication of the 'ossible course of
e$ents. The #ield of the unim'ro$ed cro' in a #ear of a$erage character is 1A@ maunds
'er acre. We 'ass through four definite stages of im'ro$ement;
1/ Better cultivation of the old varieties, yieldin& #50 maunds +er acre/
2/ 2he introduction of heavier cro++in& varieties accom+anied by a
further im+rovement in cultivation, yieldin& $00 maunds +er acre/
'/ 2he introduction of some fertili0in& a&ent, such as &reen-manure,
yieldin& !00 maunds +er acre/
#/ 2he intensive cultivation of heavy cro++in& varieties, yieldin& 1,000
maunds +er acre/
The increase o$er the normal 'roduction is 7E, D/, /7E and /EA 'er cent. The anal#sis
of the returns is hel'ful in conne*ion with our 'roblem. In the more im'ortant sugar
'roducing districts se$ent# 'er cent of the sugar5cane area is 'lanted with hea$ier
#ielding $arieties. In some thirt# 'er cent, and in a few onl# two 'er cent.
7,E/@,@@@ acres is almost e*actl# 11 'er cent of the total sugar5cane area in the /E
districts for which s'ecial returns are made< on this area the #ield has been slightl#
more than doubled so that there is an all5round increase in 'roduction of 11 'er cent.
This has ta-en /D #ears to accom'lish and brings the culti$ator in 1// la-hs of ru'ees
e*tra a #ear. I belie$e if such sim'le modifications of 'ractice as the use of green5
manure cro's and com'osts made from waste material, were a''lied to all our arable
land, 'roduction would be more than doubled< but this means that e$er# culti$ator
would be conducting his agricultural o'erations in a scientific manner 55 a state of
affairs not #et reached in an# countr#. The 'oint is that it is not to be e*'ected. We
must allow for the inertia which will retard the general ado'tion of im'ro$ements in
so large a countr# as India. After gi$ing due weight to this and ta-ing into
consideration the abundance of our labour resources and the e*traordinar# res'onse of
our soil to better treatment, it is reasonable to belie$e that within the ne*t two or three
decades we ma# increase the all5round out5turn of our cro''ed land b# 1@ 'er cent in
normal seasons. .ut I assume that much more mone# will be s'ent on scientific
research and e*tension wor- in $illages than is now s'ent.
I ho'e I ha$e said enough to show that soil im'ro$ement in India is worth an effort. It
re:uires generous e*'enditure from the national e*che:uer, and there is no better
in$estment for it gi$es, to use the words of Hu*le#, an immediate return of those
things which the most sordidl# 'ractical man admits to ha$e $alue. We are wor-ing in
times well suited for agricultural de$elo'ment. Indifference is gi$ing wa#. There is a
stir throughout the countr#side. We can call the mo$ement what we li-e, but the 'lain
fact is that men are no longer satisfied with a life which 'ro$ides onl# hard wor- and
barel# enough to eat. !an# things are being suggested, but the# deal more often than
not with 'reliminaries to social well5being and lea$e untouched the $ital 'roblem of
'roducing more food. In the end the scientific wor-er will come to the rescue, and the
solution will be reached through the e*'eriment station.
Appendi* C
.itroen %ransfor'ation in the Deco'position of
.atural Oranic !aterials at Different "taes of
/rowth
S. A. Wa3sman and /. 0. Tenney' .e! @ersey Agricultural
;8#eriment Station' U.S.A.
6Proceedins and Papers of the first International Conress of Soil Science,
Washington, " C, /07D, '. 7@0.9
To be able to understand the reasons for the ra'idit# of liberation of nitrogen from the
decom'osition of 'lants at different stages of growth, we must -now the com'osition
of the 'lant at these $arious stages and the nature of decom'osition of the $arious
'lant constituents. Although the 'lant continues to assimilate nutrients, including
nitrogen, until maturit#, the 'ercentage of nitrogen in the 'lant reaches a ma*imum at
an earl# stage, then graduall# diminishes, reaching a minimum at maturit# or a little
before maturit#. This is true not onl# of nitrogen but also of certain other elements.
Plant materials decom'ose more ra'idl# and the nitrogen is liberated more readil# 6in
the form of ammonia9 at an earl# stage of growth and less so when the 'lant is
matured. Two causes are to be considered here; 6/9 the ra'idit# of decom'osition of
the $arious 'lant constituents< 679 the relation of the nitrogen to the carbon content of
the 'lant tissues.
At an earl# stage of growth, the 'lant is rich in water5soluble constituents, in 'rotein
and is low in lignins. When the 'lant a''roaches maturit#, the amount of the first
diminishes and of the second increases. The water5soluble constituents, the 'roteins
and e$en the 'entosans and celluloses decom'ose $er# ra'idl# 'ro$ided sufficient
nitrogen and minerals are a$ailable for the micro5organisms. The lignins do not
decom'ose at all in a brief 'eriod of time of one or two months. !ore so, their
'resence has e$en an in&urious effect u'on the decom'osition of the celluloses with
which the# are combined chemicall# or 'h#sicall#. The larger the lignin content of the
'lant the slower does the 'lant decom'ose e$en when there is 'resent aufficient
nitrogen and minerals.
It has been shown re'eatedl# that the organisms 6fungi and bacteria9 decom'osing the
celluloses and 'entosans re:uire a $er# definite amount of nitrogen for the s#nthesis
of their 'roto'lasm. Since the cell substance of li$ing and dead 'roto'lasm alwa#s
contain a definite, although $ar#ing, amount of nitrogen and since there is a more or
less definite ratio between the amount of cellulose decom'osed and cell substance
s#nthesized, de'ending of course u'on the nature of the organisms and en$ironmental
conditions, the ratio between the cellulose decom'osed and nitrogen re:uired b# the
organisms is also definite. This nitrogen is transformed from an inorganic into an
organic form. )f course in normal soil, in the 'resence of the com'le* cell
'o'ulation, the cell substance soon decom'oses, a 'art of the nitrogen is again
liberated as ammonia and a 'art remains in the soil and is resistant to ra'id
decom'osition. The amount of nitrogen which becomes a$ailable in the soil is a
balance between the nitrogen liberated from the decom'osition of the 'lant materials
and that absorbed b# the micro5organisms which decom'ose the non5nitrogenous and
nitrogenous constituents. The #ounger the 'lant, the higher is its nitrogen content and
the more ra'idl# does it decom'ose, therefore the greater is the amount of nitrogen
that becomes a$ailable. The lower the nitrogen content of the 'lant the less of it is
liberated and the more of it is assimilated b# micro5organisms.
These 'henomena can be brought out most clearl# when the same 'lant is e*amined at
different stages of growth. The r#e 'lant was selected for this 'ur'ose. The seeds were
'lanted in the fall. The sam'les ta-en on A'ril 7Eth 6I9, !a# /Dth 6II9, Gune 7nd 6III9,
and Gune 1@th 6I=9. In the third sam'ling the 'lants were di$ided into 6a9 heads, 6b9
stems and lea$es. The fourth sam'le was di$ided into 6a9 heads, 6b9 stems and lea$es,
6c9 roots. The 'lants were anal#sed and the ra'idit# of their decom'osition
determined, using sand or soil as a medium and 7 g. of the organic matter. In the case
of sand some inorganic nitrogen and minerals were added and a soil sus'ension used
for inoculation. The e$olution of carbon dio*ide and accumulation of ammonia and
nitrate nitrogen was used as an inde* of decom'osition. Tables I and II show the
com'osition of the 'lant and the amount of nitrogen made a$ailable after 7> da#s of
decom'osition.
Table I
$om#osition of ye Stra! at 2i<erent Stages of
0ro!th on a 2ry &asis
No/ of
sam+l
e
%oisture
content
at time of
harvest
)sh
Nitro&e
n
"old
<ater
soluble
fraction
Pentosa
ns
"ellulos
e
;i&ni
n
L L L L L L L
7 !0/0 -/' 2/' '2/$ 15/ 1-/2 /
77 -!/! 5/- 1/-$ 22/0 20/5 2$/1 1'/5
777a 5-/# #/ 1/01 1!/2 22/- '0/$ 1/0
777b $0/2 5/ 2/20 20/' 22/- 20/1 1$/0
7Ga 15/0 '/2 1/22 #/- 11/ #/$ 1'/#
7Gb 15/0 '/- 0/22 /5 21/- '#/$ 1!/!
7Gc N N 0/55 #/- 2$/$ '-/- 21/0
Table *
2ecom#osition of ye at 2i<erent Stages of 0ro!th
92 &/ of dry material added to 100 &/ of sand or soil medium:
6ate of
sam+lin
&
No/ of
sam+l
e
Nitro&en
content
of
material
"(2 &iven o8
in 2- days
)vailable Nitro&en
9N@2-N-N(2-N:
absorbed 9I: or
liberated 9-:
1and
mediu
1oil
mediu
m m
L m&/"/ m&/"
1and
medium
N/
1oil
medium
N/
)+ril 2! 7 2/' ''-/- 2!$/! I10/1 I22/ 2
%ay 1- 77 1/-$ 2!0/5 2!0/# I0/! I'/0
4une ' 777a 1/01 215/- 1/5 -12/1 --/5
4une ' 777b 2/20 2$1/ 2##/! I5/- I-/5
4une '0 7Ga 1/22 2$/ 2-'/- -#/# -2/1
4une '0 7Gb 0/22 221/# 1!-/ -1$/0 -!/
4une '0 7Gc 0/55 1!-/0 15!/# -!/1 -/#
,oot material used in the decom+osition <as eDuivalent to
1/$- &/ of moisture free and ash-free or&anic matter/
When a 'lant material contains about /.D 'er cent nitrogen, as in the r#e of the second
sam'ling, there seems to be sufficient nitrogen for the growth of micro5organisms
which decom'ose this material more or less com'letel#. When the 'lant material
contains less than /.D 'er cent of nitrogen, as in the case of the stems and lea$es of the
third 're'aration, additional nitrogen will be re:uired, before the organic matter is
com'letel# decom'osed 6s'ea-ing, of course, relati$el#, since if a long enough 'eriod
of time is allowed for the decom'osition, less additional nitrogen will be needed9. If
the organic material contains more than I.D 'er cent nitrogen, as in the case of the
'lants in the first 'lanting and the heads of the third sam'ling, a 'art of the nitrogen
will be liberated as ammonia, in the decom'osition 'rocesses. The difference between
the nitrogen content of the heads and this h#'othetical figure M @.A 67.7 5 /.D9 'er cent.
or /@ mg. nitrogen for the 7 g. of organic matter< actuall# A.D mg. and D.A mg. of
nitrogen were liberated as ammonia in the sand and soil media res'ecti$el#. The
difference between the h#'othetical figure and the nitrogen content of the stems and
lea$es was @.>0 6/.D 5 /.@/9 'er cent or /1.E mg. nitrogen for the 7 g. of 'lant material
used. Actuall# /7./ and D.A mg. of nitrogen were consumed in the sand and soil
media. Had the decom'osition been allowed to 'roceed further, the results would
ha$e a''roached from both directions the h#'othetical figure and, with 'rolonged
decom'osition 6of s#nthesized substances9, would ha$e e*ceeded it.
The decom'osition of /@g. dr# 'ortions of the second sam'ling and 7@g. dr# 'ortions
of the stems and lea$es of the fourth sam'ling was studied se'aratel# in a sand
medium containing a$ailable nitrogen and minerals. )nl# the data for the organic
matter 'ortion, insoluble in ether and water, are re'orted. The results show that the
'entosans and celluloses are ra'idl# decom'osed, while the lignins are affected onl#
to a $er# inconsiderable e*tent. The nitrogen figures are of direct interest here. Gust
about as much insoluble 'rotein was left in the first as in the second e*'eriment; in
the first the 'rotein is considerabl# reduced, in the second increased. This tends to
e*'lain the acti$ities of the micro5organisms in the soil.
Table A
$om#osition of Organic "atter at
&eginning and ;nd of 2ecom#osition
Sample %%
(r&anic matter 9free
from ether and <ater-
soluble substances
and ash:
)t be&innin&
of
e=+eriment
)t end of
e=+eriment
m&/ m&/
-,#$5 2,015
Pentosan 2,050 '!0
"ellulose 9calculated: 2,$10 $10
;i&nin 1,1!0 -50
Protein 9insoluble in
<ater:
!1$ 25'
*naccounted for !/$L 1L
Table B
$om#osition of Organic "atter at
&eginning and ;nd of 2ecom#osition
Sample %& -- Stems and 'eaves
(r&anic matter
+resent 9free from
ether and <ater-
soluble substances
and )sh:
)t
be&innin& of
e=+eriment
)t end of
e=+eriment
m&/ m&/
15,11# !,--0
Pentosan ',2! 1,55'
"ellulose $,2$2 2,-$$
;i&nin ',#0' ',01
Protein 1!1 51
*naccounted for 10/25L 10/#1L
The results show that since there is a $er# definite ratio between the energ# and
nitrogen consum'tion of the microorganisms decom'osing the organic matter, it is
eas# to calculate, gi$en a certain amount of 'lant material and -nowing its nitrogen
content, whether nitrogen will be liberated in an a$ailable form or additional nitrogen
will be re:uired within a gi$en 'eriod of time. Calculations can also be made as to
how much of this nitrogen is re:uired for the decom'osition of the 'lant material and
how long it ma# ta-e before the nitrogen is again made a$ailable.
Appendi* D
An 0*peri'ent in the !anae'ent of Indian
1abour
&y Albert Ho!ard' $.I.;.
6International 1abour Re"ie2, 2ene$a, /E, /01/, '. >1>.9
3ne of the outstandin problems of the present phase of colonial de"elopment in Asia
and Africa is that of the best and most scientific methods for the orani!ation of 2ork
in lare4scale aricultural undertakins5 )he author of this short article# 2ho is a
2ell4kno2n authority on tropical ariculture and has for thirty years contributed to
the scientific impro"ement of ariculture in the %ast as Imperial %conomic Botanist at
the 6o"ernment of India Research Station at Pasa# at 7uetta# and latterly in the State
of Indore# describes a small4scale e8periment from 2hich many lessons may perhaps
be dra2n5 )he e8periment has been tried in the State of Indore under the stimulus of
ha"in to obtain an ade*uate labour force to carry on the 2ork of an aricultural
e8perimental station in competition 2ith the ri"al attractions e8ercised by 2ork in
neihbourin factories5 9o doubt the conditions are not entirely on all fours 2ith
those of plantations carried on under competiti"e conditions# but they are sufficiently
similar to i"e the e8periment a li"in and practical interest5 As the author points out#
the financial basis is pro"ided mainly by the cotton industry in India and by the
Indian States members of the Institute of Plant Industry# 2ithout any call for
assistance by the 6o"ernment of India or by Pro"incial 6o"ernments5 As the article
sho2s# the best results ha"e been obtained under a scheme 2hich pro"ides for a si8 to
se"en and a half hour 2orkin day# paid lea"e# medical attendance# ood housin#
and opportunity for promotion for the labour employed5 B%d. International +abour
%e$iewC
The foundation of the new Institute of Plant Industr# at Indore in Central India in
)ctober /078, 'ro$ided the o''ortunit# of brea-ing new ground in at least four
directions, namel#;
1/ 2he best method of a++lyin& science to cro+ +roduction/ 92his
as+ect has been dealt <ith in The Application of Science to (rop
"roduction, an )xp*eriment carried out at the %nstitute of "lant
%ndustry, %ndore, (=ford *niversity Press, 12/:
2/ 2he &eneral or&ani0ation and 5nance 9includin& audit: of an
a&ricultural e=+eriment station/
'/ 2he most e8ective <ay of &ettin& the results ta>en u+ by the
+eo+leF and
#/ 2he mana&ement of the labour force em+loyed/
The 'resent article deals with the last of these items; with the methods b# which a
contented and efficient bod# of labour can be maintained for the da# to da# wor- of
an agricultural e*'eriment station, largel# de$oted to the 'roduction of raw cotton.
The Institute and its Organization
The Institute of Plant Industr# at Indore is su''orted b# an annual grant of %s.
/,/A,@@@ from the Indian Central Cotton Committee and b# subscri'tions, amounting
at the moment to %s. 8D,AA@ a #ear, from twent# of the States of Central India and
%a&'utana. 6In addition to these sources, the Institute ma-es use of the 'roduce of the
e*'erimental area of 1@@ acres, of the ro#alties on its 'ublications and of a number of
miscellaneous items of income, including the fees earned for ad$ice to indi$iduals and
bodies outside the Societ#.9 "uring the financial #ear /0705/01@, the income from all
sources was %s. /,D0,@E@, the e*'enditure was %s. /,DA,@8/. The management of the
Institute is $ested in a .oard of 2o$ernors, se$en in number, elected b# the
subscribers, the "irector of the Institute being Secretar# of the .oard. It will be seen
that the main source of the funds a$ailable for the 'a#ment of labour is deri$ed from
the Indian Central Cotton Committee 6a statutor# bod# re'resenting the growers, the
cotton trade and the officers engaged in research on cotton9 created for im'lementing
the Indian Cotton Cess Act of /071; an Act which 'ro$ides for the creation of a fund
for the im'ro$ement and de$elo'ment of the growing, mar-eting and manufacture of
raw cotton in India. This cess is now le$ied at the rate of two annas 'er standard bale
of 8@@ lb. on all cotton used in the Indian mills or e*'orted from the countr#. The
mone# a$ailable for the 'a#ment of labour at the Indore Institute is thus largel# drawn
from the cotton industr# itself. At no 'eriod in the histor# of the institution has an#
financial assistance of an# -ind been as-ed for or obtained from the 2o$ernment of
India or from an# of the Pro$incial 2o$ernments.
At the beginning, great difficulties were e*'erienced in obtaining an efficient labour
force. The Institute lies alongside the cit# of Indore, an im'ortant manufacturing and
distributing centre with a 'o'ulation of /7D,@@@. ,ine large cotton mills 6with
/DD,81@ s'indles, A,778 looms, an in$ested ca'ital of %s. /,>D,0D,/)>, and utilizing
>E,@@@ bales of cotton a #ear9 find wor- for /7,@@@ wor-ers. In addition there are a
number of ginning factories and cotton 'resses. The Institute therefore had to meet a
good deal of local com'etition in building u' its labour force. It was dearl# useless
attem'ting to recruit wor-ers at rates below those readil# obtained at the mills or in
the cit#. 4urther, it soon became a''arent that if the Institute was to succeed the
"irector would ha$e to 'a# attention to the labour 'roblem and de$ise means b#
which an efficient and contented bod# of men, women and children could be attracted
and retained for reasonable 'eriods.
Consideration of this 'roblem led the "irector to the conclusion that it could be
sol$ed b# 'ro$iding for the regular and effecti$e 'a#ment of wages, for good housing,
reasonable hours of wor-, with regular and sufficient 'eriods of rest, and for suitable
medical attention.
The a''lication of these 'rinci'les soon met with success. An ade:uate labour force
has been built u', 'artl# from men recruited locall# and from the %a&'utana States and
'artl# from the wi$es and children of the se'o#s of the !alwa .hil Cor's, the lines of
which ad&oin the Institute. A 'ermanent labour force of about //E is now em'lo#ed
throughout the #ear. In addition, a certain amount of tem'orar# labour is em'lo#ed for
seasonal wor-.
The 'recise manner in which the 'rinci'les abo$e mentioned ha$e been carried out in
'ractice ma# now be described.
$onditions of 7abour at the Institute
Payment of 1abour
Wage rates for men on the 'ermanent staff range from about %s. /7 to %s. 7@ a month,
while men on the tem'orar# staff are 'aid D annas a da#, women A annas, bo#s 1 to >
annas, and girls 1 to A annas. After the rate of wages has been settled in each case,
care is ta-en that; 6/9 the 'a#ment of wages is made at reular inter"als< and 679 the
wages are 'aid into the hands of the wor-ers themsel$es and there are no illicit
deductions on the 'art of the men who disburse the mone#.
%egularit# of 'a#ment is a matter of $er# great im'ortance in dealing with Indian
labour. At Indore, wor-ers on dail# rates recei$e their wages twice a month 55 on the
/Eth and the 1rd, in each case at 7;1@ '.m. The 'ermanent labour is 'aid monthl# on
the third wor-ing da# of the following month. To ensure that all 'a#ments are actuall#
made according to the attendance registers all disbursements are made in the 'resence
of two res'onsible members of the staff. .oth of these men ha$e to sign a statutor#
declaration that the 'a#ments ha$e actuall# been made. The signed statements come
regularl# before the "irector for signature, and are in due course 'laced before the
auditors. In ma-ing 'a#ments the en$elo'e s#stem is used, the 'a#ee ma-ing a thumb
im'ression in in- in the register or signing his or her name. These arrangements ha$e
been found to 're$ent an# illicit deductions on the 'art of the staff. The 'a#ments are
made in 'ublic< the rate of e$er#bod#Fs 'a# is -nown< the signing of a 'ro'er
declaration in the register ma-es it 'ossible to institute criminal 'roceedings at once
for an# irregularit#< the "irector is alwa#s a$ailable for in:uiring into an# com'laints.
That none ha$e e$er been made 'ro$es that the labourers actuall# recei$e their 'a# in
full at regular inter$als. Pa#ment is made in coin< no attem't at 'a#ment in -ind has
e$er been made< no sho's for the sale of food e*ist on the estate and nothing whate$er
is done to influence the wor-ers as to how the# should s'end their wages.
:ours of 1abour
After the regular 'a#ment of wages, the hours of labour come ne*t in im'ortance.
Indeed in India rest and wages are to a certain e*tent interchangeable as the wor-ers
regard an# e*tra rest as e:ui$alent to an increase in 'a#. At first, the Institute obser$ed
the ten hoursF da# so common in India, but this was soon gi$en u'. It was found
during the hot months of A'ril, !a# and Gune that both the labour and the cattle
re:uired more 'rotection from the hot sun. An e*'eriment was therefore made to
reduce the hours of labour during the hot months to si* dail#, beginning wor- at
sunrise and ending the da# at sunset. The actual wor-ing hours of the three hot
months were arranged in two shifts 55 four hours in the morning and two in the
afternoon with a si* hoursF rest during the heat of the da#, i.e. from I@ a.m. to 8 '.m.
At the same time the wor- was s'eeded u' and both labour and su'er$ising staff were
gi$en to understand that the si* hoursF da# in the hot months could onl# be en&o#ed if
e$er#bod# wor-ed continuousl# and conscientiousl#.
The first result obser$ed was a mar-ed im'ro$ement in the health and well5being of
the men and animals, 'robabl# due to the o'eration of two factors; the health5gi$ing
'ro'erties of the earl# morning air and a$oidance of e*cessi$e sunlight. With the
im'ro$ement in general health there was a corres'onding reduction in cases re:uiring
medical assistance. To e$er#oneFs sur'rise, it was found 'ossible to s'eed u' the wor-
$er# considerabl#. The e*'eriment of shortening the hours of labour was then
e*tended to the rest of the #ear< wor-ing hours were reduced from ten to se$en and a
half.
These wor-ing 'eriods, si* hours in the hot weather and se$en and a half during the
rest of the #ear, refer to the time actuall# at wor-< an e*tra half hour dail# is s'ent in
tra$elling to and from the 'lace of wor-. In no case does the wor-ing 'eriod e*ceed
se$en and a half hours e*ce't for about a wee- at the sowing time of the monsoon
cro's. "uring this 'eriod, both man and beast do not obtain much more than two
hours off dut# for food during the hours of da#light. A full ten hoursF da# at high
'ressure is then the rule, as all realize that the sowing of cotton and other cro's is a
race against time. As soon, howe$er, as sowing is o$er, the wor-ers en&o# an e*tra
da#Fs rest on full 'a#. The sowing of the monsoon cro's is the onl# agricultural
o'eration in Central India for which an#thing more than a se$en and a half hoursF da#
is necessar#.
4or three #ears the agricultural o'erations of the Institute ha$e been conducted on the
short hours s#stem. The result has been successful be#ond all e*'ectation. The
miracle of s'eeding u' Indian labour has been achie$ed and shorter wor-ing hours
ha$e led not onl# to contentment but also to an increased out'ut of wor-. This result
has onl# been achie$ed, howe$er, b# careful and detailed 'lanning of the wor- to be
done each da#. The dail# wor- 'rogramme is drawn u' b# the Assistant in charge of
the farm during the 're$ious afternoon and submitted to the "irector as a matter of
routine, so that at da#brea- each da# the Assistant -nows at once what has to be done
and no time is lost in deciding what tas-s ha$e to be 'erformed. The ta-ing of the
attendance and the allocation of labour to the $arious tas-s occu'ies less than fi$e
minutes. In less than ten minutes after assembl#, the $arious gangs are at wor- in the
fields. A great 'oint is made of getting down to the &ob at once. Punctualit# is now the
rule, and it is becoming rare to ha$e to deal with late arri$als.
While it is im'ortant to start wor- with the sun, it is e:uall# im'ortant to allow the
labourers to reach their homes b# sundown, 'articularl# during the rains when sna-es
abound. Indian wor-ers li-e to reach home in da#light 55 a 'oint of great im'ortance
in obtaining their willing co5o'eration. 4inall#, it is $er# interesting to note that the
'olic# of the s:uare deal on the 'art of the Institute towards its labourers as regards
hours is now being answered b# a natural desire on the 'art of the wor-ers to gi$e the
Institute a s:uare deal. +ess su'er$ision is becoming necessar#< e$er#bod# realizes
that a reduction in hours is onl# 'ossible if real wor- is done.
1ea"e and :olidays
The Institute is closed, e*ce't for wor- of e*treme urgenc#, on Sunda#s and on twel$e
im'ortant festi$als during the #ear. In addition to these si*t#5four da#s, the 'ermanent
labourers are allowed one da#Fs casual lea$e and one da#Fs sic- lea$e e$er# month
'ro$ided the# wor- twent#5fi$e full da#s during the month. In cases of in&ur# while
on dut#, the# are allowed full 'a# u' to a ma*imum of se$en da#s. In the case of
tem'orar# labour, all holida#s and lea$e, e*ce't the e*tra da# allowed after the
sowing of the monsoon cro's, are gi$en without 'a#.
:ousin
As regards li$ing accommodation, the demands of Indian labour are $er# modest. A
roof which does not lea- during the rains, a dr# earthen floor, a room which can be
loc-ed u', a 'artiall# closed5in $erandah which ser$es both as a -itchen and a store
house for firewood, are all that is e*'ected. At Indore the one5room cottages are
arranged in bloc-s of si* around an o'en court#ard in which four trees ha$e been
'lanted to 'ro$ide shade. The :uarters are fumigated and whitewashed once a #ear
when an# 'ett# re'airs to the roofs and bric-wor- are attended to.
After a storm5'roof room, the ne*t essential is a su''l# of good drin-ing water and a
se'arate well for washing. The water used for drin-ing is raised b# a sim'le wheel
'um'< the well is 'ro$ided with a masonr# co'ing about two feet high< no drin-ing
$essels are allowed to be di''ed into the water. In this wa# the ris- of cholera is
greatl# reduced. )nce a sim'le wheel 'um' is installed, the labourers and their wi$es
ne$er attem't to lower a buc-et b# means of a ro'e.
Pro"ident Fund
So far no 'ro$ident fund for the wor-ers has been instituted. The e*isting 'ro$ident
fund onl# a''lies to the 'ermanent staff of the Institute drawing %s. 1@ 'er month or
more. Till the com'letest confidence between the wor-ers and the management has
been achie$ed, an# suggestion of -ee'ing bac- the 'a# of a labourer for a 'ro$ident
fund is li-el# to be misunderstood. It was decided to start a 'ro$ident fund for the
educated staff and graduall# to e*tend its benefits to the labour force if and when a
demand comes from the wor-ers themsel$es.
(edical Arranements
The wor-ers and staff em'lo#ed at the Institute obtain free medical attendance. In
addition, the wor-ers and the staff drawing less than %s. 1@ 'er month obtain free
medicaments. The wor-ers are e*amined wee-l# b# the doctor so that an#
'recautionar# treatment or an# ad$ice can be gi$en in good time. In cases of
childbirth the ser$ices of a nurse are 'ro$ided free of charge. The 'ersonalit# of the
Sub5Assistant Surgeon dealing with Indian labour is $er# im'ortant. The wor-ers deal
with an un'o'ular man in a $er# effecti$e fashion 55 the# ne$er ma-e use of his
ser$ices.
Certificates and Promotion
An e*'erimental station, li-e an# em'lo#er of labour, needs some s#stem b# which
the labour force can automaticall# renew its #outh. The annual e*'ort of trained
labour to centres at which im'ro$ements are being ta-en u' is one of the im'ortant
functions of the Institute. 4or these reasons, therefore, a su''l# of 'romising recruits
must be arranged. To bring this about some s#stem of 'romotion for 'ro$ed efficienc#
had to be de$ised. At first this too- the form of an annual 'romotion e*amination for
the 'loughmen. As the# increased in efficienc# and could manage and assemble their
im'lements and also 'lough a straight furrow, their 'a# was increased b# %e. I 'er
month. This s#stem is now being su'erseded b# the certificate 'lan. All the 'ermanent
wor-ers in the Institute are eligible for s'ecial training so that the# can earn efficienc#
certificates for such o'erations as; 6/9 culti$ation and sowing< 679 com'ost ma-ing
and the care of the wor- cattle< 619 im'ro$ed irrigation methods, including the
culti$ation of sugar5cane b# the Ga$a method< 689 the manufacture of sugar 6Plate
LI=9. A certificate of efficienc# 6with suitable illustrations9 signed b# the "irector
can be awarded for 'roficienc# in all these items. ach certificate which is awarded
annuall# will carr# with it an increase of %s. / 'er month on the basic 'a#. When a
member of the labour force has gained all four certificates, he will become eligible for
transfer to other centres on higher 'a#. In this wa# the Institute holds out ho'e and
'laces it within the 'ower of an# man to increase his starting 'a# in four #ears b#
about thirt# 'er cent. It also enables an ambitious labourer to sa$e enough mone# in a
few #ears to 'urchase a holding and to become a culti$ator. This is now ta-ing 'lace.
$er# #ear a few of the labourers return to their $illages with their sa$ings to ta-e u'
a holding on heir own account. )thers are de'uted for wor- in the Contributing States
on increased 'a#. The $acancies are automaticall# ta-en either b# #ounger members
of the same famil# or b# $olunteers on the waiting list of tem'orar# wor-ers.
Plate 3I". ertifi#ate of 8ffi#ien#y for the ma$ing
of ompost
$onclusion
It is 'ossible that the s#stem described in this article is onl# full# realizable on a farm
wor-ing under model conditions. ,e$ertheless, there are a certain number of elements
in this e*'eriment which the writer feels are of uni$ersal $alidit# in dealing with
'rimiti$e labour. 4rom the 'oint of $iew of the wor-er it is 'erha's most essential that
he should feel that he is recei$ing a s:uare deal. 4rom the 'oint of $iew of the
management the best results are obtained b# scru'ulous attention to 'a#, b# short
hours of intensi$e wor-, b# 'ro'er housing and medical care, and b# interesting the
wor-er in the underta-ing through gi$ing his wor- an educational $alue.