p82n World Communicates

The World Communicates
Syllabus 8.2.1
[Oct 2002 Revision of Physics Syllabus]
2006 Edition Physics Topic 8.2 page 1
Waves as Carriers of Energy
All waves carry energy. Evidence for the energy that waves
possess can be seen in
microwaves that cook food
x-rays that can damage DNA molecules in living cells
earthquake waves that can knock down buildings
ultrasound waves that can warm human flesh
sound waves that can make small objects move
water waves that can move even massive ships
Light and Energy
Light is a form of energy. Light energy, captured and stored
by plants during the process of photosynthesis is essential to
most living things. The energy of light may be converted to
electrical energy by a solar cell, a semiconductor device,
usually made of silicon. Light energy also produces chemical
changes on a photographic film which make photography
possible. In a closely related process, if light is allowed to fall
on the chemical silver chloride which is related in properties
to the chemicals used in photography, the energy of the light converts the silver chloride to silver and causes
chlorine gas to be produced. Video and digital cameras use the energy of light to activate special semiconductor
materials (called a charge coupled device, CCD) to produce electrical signals upon which the electronic image
ultimately depends.
Waves Carry Energy Away from a Vibrating Source
Wave motion is the result of a periodic disturbance of a medium, or of space by some form of vibration (or
oscillation), which transmits energy away from the oscillating source of the wave.
Some examples of waves and their sources of energy are summarised in the following table.
Type of Wave Origin
Water waves
Any movement on the surface of water creates surface water waves a moving
animal, wind, dropping an object into the water. Undersea earthquakes produce a
surface wave called a tsumami. sunamis can be very destructive when they reach
land because of their great energy.
!ound waves
!ound waves are created by vibration of an object in, or in contact with, a medium
through which the sound can travel. e.g. the human vocal cords, the cone of a
loudspeaker, vibrating strings and reeds in musical instruments, and all sorts of
movements and vibrations in the environment. "ur ability to sense sound is a key to
communication and survival.
#arthquake waves
!udden movements of the earth$s crust, at geological faults for e%ample, result in a
release of energy, which causes vibrations that may spread over and through the
entire earth.
#lectromagnetic waves
All electromagnetic waves &e.g. light, radio waves, microwaves and infrared waves'
are produced by the vibration of charged particles.
A wave propagates (travels) away from the vibrating source of energy. Waves can propagate as one-, two- or
three-dimensional disturbances.
One-dimensional In the case of a one-dimensional wave, the energy travels effectively in a straight line
away from the source of the wave. e.g. sound confined to a tube such as a flute,
digeridoo or organ pipe; a vibration travelling along a string/spring, a laser beam
(effectively one-dimensional)
Two-dimensional The energy associated with a two-dimensional wave spreads out in a plane or flat
surface. e.g. surface water waves, the vibrating skin on a drum, surface earthquake
waves.
Three-dimensional In the case of a three-dimensional wave, the energy spreads out into the space
surrounding the source in all directions. e.g light from a candle or light bulb, sound in
air, radio waves from a radio stations transmitter, microwaves from a mobile phone.
Waves can be categorised as one of two types, the distinguishing feature between the two types being whether a
medium is required for the energy associated with the wave motion to propagate. The two types are
Mechanical Waves. These are waves requiring a medium through which to propagate. The particles of which
vibrate when the wave travels, are sometimes referred to as mechanical waves. These include sound waves,
water waves, earthquake (seismic) waves, and waves which can travel as a vibrating disturbance through
elastic materials such as stretched strings or springs, membranes or any other form of matter.
Electromagnetic Waves. Waves not requiring a medium to travel through are called electromagnetic waves.
Electromagnetic waves cover a continuous range from gamma rays, through a variety of others (see figure
below) including light, to radio waves. Electromagnetic waves, unlike all other types of waves, can travel
through a vacuum. Electromagnetic waves may can travel through matter as well, but they interact with the
matter, an may be absorbed or reflected as well important properties of electromagnetic waves.
3
Figure below: The components of the electromagnetic spectrum.
3All waves have in common
a source of energy, which involves vibration of some sort the rate of the vibration, measured in hertz
(Hz) (one hertz is one cycle or vibration per second) is called the frequency
a means by which the energy can propagate outwards away from the source as a vibration the rate at
which the wave travels away from the source is called the speed or velocity of the wave and is measured
in metres per second (ms
1
) in the SI system of units
the transformation of energy from one form to another
a transfer of energy from one place to another
Waves can be also be categorised as either of two main types
1
transverse
longitudinal
3These are discussed in detail in following sections.
1
There are other types, such as torsion waves, however they are not included in this course.
Transverse Pulses and Waves
A simple one-dimensional transverse wave can be produced in a slinky spring by stretching the spring out and then
moving one end back and forth perpendicular to the length of the spring. Although motion in two dimensions is
involved, it is called a one-dimensional wave because the energy is propagating along a single straight line, i.e. in
one dimension.
The particles carrying the energy of a transverse wave vibrate in a direction perpendicular to the direction of wave
propagation.
When the spring is held stationary, it is at rest in an equilibrium position. A sudden sideways movement of the
spring produces a pulse (or wave) travelling along the spring. The spring has been displaced from equilibrium. The
displacement can be measured in metres, since it is a distance. The maximum displacement from equilibrium is
called the amplitude of the wave. Displacement is a term implying direction as well as magnitude. In this case, the
spring can be displaced above or below, to the left or the right of the equilibrium position. Displacements in
opposite directions are sometimes represented with positive and negative signs to indicate one direction or the
opposite.
Investigation The speed of a transverse wave in a Sin!y"
Treat all equipment with care. Do not over stretch the slinky. Slinkys become badly tangled if one end is released
while it is stretched. Consider the use of a data logger with a force probe in this investigation.
What factors affect the speed of a transverse wave disturbance along the spring?
Discuss this in a group. List the possible factors.
Are there any safety issues to be addressed when using a slinky?
Plan an experiment to test whether, and in what way, one of these factors affects the waves speed.
Carry out your planned investigation with your group.
Report orally to the class the results of your investigation.
Summarise in written form the results from the investigations carried out by the groups in the class.
Swap your report with that of another person, not in your group. Critique the report with appropriate notes.
Water Waves
A surface water wave is a transverse wave. Water waves may be either one-dimensional or two-dimensional.
A water wave travelling along water confined to a narrow channel could be considered to be a one-dimensional
wave. Such waves are created and used by scientists and engineers to study wave behaviour. Knowledge of wave
behaviour is important in ship design and the design of water channels and harbours. A water wave spreading out in
a circular pattern around a disturbance, such as a swimming frog, is an example of a two-dimensional water wave.
The following diagram represents a one-dimensional surface water wave is travelling from left to right, or a section
of the two-dimensional wave created by the frog above, along the line OX.
Any particle, such as P, X, Y or Z, moves up and down as the wave passes. The distance between the two adjacent
points, having the rate of the vibration, the same distance from the equilibrium (undisturbed) level and moving with
the same velocity, is called the wavelength. This may be the distance between two adjacent crests of the wave or
between two adjacent troughs. The SI units for wavelength are metres (m), but it is common when dealing with
light to use nanometres (1 nm = 10
9
m) or angstrom units (1 = 10
10
m). The wavelength of the wave is
represented by the Greek letter lambda, .
In the diagram, the points X and Y are also separated by one wavelength. Particles X and Y are said to be moving
in phase with each other. This means that X and Y are both moving in the same direction (upwards at the instant
shown) with the same velocity. The point Z is out of phase with all of X, Y and P. Z is moving downwards at the
instant of time represented in this image.
Examples of transverse waves include surface water waves, which can be further classified as
ripples: the movement of which is determined primarily by surface tension forces between water molecules.
This effect typically dominates the propagation of waves with amplitudes and wavelengths less than a
centimetre. The shorter the distance between ripple crests (wavelength) the greater the velocity of the ripple.
gravity waves
2
: the movement of which is determined by the action of gravity pulling the disturbed surface of
the water back towards the equilibrium level. Large ocean waves are typical examples of this type of wave.
The greater the distance between gravity wave crests, the greater the velocity of the wave. [Investigate first-
hand]
2
The term gravity wave is also used in astronomy. It is a hypothetical wave produced by the sudden disturbance
of a large mass, such as an exploding star or colliding black holes. These gravity waves have not been directly
observed. Experiments are currently in progress to detect whether such waves exist.
Wave fronts in #$dimensiona Waves
Longitudinal Waves
A longitudinal wave can be produced in a slinky by stretching the spring, so that it is straight but not over-
stretched, and then pushing one end suddenly towards the other, and then reversing this action.
This produces a region of compression, where the coils are pushed closer together. These in turn push on the
adjacent coils, compressing them. Meanwhile, returning the displaced end to its original position now produces a
region on the slinky over which the coils are stretched apart further than when they are at equilibrium. This
region is called a rarefaction. The compression and rarefaction travel along the spring as a wave disturbance.
Pushing and pulling the end of the slinky repeatedly sets up a periodic wave called a longitudinal wave
consisting of alternating regions of compression and rarefaction. Like a transverse wave, the propagation of a
longitudinal wave requires that there be a medium to vibrate. Like a transverse wave, energy be transferred through
the medium as the longitudinal wave propagates away from the source of the wave.
In contrast to the transverse wave, the motion of the particles in the medium through which the longitudinal wave is
travelling is parallel to the direction of energy propagation.
Like a transverse wave, a longitudinal wave has the properties of velocity, wavelength, frequency and amplitude.
The wavelength of a longitudinal wave is equal to the distance between the centres of successive compressions or
successive rarefactions (or any other two successive corresponding points on the wave).
The amplitude of a longitudinal wave is difficult to represent on a stationary diagram. It is the distance any one
particle moves from its equilibrium position to its extreme distance from that position. It is much less than the
wavelength of the longitudinal wave. In this case, it is the maximum distance the end of the spring is pushed from
its equilibrium position.
The velocity of the wave, as with transverse waves, is the speed at which the energy propagates through the spring
or other medium in which the wave is travelling.
The frequency is the number of oscillations per second the particles in the medium undergo. As with any
frequency measurement, it is measured in hertz (Hz).
The same wave equation relates these quantities.
v = f
The period is the time it takes for one complete wave to pass a given point. e.g. the time between the arrival at a
given point of two successive compressions. Period and frequency are inversely related.
T =
1
Investigations
Compare the velocity of a transverse wave with that of a longitudinal wave in a slinky.
Use a data logger with microphone sensor to measure the frequency of a vibrating guitar string. Measure the string
length and hence determine a relationship between frequency and wavelength. (See appendix 1)
Use a long (2 cm diameter) spring to investigate the frequency/wavelength relationship (using overtones)
Use a flute with CRO or data logger to measure the frequency of the fundamental (C) and successive overtones,
produced by a competent flutist over-blowing, to investigate the frequency/wavelength relationship using sound
waves.
The idealised (simplified) harmonics produced by a flute are shown in the following diagram. Musicians should
note the successive wave number ratios (2:1 octave, 3:2 fifth, 4:3, 5:4 etc) produced in this sequence.
Properties of Waves
Definitions, Symbols and Units
Frequency (f or n): This is the number of waves passing a given point per second. The freuency
can be measured in waves per second. !t is more usual to call this "hert#".
i.e. if $% waves pass a given point each second then the freuency is $% hert#
(&#)
Wavelength (l): The distance between the two successive points on a wave that are in
phase with each other. This may be the distance between two ad'acent
crests of the wave or between two ad'acent troughs. The S! units for
wavelength are metres (m), but it is common in optics to use nanometres ($
nm ( $%
)*
m) or angstrom units ($ + ( $%
)$%
m)
Amplitude (,): The amplitude of a wave is the ma-imum distance a particle in the wave
moves from its normal, undisturbed rest position (also called the equilibrium
position).
The greater the amplitude of a wave the greater its amount of energy.
.lectromagnetic waves are an important e-ception to this rule. The energy of
an electromagnetic wave is determined by its freuency ) the greater the
freuency, the greater the energy of an electromagnetic wave.
Period (T): This is the time ta/en for a particle in a wave to go through one complete
vibration. 0eriod, being time, is measured in seconds. 1otice that period and
freuency are inversely related, that is, T ( $2f.
Velocity (v): This is the speed at which the energy of the wave is travelling (propagating)
through the medium.
Sound waves travel at about 34% m s
5$
. 6ight travels at 3 - $%
7
m s
5$
. The
velocity, freuency and wavelength of all waves are related by a simple
relationship.
velocity = frequency x wavelength
v = fl
Ray: , line drawn in the direction of propagation of the wave is called a ray. 8ays
are very useful in describing the behaviour of light waves.
Wavefront: !s the leading edge of a wave of which is characterised by all the particles
vibrating in the same phase. 0hase refers to the fraction of a period relative to
a fi-ed reference. The propagation of a wavefront is useful in describing the
behaviour of waves, including reflection and refraction.
isplacement: The distance a wave travels in a medium in a straight line from a reference
point 98 the distance a particle in a wave moves from a reference point as it
vibrates (the ma-imum displacement of a particle from its euilibrium position
is called the amplitude).
!rest"#rough: Usually refers to the highest points of a transverse wave above the
euilibrium position. , trough is the lowest point below the euilibrium
position.
#ransverse wave: , wave in which the vibrations that transmit the energy occur in a direction
perpendicular to that in which the energy is propagating.
$ongitudinal wave: , wave in which the vibrations that transmit the energy occur in a direction
parallel to that in which the energy is propagating.
!ompression: The region of a longitudinal wave in which the particles are closer together
than the mean euilibrium distance.
Rarefaction: The region of a longitudinal wave in which the particles are further apart than
the mean euilibrium distance.
%ow Teephones Wor!
A good explanation of how a telephone works can be read on the excellent web site
http://www.howstuffworks.com/telephone.htm
by Marshall Brain
The Howstuffworks website makes interesting general reading and is relevant to many areas of the physics
course.
Energy Transformations in a &obie Teephone
In the telephone microphone, sound energy is converted to electrical energy. Electrical energy is
used to carry the information through copper wires inside the phone.
A radio transmitter in the mobile phone sends the digitally encoded speech using microwaves.
Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic wave.
The electromagnetic wave travels to the receiving antenna on a mobile phone base station, where
it is converted back into electrical energy. The base station eventually uses electrical energy to
convert the signal into a microwave again, which is transmitted to the receiving phone.
In the receiving phone, the microwave energy is transformed into electrical energy once again in
the phones antenna. The phones speaker converts electrical energy to sound energy.
The energy to operate the mobile phone is supplied by a battery. A battery stores energy as
chemical energy, which is a form of potential energy. While the phone is switched on, the chemical energy is
transformed to electrical energy to operate the phone.
Phones that have illuminated displays, including colour LCD displays, convert electrical energy to light energy to
operate the display.
In some parts of a telephone network, the information is encoded for transmission through an optical fibre. In this
case, electrical energy is being converted to light energy. At the other end of the fibre, the light energy is again
converted back into electrical energy.
Summary
'art of phone Transforms energy from Transforms energy to
Speaker Electrical energy Sound energy
Microphone Sound energy Electrical energy
Battery Chemical energy Electrical energy
Antenna (transmitting) Electrical energy Electromagnetic energy
Antenna (receiving) Electromagnetic energy Electrical energy
Screen Electrical energy Light energy
%ow a Ce 'hone Wor!s
by Marshall Brain
modified from the excellent website http://www.howstuffworks.com/cell-phone.htm
Each day something like 30 000 people in the United States sign up for and start using a cellular phone (2000
figure). Therefore it is likely that you or someone you know has a cell phone and uses it on a regular basis. They
are such great gadgets - with a cell phone you can talk to anyone on the planet from just about anywhere (80% of
the U.S. has coverage, but the Australian digital network is not compatible with the US system and so mobile
phones designed specifically for use in Australia will not work in the USA. Mobile phones that work in both
countries are called tri-band phones, the name referring to the fact that they can send signals at three different
microwave frequencies. Non-tri-band Australian digital mobile phones will work in Europe and Asia for a price).
But have you ever wondered how a cell phone works? In this edition of How Stuff Works the technology behind
cell phones outlined, so that you can see how amazing they really are.
One of the most interesting things about a cell phone is that it is really a radio - an extremely sophisticated radio,
but a radio nonetheless. A good way to understand the sophistication of a cell phone is to compare it to a CB radio
or a walkie-talkie. A CB radio is a simplex device. That is, two people communicating on a CB radio use the same
frequency, so only one person can talk at a time. A cell phone is a duplex device, so it uses one frequency for
talking and a second, separate frequency for listening. A CB radio has 40 channels. A cell phone can communicate
on 1,664 channels. Cell phones also operate within cells and they can switch cells as they move around. Cells give
cell phones incredible range. A walkie-talkie can transmit perhaps a kilometre or two. A CB radio, because it has
much higher power, can transmit perhaps 10 kilometres. Someone using a cell phone, on the other hand, can drive
clear across a city and maintain a conversation the entire time. Cells are what give a cell phone its incredible range.
In simplex radio (e.g. - CB radios), both transmitters use the same frequency. Only one party can talk at a time.
In duplex radio the two transmitters use different frequencies, so both parties can talk at the same time.
Cell phones are duplex.
The cell phone standard called AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) was approved by the FCC, finalised and
first used in Chicago in 1983. The standard established a range of frequencies between 824 megahertz and 894
megahertz for analog cell phones. In order to encourage competition and keep prices low, this standard established
the concept of 2 carriers in every market, known as A and B carriers (e.g. Sprint and Cellular One). Each carrier
is given 832 voice frequencies, each with a bandwidth of 30 kilohertz. A pair of frequencies (one for transmit and
one for receive) is used to provide a duplex voice channel per phone. The transmit and receive frequencies of each
voice channel are separated by 45 megahertz. Each carrier also has 21 data channels to use for housekeeping
activities like registration, paging, etc.
In the dark ages before cell phones, people used radio telephones in their cars. In the radio telephone system there
was one central antenna tower per city and perhaps 25 channels available on that tower. This central antenna meant
that the phone in your car needed a powerful transmitter big enough to transmit 80 km. It also meant that not
many people could use radio telephones there just were not enough channels.
The genius of the cellular system is the realization that a city can be chopped up into small cells, and that the cells
allow extensive frequency reuse across a city. Frequency reuse is what lets millions of people own cell phones
without problems. Heres how it works.
The carrier chops up an area (such as a city) into cells. Each cell is typically sized at about 25 square kilometres
(about 5 km by 5 km). Cells are normally thought of as hexagons on a big hexagonal grid, like this:
Because cell phones and base stations use low-power transmitters, the same
frequencies can be reused in non-adjacent cells.
Each cell has a base station that consists of a tower and a small building
containing the radio equipment. A single cell uses 1/7
th
of the available 416
duplex voice channels. Therefore, each cell has 59 or so channels available. In
other words, in any cell 59 people can be talking on their cell phones at one
time.
Cell phones have low-power transmitters in them. Many cell phones have 2
signal strengths: 0.6 watts and 3 watts (for comparison, most CB radios
transmit at 5 watts). The base station is also transmitting at low power. Low-
power transmitters have two advantages:
The power consumption of the cell phone, which is normally battery-operated, is relatively low. Low power
means small batteries, and this is what has made hand-held cellular phones possible.
The transmissions of a base station and the phones within its cell do not make it very far outside the cell.
Therefore, in the figure above both of the green cells can use the same 59 frequencies. The same frequencies
can be reused extensively across the city.
The cellular approach requires a large number of base stations in a city of any size. A typical large city can have
hundreds of towers.
But because so many people are using cell phones, costs remain fairly low per user. Each carrier in each city also
runs one central office called the MTSO (Mobile Telephone Switching Office). This office handles all of the phone
connections to the normal land-based phone system and controls all of the base stations in the region.
So lets say you have a cell phone, it is turned on, and someone tries to call you. The MTSO gets the call, and it
tries to find you. In early (pre-roaming) systems the MTSO found you by paging your phone (using one of the
control channels, to which your phone is always listening) in each cell of the region until your phone responded. It
then told both your phone and the base station in the cell, which of the 59 channels in your cell your phone, should
be using. At that point you were connected to the base station and you could start talking and listening.
As you move toward the edge of your cell, your cells base station will note that your signal strength is
diminishing. Meantime, the base station in the cell you are moving toward (which is listening and measuring signal
strength on all frequencies, not just its 1/7
th
) will be able to see your phones signal strength increasing. The two
base stations coordinate themselves through the MTSO, and at some point your phone gets a signal on a control
channel telling it to change frequencies. This handoff switches your phone to the new cell.
Roaming makes things a bit more interesting. In modern systems the phones listen for a System ID (SID) on the
control channel at power-up. If the SID on the control channel does not match the SID programmed into the phone,
then the phone knows it is roaming. The phone also transmits a registration request and the network keeps track
of your phones location in a database (this way the MTSO knows which cell you are in when it wants to ring your
phone). As you move between cells, the phone detects changes in the control channels strength and re-registers
itself with the new cell when it changes channels. If the phone cannot find any control channels to listen to it knows
it is out of range and displays a no service message.
The latest trend is digital cellular phones. They use the same radio technology (in different frequency bands for
example, PCS phones use frequencies between 1.85 and 1.99 gigahertz) but compress your voice into digital 1s and
0s. This compression allows between 3 and 10 cell phone calls to occupy the space of a single analog voice call.
PCS digital phones also offer other features like paging and email.
The next time you pick up and use a cell phone especially one of the new tiny ones that fit into your shirt pocket
keep in mind all of the technology packed into that amazing little device!

'hysics Syabus ()#)#
[Physics Syllabus Oct 2002 Revision]
Sound Waves Longitudinal Waves
Sound waves typically originate from vibrating objects such as the human vocal cords, strings on musical
instruments, loudspeakers, air columns in musical instruments such as clarinets and trumpets, and stretched
membranes such as those on drums. Sound plays a key role in human communication and entertainment.
Sound waves require a medium through which to travel. Gases, liquids and solids can all transmit sound energy.
Sound waves are longitudinal waves. Particles in the medium transmitting the sound vibrate in a line parallel to the
direction of propagation of the sound. Longitudinal wave motion is characterised by vibration of the medium
parallel to the direction of propagation of the wave.
Sound waves consist of alternating compressions and rarefactions propagating away from the vibrating source.
Investigation
Use a tuning fork to investigate some characteristics of sound including frequency, pitch, loudness, energy (put
the tips of the vibrating tuning fork into a cup of water use plastic, the energy of the vibrating fork can break
a beaker)
Use a signal generator connected to an amplifier/speaker to demonstrate sound properties including energy,
loudness, frequency, pitch
Examine the production of sound by a variety of musical instruments
Consider the production of a sound wave by the vibration of a tuning fork as shown in the following diagram.
Sound waves propagate as longitudinal waves. In the above diagram, the prongs of the tuning fork vibrate back and
forth as a result of energy being applied to them when the fork is struck. As the prong on the left moves to the left,
it pushes the adjacent air molecules closer together. This region is called a compression (C). It is a region of higher
pressure than the ambient air pressure. The compression travels away from the tuning fork prong as the energy is
transferred from one molecule to the next. When the tuning fork prong moves to the right, the air molecules cannot
instantly fill the space and a region of lower pressure results. This is called a rarefaction (R). As the prong
continues to vibrate, successive alternating compressions and rarefactions are created. The sound wave is shown
propagating to the left. The right prong will produce a wave propagating to the right. This diagram shows the sound
wave as being one-dimensional. This is done for simplicity. Sound waves propagate in three dimensions from a
source. The principle of the production of the sound is the same as described above. Let us examine the process of
sound production in more detail.
In the following diagrams, the dots represent particles making up a substance capable of transmitting a longitudinal
wave, in this case it could be a gas in a tube with an open end on the right. In the diagrams, a source of sound, say a
tuning fork prong is shown on the left side. Diagrams A-K represent the position of the gas particles in the tube at
successive intervals of time.
Reference: http://www.physicsclassroom.com/mmedia/waves/gsl.html
In diagram A, the tuning fork is shown just as it begins to push the air molecules to the right, causing them to bunch
up against the tuning fork creating a region called a compression. In diagram B, the tuning fork prong is shown at
its greatest displacement to the right. As it vibrates, it moves to the left, to the position shown in diagram C. The
molecules which were pushed close together by the fork as shown in diagram B, then push more particles further to
the right closer together. Thus the region of compression continues to propagate to the right.
As the tuning fork prong moves to the left, a region is created in which particles are further apart than average. This
region is called a rarefaction. In diagrams D, E and F, a sequence of positions of the tuning fork moving to the
right a second time is shown creating a second region of compression.
In the diagrams G and H the movement of the tuning fork prong is to the left, creating a second rarefaction. As the
vibration of the source continues, a series of alternating compressions and rarefactions is generated, propagating to
the right.
Sound waves thus propagate through a medium as a series of alternating compressions and rarefactions. This type
of wave is sometimes called a compression wave.
When a tuning fork vibrates, its energy is transferred to the surrounding medium. The sound spreads out in a three-
dimensional spherical pattern. In the following diagram, the circular wave fronts are drawn so that they correspond
to the compressions of the wave. The direction of propagation of the wave is radially away from the source.
In practice, the energy does not spread evenly in all directions. This is easy to hear if a tuning fork is rotated around
its long axis while it is sounding. Variations in the loudness of the sound will be heard these are the result of the
non-uniform pattern of energy radiation. Relatively more energy is transmitted along the line indicated by the wave
compressions CCC, and in the opposite direction. This occurs because of the vibration of the tuning fork back and
forth along this line.
It is difficult to draw a model of a longitudinal wave, especially one showing the amplitude of vibration of the
particles. Longitudinal and transverse waves have in common the periodic oscillation of the particles in the
medium. The longitudinal motion of any one particle can be represented on a displacement-time graph as follows.
It should be noted that the sinusoidal graph has peaks (high pressure) corresponding to the compressions and
troughs (low pressure) corresponding to rarefactions. This graph represents the pressure variations at an instant of
time, at any point along a line of propagation of the longitudinal sound wave.
As the prong moves to the right, it creates a region of higher pressure called a compression. As the prong moves to
the left, a low-pressure area called a rarefaction is created. A sound thus consists of a series of such alternating
pressure variations travelling away from the vibrating source.
It is thus a common convention to represent longitudinal waves with a transverse model. The following graph
shows the position any single particle, as a function of time.
The preceding graph should not be confused with the diagram of a transverse wave shown as displacement from
equilibrium plotted against distance along the line of propagation (as previously discussed in relation to transverse
wave motion.
The Speed of Sound
The speed of sound is dependent on the medium through which it travels. It is slowest in gases and fastest in solids.
Examples tabulated below show the speed of longitudinal waves (e.g. sound), v
L
, and transverse waves, v
T
, in
various media. Liquids do not transmit transverse waves through the body of the liquid. Only surface waves exist in
liquids.
For any given material, if it can support the propagation of both types of waves, the longitudinal wave velocity is
greater than the transverse wave velocity in the medium.
MATERIAL Density (gcm
1
) V
L
(m/s)
copper 8.90 6420
steel 7.86 (iron) 5940
beryllium 1.93 12890
aluminium 2.58 6420
water 1.00 1496
ethanol 0.79 1207
air 0.00139 331.45
helium 0.000178 965
fat 0.95 1450
muscle 1.07 1580
skull bone 1.91 4080
A thinking exercise!
Consider this hypothesis: The speed of sound in different materials is greater in materials having a greater
density.
Assess this hypothesis, using the information in the table.
Sound velocity in gases is temperature dependent. In air the velocity of sound increases at the rate of 0.59 ms
-1
C
-1
from the STP (0C and 1 atmosphere pressure) figure quoted above.
i.e. speed of sound at temperature T is: v
T
= 331.45 + 0.59T [T is in degrees Celsius]
Sound is the term usually applied to the range of frequencies the human ear is capable of detecting (approximately
50 hertz to 20 kilohertz). In a physical sense frequencies outside this range have properties in common with audible
sound waves, including the longitudinal wave nature. The term ultrasound is used for sounds with a frequency
greater than 20 kHz. Infrasound is a term sometimes applied to sounds with a frequency of less than 50 Hz.
Problem: Calculate the speed of sound at a temperature of 30C. (Ans: 349 ms
1
)
*id you !now+ Eephants communicate over distances of more than ,- !m using infrasound) Eephants put a
ot of energy into these waves and they trave great distances because of this) The fre.uencies are too ow
for humans to hear) Crocodies aso communicate using infrasound)
Investigation
Determine the speed of sound. (see Appendix 2)
The Cathode /ay 0scioscope 1C/02
http://www.tek.com/Measurement/App_Notes/XYZs/scope.html
The Internet site above has all you need to know about oscilloscopes. Look up the site. The following is based on
information from this site.
The oscilloscope produces a graph of an electrical signal applied to the CRO input
against time. Although the signal is a voltage, it could be derived from many
quantities, including the output of a microphone, which converts sound energy into
an electrical voltage. The graph shows how signal changes as a function of time.
The vertical (Y) axis represents voltage and the horizontal (X) axis represents time.
The graph can tell you many things about a signal. By examining the trace on the
oscilloscope you can
determine the time and voltage values of a signal
calculate the frequency of an oscillating signal [which could be the frequency of a sound
wave]
see the "moving parts" of a circuit represented by the signal
tell if a malfunctioning component is distorting the signal
find out how much of a signal is direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC)
tell how much of the signal is noise and whether the noise is changing with time
An oscilloscope looks a lot like a small television set, except that it has a grid
drawn on its screen and more controls than a television. The front panel of an
oscilloscope normally has control sections divided into Vertical, Horizontal, and
Trigger sections. There are also display controls and input connectors.
[photograph of a modern cathode ray oscilloscope]
An oscilloscope can be used to investigate properties of sound, including frequency, period and amplitude.
A microphone can be used to convert sound energy into electrical voltages. The level of voltage corresponds
to the time varying pressure variations of the sound wave. The output of the microphone provides the input to
the CRO.
A microphone converts sound energy into mechanical energy as a membrane in the microphone vibrates. This then
generates electrical energy, the voltage being displayed on the vertical scale of the oscilloscope. When the
oscilloscope is used to analyse sound signals, the vertical scale directly relates to pressure variations in the air
through which the sound travels. These depend on the amplitude of the sound waves and hence the loudness of the
sound as subjectively interpreted by the ear.
The following is a diagram of an oscilloscope screen.
It comes from a website
http://plabpc.csustan.edu/general/GeneralPhysicsIIlabs/Oscilloscope/Oscilloscope.htm
The vertical scale is an arbitrary one. The horizontal scale can be used to calculate the period and hence the
frequency of the wave as demonstrated in the following example.
In this case, the period of the wave is
approximately 3.4 time (horizontal)
divisions.
This corresponds to a period of 3.4 x 1 ms
i.e. 3.4 x 10
3
s.
The frequency is the reciprocal of this.
Therefore, f = 1/(3.4 x 10
3
s)= 294 Hz.
Investigation
Use a CRO and microphone to investigate
frequency (including the measurement of the unknown frequency of a sound)
amplitude
complex sound waves from different sources
Use a data logger with microphone input to investigate
echoes
complex waves (for a Fourier analysis, use a Vernier LabPro with computer interface)
Anaysis of Sounds
The following graphs show some sounds analysed using Audacity (Computer-based sound analysis similar to
CRO). The sounds were produced using a flute, which is an instrument that produces a relatively pure tone.
Audacity uses a microphone attached to the computer to covert the sound waves to electrical signals.
Sound waves are longitudinal waves.
A cathode ray oscilloscope with a microphone connected to its input can be used to show how pressure variations
associated with sound vary with time. Many computer-based software programs which perform the functions of a
CRO one is called Audacity. e.g. of the record of a fairly pure sound produced from a flute, obtained using
Audacity.
Start selection !"#$" s
End selection !"#%$"% s
&ime (di''erence) (!($")%* s
+um,er o' -aves #
.eriod (!(($/#% s
0re1uency "#(!/ 23
From such a graph, frequency and period of sound waves can be calculated. For the selected section of the graph
(shaded darker), Audacity displays the start and end time for the selected region. The difference between these
times can be determined and the corresponding number of waves counted. The period of the wave is calculated by
dividing the time interval by the number of waves. The frequency of the wave is the reciprocal of the period.
Loudness (or energy) of the sound can be assessed from the amplitude of the graph. Here is a graph produced from
a sound source that is getting louder. Calculate the period and frequency of this sound.
Start selection 4444444
End selection 4444444
&ime 4444444
+um,er o' -aves 4444444
.eriod 4444444
0re1uency 4444444
Most sounds are more complex than those produced by a flute. The following shows a graph produced from the
sound made by a didgeridoo.
Complex waves are the result of many different frequencies being present at the same time.
A complex wave is the result of the superposition of these different frequencies.
Here are the records of two sounds displayed on a typical cathode ray oscilloscope.
Sound 1
Sound 2
The horizontal scale (Time/Div setting) is the same for both sounds. The vertical scale (Voltage/Div) is also the
same. A microphone connected to the CRO converts sound energy to a voltage, which is detected by the CRO.
Sound 2 has a lower frequency and less energy than sound 1.
3re.uency and 'itch of Sounds
Definitions
Frequency the rate of repetition of a periodic disturbance measured in hertz (Hz) (vibrations, or cycles, per
second)
Pitch Pitch is the subjective property of a tone, related to the frequency of the sound. The ear/brain
interprets frequency in a relative way. Nevertheless, a simple relationship is observed the higher
the frequency of a sound, the higher the pitch of the perceived sound. Very few people have
perfect pitch the ability to recognise the true frequency of a sound in isolation.
Ampitude and Voume
Definitions
Amplitude The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement of an oscillating particle from its
equilibrium position. For sound waves the amplitude is usually much smaller (typically less than a
millimetre) than the wavelength (which ranges from centimetres to metres for audible
frequencies).
Volume or loudness is the subjective property of a sound relating to its perceived loudness. It is
dependent on a number of factors, including
the energy of the sound the more energy a sound has at a given frequency, the louder it will
be to the listener. The energy of a sound wave increases as the amplitude increases.
the frequency of the sound the ears sensitivity to sound is not the same across all
frequencies. Sounds with frequencies to which the ear is not very sensitive may be perceived
as quite soft, even if the energy possessed by the sound waves is large. Outside of the range
50 Hz to about 20 kHz, humans cannot hear sound waves, regardless of their intensity
(energy content)
At any given frequency, the volume of a sound increases with the amplitude of the sound vibration. Different
pitches may be perceived to have different volumes despite their having the same amplitude. Conversely, sounds
with a different frequency may have the same subjective loudness, even though the amplitudes are different.
The above graph shows that human ears are most sensitive to sounds with frequencies in the range 1000 Hz to
2000 Hz. What do you think the reason for this is? What sounds have we evolved with to which sensitivity is a
survival advantage?
Sound Leves
Sound levels are measured in decibels, which relates the intensity of the sound to a reference level (10
12
Wm
2
). The
reference level corresponds to the human threshold of hearing at the frequency to which our ears are most sensitive.
The scale is a logarithmic one but even without a mathematical interpretation, it is wise to be aware of sound
levels, particularly the potential of loud sounds to damage hearing permanently. Particular caution should be
exercised in relation to sound exposure. Ear protection should always be worn when operating noisy machinery. As
a guideline, if a person has to shout at you to be heard over a sound, its time to protect your hearing. In-ear
headphones are a particular risk, as the sound pressure level on the eardrum can easily exceed safe limits. When
wearing these headphones, if you cant hear a normal conversation near you, the sound may be damaging your
hearing.
Every 20 decibels represents a tenfold increase in the sound pressure level.
Threshold of hearing = 0 dB SPL
Threshold of feeling = 120 dB SPL
Threshold of pain = 130 dB SPL
5$) dB one 1uarter 5/ dB 6 one hal' ( dB 6 no change
/ dB 6 t-ice $) dB 'our times )( dB 6 ten times
7( dB 6 one hundred times /( dB 6 one thousand times *( dB 6 ten thousand times
Australia has workplace regulations regarding exposure to sound levels. These are for workers protection. They
should be adhered to at all times.
/efection of Waves
Definition: Reflection occurs when energy such as sound or light strikes a boundary and the direction of
propagation of the wave changes as a result of the interaction with the boundary.
A boundary may be
A change from one medium to another e.g. air to water
A change in the density of a medium e.g. warm air (lower density) cold air (higher density) boundary
A change in the geometry of a medium in which a wave is travelling e.g. even though the end of an organ pipe
is open to the air, some of the energy of a sound wave inside the pipe upon reaching this opening will be
reflected back into the pipe. Without this, the pipe would not produce a sustained sound.
There are two laws of reflection applicable to a simple ray or one-dimensional wave
1. The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection from a plane surface
2. The incident and reflected wave propagation directions are in the same plane as the normal to the reflecting
surface. This is illustrated in the following diagram.
Echoes
An echo occurs when a sound wave is reflected from a boundary. Echoes play an important role in acoustics in
buildings and in our perception of music. Some amplifiers create echoes artificially to re-create the ambience of a
particular acoustic setting, such as a stadium or concert hall.
Echoes are used by animals in the natural world to both navigate and to locate prey. Bats are probably the most
famous of the species that use echolocation. Some bird species use echolocation, as do dolphins.
Humans use echoes in medical ultrasononography. Radar locates objects such as
aircraft by detecting a reflected radio signal. Sonar, used by ships and submarines
relies on the reflection of sound.
Question: A ship sends a sound wave pulse towards the ocean floor. The reflected
pulse is detected 2 seconds later. What is the distance from the ship the ocean floor?
The speed of sound in water is 1496 ms
1
.
Absorption and Transmission of Sound
Two important phenomena occur when a sound wave strikes an interface between
two different media, for example travelling from air to water. At the boundary,
some of the energy is reflected and some is absorbed, thus travelling into the second
medium.
The amount of energy reflected and absorbed depends on the properties of each
medium. As a general rule, the more different the two media, the greater will be the
amount of reflected energy. Part of the science of acoustics deals with such properties of materials and the effect on
sound waves. The medical application of ultrasound relies on the reflection of ultrasound at the boundary between
different types of tissue.
A knowledge of this area of science plays a key role in the design of many everyday things including concert halls,
buildings, offices, furnishings, flats and houses, cars, aircraft and factories.
The principles are also important in medicine in the areas of ultrasound and other imaging technologies. In the case
of ultrasound, a special gel is applied to the patient to increase the proportion of ultrasound energy entering the
body.
Ultrasound is emitted by some cameras to aid in their auto-focussing on a particular subject. Ultrasound is also used
by range finding sensors on electronic data logging equipment.
&easuring the speed of sound with a data ogger
The following apparatus was used to measure the speed of sound using a data logger with a microphone sensor.
The microphone detects a sound produced at the microphone end of the tube and then the echo (reflection) is
detected when it reaches the microphone after travelling to the closed end and back again. Here is the record
produced using a 2 m length of tube.
Time (s)
In this case, the reflection is detected at 0.0116 seconds after the first of the sound is produced. The velocity is thus
given by v = s/t = 4/0.0116 = 345 ms
1
.
In this result, it can be seen from the amplitude of the reflected wave that most of the energy striking the tubes
closed end was reflected.
'rincipe of Superposition
Two waves passing through the same region of space at the same time produce a
resultant wave, which, at every point in the region of interaction, has a resultant
amplitude, which is the sum of the amplitudes of the interacting waves.
After passing through the region of interaction, the two waves continue as if they had not interacted.
Demonstration: Create a pure, high pitched (about 10 kHz) tone in a room. Move slowly around the room. What
do you observe about the sound? The sound is reflected from the walls of the room. Some reflected waves cancel
each other out, while others augment each other. The resulting loudness at any particular point is due to the
superposition of the reflected waves.
Given two or more waves, their summation is performed as a simple algebraic addition of their amplitudes at any
time and position. Additional reference: See file Waves and FFT.pdf
3
for complete discussion.
The superposition of two waves is shown in the following diagrams. The two components are shown in the diagram
on the left. The components and their sum is shown in the diagram on the right.
Components
-2.5000
-2.0000
-1.5000
-1.0000
-0.5000
0.0000
0.5000
1.0000
1.5000
2.0000
2.5000
0 5 10 15
Series1
Series2
Superposition
-3.0000
-2.0000
-1.0000
0.0000
1.0000
2.0000
3.0000
0 5 10 15
Series1
Series2
Series3
Investigation
Use the Excel spreadsheet Superposition to investigate the addition (superposition) of two waves and
compare this with the results combining two or more pure tones and using a data logger with microphone input
or CRO to examine the resultant waveforms
Use the Vernier LabPro data logger and the Logger Pro software to determine the frequency
components of a complex wave (produced by say a guitar cord or cord on a piano) and reconstruct the sound
from the components.
Applications
A laser beam produces an intense light because all the components waves (a) have the same wavelength and
amplitude and (b) are all in phase with each other. When all of these component waves superimpose, the resultant
wave is very energetic. This type of superposition of effects is called constructive interference.
Ordinary light sources such as flames, fluorescent or incandescent lights produce waves having a range of
wavelengths, and phase relationships. This results in many of the waves cancelling each other out an effect which
is referred to as destructive interference.
In some expensive motor vehicles, and some factories, loudspeakers are used to create sound waves that cancel out
unwanted sounds by creating a wave out of phase with the unwanted sound.
Superposition is essential in analogue radio and television communication since the signal (voice, music or picture)
is added to a carrier signal. The resulting amplitude of the wave is the sum of the components.
The reverse of the process of superposition of waves (synthesis) is called Fourier analysis. This is an
extraordinarily useful process in the analysis of complex signals. Fourier analysis plays a key role in
communication technology, as well as being an essential tool in the analysis of all sorts of data, from signals
received from distant galaxies to the analysis of data used to produce medical images in processes such as magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI).
3
From web site http://www.cord.edu/dept/physics/p128/lecture99_34.html
'hysics Syabus Section ()#)4 15pg2
The Eectromagnetic Spectrum
Electromagnetic radiation is a form of energy that propagates as a transverse wave. It is the only form of energy
that can travel as a wave through a vacuum. Electromagnetic waves have a very wide range of frequencies (and
hence wavelengths) that are used to broadly classify the radiation into different types, from the highest frequency
waves, call gamma rays, to the lowest frequency waves which are called radio waves.
All forms of electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed in a vacuum, 3x10
8
ms
1
. This speed is represented by
the symbol c and it is usually called the speed of light even though it is characteristic of all forms of
electromagnetic radiation.
The speed of electromagnetic waves in air is only slightly slower than their speed in a vacuum (less than 1%
slower). However the speed in other media can be significantly slower. Light travels in glass at about 2x10
8
ms
1
and in a diamond at about 1.2x10
8
ms
1
.
Light is one form of electromagnetic radiation and its main distinguishing characteristic is the fact that we can see
this form of energy with our eyes. Red light has the longest wavelength (lowest frequency) of the visible light part
of the spectrum and violet light has the shortest wavelength (and highest frequency).
The following table and chart show the main components of the electromagnetic spectrum and the origins of these
different forms of electromagnetic radiation.
Type of
Radiation
Frequency
Range (Hz)
Wavelength Range Origin of Radiation
gamma-rays 10
20
-10
24
<10
-12
m
Nuclear transformations, particle accelerator, stars and
some unusual and poorly understood sources in deep
space
x-rays 10
17
-10
20
1 nm - 1 pm
inner electron energy level transitions, sudden
deceleration of high energy electrons by a metal electrode
in an X-ray tube
ultraviolet 10
15
-10
17
400 nm - 1 nm
outer electron transitions in the atom (large energy level
changes)
visible 4-7.5x10
14
750 nm - 400 nm outer electron transitions in atoms
near-infrared 10
12
-4x10
14
2.5 um - 750 nm outer electron molecular vibrations
infrared 10
11
-10
12
25 um - 2.5 um molecular vibrations, produced by warm matter
microwaves 10
8
-10
12
1 mm - 25 um molecular rotations, electron spin flips*, magnetron
radio waves 10
0
-10
8
>1 mm oscillating electric currents
*etection and 6ses of Eectromagnetic Waves
The following table summarises some of the methods used to detect different forms of electromagnetic radiation,
and some of the uses made of electromagnetic waves.
Type of Radiation Method of Detection Uses
gamma5rays
8amma ray camera (medical)
8amma ray telescope
8eiger counter
Sterilising medical e1uipment
Medical diagnoses
Astronomical investigations
9adiation monitoring
:5rays
;5ray 'ilm< electronic sensors
Sterilising medical e1uipment
Medical diagnosis and imaging
ultraviolet .hotographic 'ilm< solid state sensors 0luorescent lights< ,lacklight signatures<
visi,le
Eyes< photographic 'ilm Sensory input to ,rain=
in'rared
Bolometer< >9 cameras using a CC? (Charged
Couple ?evice @ an electronic device used in video
cameras)< >9 sensitive diode (electronic
semiconductor device 5 used in remote control
receivers on videoAaudio e1uipment
&emperature measurement
Surveillance
micro-aves Micro-ave antennaAtuned receiver Cell phones< cooking< satellite communication
radio -aves AntennaAtuned receiver Communication< astronomy
See separate documentB >ntroduction to EM Waves!doc for more useful information about uses and detection.
The wave e.uation
As with all types of waves, the relationship between the three quantities, velocity, frequency and wavelength, for
electromagnetic waves is given by
where
Question: Calculate
(a) the frequency of 3 cm microwaves. (assume their speed = 3 x 10
8
) [Ans. 10 GHz)
(b) the wavelength of 2MMM (frequency 104.9 MHz) [Ans. 2.86 m]
(c) the wavelength of microwaves (from an oven). f = 2450 MHz [Ans. 0.122 m]
(d) the wavelength of mobile telephone electromagnetic waves, f = 1800 MHz. [Ans. 0.1667 m]
6ses of eectromagnetic waves
Discussion points
the place of electromagnetic radiation in the natural world
the use of electromagnetic radiation by humans
Electromagnetic radiation plays a key role in human communication.
In the natural world, our eyes have evolved to be sensitive to light, the part of the spectrum the Sun produces at the
greatest intensity. Our sense of sight plays a very significant part in communication with other humans through
non-verbal signals as well as written information.
The technological application of electromagnetic waves to communication now dominates the way we
communicate globally. Radio and television waves are used in the forms of communication that bear their names.
Microwaves are used for mobile telephone communications, as well as for the transmission of television signals to
relay points from the main transmitter. Microwaves are also used for communication with satellites.
Light and infrared radiation are used to transmit digital information through optical fibres. Most of todays global
communication, in terms of the amount of data, takes place through optical fibres at some point in the
communication process.
Light7 the eye and evoution
An interesting connection exists between the sensitivity of the eye to light from the Sun and the process of
evolution. When the first rudimentary eyes began to evolve, they were not very efficient at gathering light (or any
other form of electromagnetic radiation). Measurements show that the Suns energy is emitted most strongly in the
visible light part of the spectrum. When animals began to evolve sensitivity to electromagnetic waves, those that
could respond best to survived and proliferated. The animals whose eyes performed best were those with eyes to
the brightest part of the spectrum visible light.
The image to the right is from a web site
[http://www.bc.cc.ca.us/programs/sea/astronomy/light/lighta.htm]
Different colours are related to different frequencies of light. Many
textbooks state that colour is dependent on wavelength, which is partly
correct since the two quantities are related. In any given medium, red light
has the longest wavelength of the visible frequencies and violet has the
shortest. However, red light passing from air to water slows down, and the
wavelength becomes less, but neither the colour nor the frequency change.
'roperties of Light
Light travels is straight lines through any homogeneous medium. A homogeneous medium is one in which
the properties of the medium are independent of the position in the medium. Examples of inhomogeneous
media include window glass which produces distortions as we look through it, the way heat haze affects
light passing through it and the atmosphere which makes stars, particularly those near the horizon, twinkle.
Because light travels in a straight line, objects appear to be in the position, the direction from which the light
enters the eye. This means that the reflection of an object in a mirror makes the object look as though it is
behind the mirror.
Light is a part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The wavelengths range from the shortest for violet light (4000
angstroms) to the longest for red light (7000 angstroms). Red light has the longest wavelength. Light of
different frequencies (and hence wavelengths) are seen as different colours - the familiar range of spectral
colours is shown in the diagram below.
The nature of eectromagnetic waves
Electromagnetic radiation is the result of two transverse waves one electrical and the other magnetic in nature
vibrating at right angles to each other and also at right angles to the direction of travel. The diagram below shows
one way of representing light as such a pair of transverse waves.
Reference for diagram modified from:
http://www.md.huji.ac.il/spectroscopy/chem-ed/light/em-rad.htm
The following diagram shows another method of representing an electromagnetic wave. In this case, only the
electric field component of the wave is shown.
Eectromagnetic Waves and &atter
Electromagnetic waves interact with matter by being reflected, absorbed or transmitted. As a general rule, the
shorter the wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation, the greater capacity it has to penetrate materials, notably
solids and liquids. Hence X-rays and gamma rays can penetrate materials readily, making them useful for revealing
internal structures otherwise hidden inside materials. These internal structures can only be seen using these forms
of radiation providing the material is non-homogeneous, as is the case when bones are imaged using X-rays.
Wilhem Roentgen invented the X-ray tube. He decided that it should not be patented, thus making this invention
freely available for all to use. One of his earliest photographic plate from his experiments was a film of his wife,
Bertha's hand with a ring, was produced on Friday, November 8, 1895.
A modern X-Ray image
Gamma rays, which are more penetrating than x-rays, can be used to see inhomogeneities in solid materials such as
aircraft bodies and engine parts.
The general rule stated above has many exceptions. Radio waves, the least energetic form of electromagnetic
radiation, nevertheless travel readily through bricks and concrete, materials which stop the more energetic light
rays. The Earths atmosphere absorbs the most energetic forms of electromagnetic radiation, UV, X-rays and
gamma rays. The less energetic light and radio waves pass readily through the atmosphere. Glass is transparent to
light and infrared rays, but opaque to ultra violet rays.
Absorption of ight and other eectromagnetic radiation by matter
Electromagnetic radiation interacts with matter in a variety of ways.
Reflection. Reflection of light makes objects visible. Reflection may be either specular (as in the case of
mirrored surfaces) or diffuse (resulting in scattering of light, as happens with reflection from most objects,
giving them a non-shiny appearance).
Transmission. Objects may transmit light of particular wavelengths without any interference. When this
occurs we say that the material is transparent to that wavelength. e.g. the skin is opaque to visible light but
moderately transparent to infra-red light and very transparent to X-rays. Concrete is transparent to radio waves.
When light moves from one transparent medium to another its direction of travel may change a process
called refraction. This change of direction is caused by a change in velocity.
Absorption. Many materials absorb the energy from light. Colours of objects are the result of different
proportions of the light being reflected at different wavelengths while other wavelengths are absorbed. e.g. red
objects appear red because they reflect the wavelength of light that the eye perceives as red and absorb other
frequencies.
The absorption of light and other forms of electromagnetic rays by a medium is dependent on
The frequency (and hence wavelength) of the radiation
The nature of the medium in which the wave is travelling
The distance the light travels through the medium
Electromagnetic radiation may become polarised when it interacts with matter, or the plane of polarisation may be
changed (polarisation is not dealt with in this course it is an interesting phenomenon with applications as diverse
as the vision of bees and the efficient transmission and reception of television signals)
The absorption and reflection of light from a material gives rise to colour. A material that absorbs all wavelengths
of light except red, which is reflected appears red when we look at it since we see the object as a result of the red
light it reflects. A surface that reflects both red and blue appears to be magenta in colour. The interaction of light
and the eye is very important since it gives us our sense of colour vision. Not all animals have the ability to see
colour.
It is interesting to note that there are two quite different ways in which we combine colours to form other ones. The
two processes are called additive and subtractive. On a television screen, video display, or in theatrical stage
lighting different colours are produced by combining components in an additive process. A colour display screen
reproduces the full range of spectral colours using just three primary colours (red, blue and green). The effect of
adding these in different combinations is shown below (left) (view the pixels on your computer screen with a
magnifying glass to see the individual pixels and component colours). In this process, the screen itself is the source
of light.
Printing with inks, or painting however is a subtractive process. This is represented by the diagram above (right).
The simplest colour printer uses three colour inks, magenta, cyan and yellow. Since magenta reflects blue and red
(absorbing green), and cyan reflects blue and green (absorbing red), the only colour that is reflected in common
from a combination of these is blue the resulting colour when they are mixed. In practice, since pure pigment
colours are difficult to obtain, the process is much more complex. The addition of cyan, yellow and magenta should
produce black, but it does not do so in practice and so even the cheapest colour printers now are four colour
which means they use black pigment to ensure better reproduction of tones, especially black. In this process, the
source of light is not the pigment it is merely reflecting the light from another source. The colour of pigments can
change dramatically when viewed under different lighting conditions.
There are no simple rules to predict the reflection and absorption of other components of the electromagnetic
spectrum by different materials. A brick wall that is totally opaque to visible light, is almost perfectly transparent to
radio waves. Metals, which totally absorb radio waves, allow gamma rays to pass through them quite readily.
Glass with a high lead content allows radiographers to see their patient, because light is transmitted through the
glass, but it blocks x-rays, which are absorbed by the lead, protecting the radiographer.
The development of high purity glass, which hardly absorbs any electromagnetic radiation in the infrared region of
the spectrum has given rise to optical fibre based communication s technology.
When a material absorbs electromagnetic radiation, the energy produces changes in the material as the absorbed
energy is converted to other forms of energy. Light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll in plants, and the light
energy causes chemical changes, which result in the formation of glucose (a high-energy compound). In film
photography, light produces chemical changes in the chemicals on the film, which eventually allows an image to be
produced. Infrared radiation causes molecules to vibrate when it is absorbed, thus heating materials up. A TV
antenna absorbs the energy of the TV signal, converting it to an electric current in the antenna.
The absorption of different forms of electromagnetic radiation by the atmosphere plays a vital role in protecting life
on Earth from gamma rays, x-rays and ultraviolet rays, all of which can destroy life. The opaqueness of the
atmosphere to these wavelengths has until recently frustrated astronomers in their investigation of the Universe.
Satellites above the atmosphere now allow us to see the Universe using these wavelengths.
The vertical bars extending downward from the top of the chart show the height at which about half of the radiation
entering the atmosphere has been absorbed as it travels through the air.
Absorption of Eectromagnetic /adiation by Earth8s Atmosphere
All forms of electromagnetic radiation reach the Earths atmosphere from stars, nebulae, matter surrounding black
holes, stellar and galactic collisions and other unknown sources. The Earths atmosphere plays a vital role in
filtering the electromagnetic radiation from space. Consider the following graphic [Source:
http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l1/emspectrum.html] which shows the relative absorption of
different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum as the waves interact with the atmosphere at various altitudes.
Alternative Reference: spaceflt.pdf
The filtering out of UV, X-rays and gamma rays is essential for the continuance of life on Earth since these forms
of radiation are all harmful to living organisms. In recent years, concern has developed over the apparent
destruction of the ozone layer by CFCs (organic chemicals, commonly used in air conditioners, fridges, medical
fields and the electronics industry). Ozone strongly filters UV radiation from the Suns rays. Without the ozone, life
as we know it on Earth would not be possible.
Astronomers have long made use of light and radio waves reaching Earth from space to investigate the Universe.
Since the atmosphere filters out UV, X-rays and gamma rays, it was not useful to try and build Earth based
detectors of these forms of radiation. In recent years telescopes designed to see these high energy waves have
been put into orbit around the Earth. These are currently yielding important new information about our Universe.
Check out [http://chandra.harvard.edu/]

These images of the astronomical object PKS 0637-752 are shown to the same scale, viewe b! "-ra! #left$ an light
#right$ telesco%es& PKS 0637-72 is so istant that we see it as it was 6 billion !ears ago& 't is a l(mino(s )(asar that
raiates with the %ower of *0 trillion s(ns from a region smaller than o(r solar s!stem& The so(rce of this %roigio(s
energ! is believe to be a s(%ermassive blac+ hole& ,aio telesco%e observations of PKS 0637-752 show that it has
an e"tene raio jet that stretches across several h(nre tho(san light !ears& -hanra.s "-ra! image mae with
the /vance --0 'maging S%ectrometer #/-'S$ reveals a %owerf(l "-ra! jet e"tening more than 200 000 light
!ears into intergalactic s%ace that is %robabl! (e to a beam of e"tremel! high-energ! %articles&
The Speed of Light and 0ther 3orms of Eectromagnetic /adiation
The speed of all forms of electromagnetic energy in a vacuum is the same, and equal to 3 x 10
8
ms
1
. The speed of
light in any medium is less than the speed of light in a vacuum. Thus, light slows down when it enters a medium
from a vacuum. The speed of light in air is almost equal to the speed of light in a vacuum, and for most practical
purposes they can be considered to be the same.
The speed of light in a medium depends upon
The type of medium
The frequency of the light
For example, light travels approximately 1.2 x 10
8
ms
1
in a diamond, but about 1.5 x 10
8
ms
1
in glass. The speed is
different in different types of glass.
Within any particular medium, the speed of light decreases with increasing frequency of the radiation. Thus, blue
light travels more slowly in a given medium than red light.
The following diagram represents the progress of two rays of light, red and blue, from air, through a transparent
rectangular prism of medium A, then through medium B, and then through another prism of medium A and back
into air. The graph below shows qualitatively the speed of these two wavelengths of light as it progresses through
the media.
Note that
In air, both red and blue light have the same velocity (3 x 10
8
ms
1
)
Both red and blue light travel more slowly in media A and B than they do in air
Both red and blue light travel more slowly in medium B than they do in medium A
The speeds of both red and blue light can increase or decrease at a boundary, depending on the media
Blue light travels more slowly than red light in all transparent media
The difference in the velocities of red and blue light depend on the properties of the medium
If the red and blue light enter medium A simultaneously from the left, the red light leaves medium A on the
right hand side sooner than the blue light, because the red light travelled faster through the media
The Inverse S.uare Law for Light
Flux
Energy is measured in units called joules (J). The total flow of energy through a surface (imaginary or otherwise)
can thus be measured in joules. This is called the flux of the radiation. Flux density is the energy flow through a
given area (square metre in the metric system) every second has units therefore of joules per square metre. The rate
at which energy is used/transferred (measured in joules per second) is called power and the unit for power (Js
1
) is
given the special name a watt (W). Hence, the energy flowing through a surface, or falling on that surface, can be
measured in watts/metre
2
(Wm
-2
).
The energy from the Sun, reaching the Earths upper atmosphere is approximately 1400 Wm
2
. At the surface of the
Earth, this reduces to about 1000 Wm
2
. The difference is due to reflection of energy back into space, and
absorption by the atmosphere with subsequent re-emission into space.
The difference in the heating effect of the
Suns rays on the Earth at different latitudes
and in different seasons is due to variations in
irradiance caused by the angle of the Earths
surface to the incoming rays. This is
illustrated in the adjacent diagram.
It can be seen that the same flux, in this case
represented by five rays, at the equator falls
on a smaller area at the equator than that
amount of flux at a higher latitude. Thus
when the Sun is directly over the equator (the
equinox), the flux density becomes less, the
further it is measured from the equator.
In this diagram, the Suns rays are drawn as
being parallel to each other. This is a close
approximation to the truth. The rays from the
Sun diverge of course, but because the Earth
is relatively small compared with the distance from the Sun, the rays reaching the Earths surface are effectively
parallel. That is why objects cast fairly sharply defined shadows. It should be noted that if the object casting the
shadow is very small compared with its distance from the surface, it casts a shadow with indistinct edges. This can
be observed if one looks at the shadow of a plane flying overhead, a bird or the shadows of overhead electrical
wires.
Light from a source spreads out as it propagates through the surrounding space. Light energy leaving a point
source spreads out in a spherical pattern.
All of the energy passing through an imaginary
sphere 1 m from the source will subsequently pass
through a sphere of radius 2 m, then 3, 4 m and so
on. The surface area of a sphere is proportional to the
square of the radius, since
SA = 4R
2
Hence, the energy passing through a sphere of radius
one metre is spread over four times the area when it
passes through a sphere 2 m away, and over nine
times the area as it passes through the 3 m radius
sphere. The flux density, is thus a quarter of its
value as it passes through a surface twice the
distance away, and just one ninth as it passes through
a surface at three times the distance.
This is illustrated in the following graphic.
The relationship between luminous flux density and
distance from the source is shown graphically in the following graph. Qualitatively, this relationship can be
described as As the distance from the source increases, the flux density decreases at a decreasing rate.
Mathematically, the relationship between these variables is called an inverse square relationship.
The inverse square law for light can thus be stated as
The luminous flux density from a source decreases with the
square of the distance from the source.
The inverse square law has important implications in practical situations. Lighting design in buildings must take
this effect into account. Radiologists maximise their distance from x-ray machines when they are working, since
this will minimise their exposure. Distance between people and sources of radiation in the event of a radiation
related accident is of key importance in reducing exposure.
The inverse square law is a mathematical relationship occurring in many different contexts in physics, including the
relationship between force of gravity between masses and distance, and forces between charged objects (due to
their charge) and distance.
!ommunicating with %lectromagnetic Waves
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/HBASE/audio/bcast.html
&roadcast 'ignals
Information is broadcast using radio signals by producing an electromagnetic wae that is the result of the
superposition of a signal deried from a sound source! such as a microphone! onto a much higher
fre"uency component called a carrier.
#adio communication is typically in the form of A$ radio or %$ #adio transmissions. &he broadcast of a
single signal! such as a monophonic audio signal! can be done by straightforward amplitude modulation or
fre"uency modulation. $ore comple' transmissions use what are (nown as sidebands produced from the
sum and difference fre"uencies resulting from the superposition of some signal upon the carrier wae. %or
e'ample! in %$ stereo transmission! the sum of left and right channels )*+#, is used to fre"uency
modulate the carrier and a separate subcarrier at -. (H/ is also superimposed on the carrier. &hat sub-
carrier is then modulated )superposition, with a )*-#, or difference signal so that the transmitted signal can
be separated into left and right channels for stereo playbac(. In teleision transmission! three signals must
be sent on the carrier: the audio! picture intensity! and picture chrominance. &his process ma(es use of two
sub-carriers. 0ther transmissions such as satellite &1 and long distance telephone transmission ma(e use of
multiple sub-carriers for the broadcast of multiple signals simultaneously.
A( Radio
2hen information is broadcast from an A$ radio station! the electrical image of the sound )ta(en from a
microphone or other program source, is used to modulate the amplitude of the carrier wae transmitted
from the broadcast antenna of the radio station. &his is in contrast to %$ radio where the signal is used to
modulate the fre"uency of the carrier.
&he A$ band of the Electromagnetic spectrum is between 3-3 4H/ and 5673 (H/ and the carrier waes
are separated by 8 (H/ in Australia and 57 (H/ in many other countries! including the 9SA.
A radio receier can be tuned to receie any one of a number of radio carrier fre"uencies in the area of the
receier. &his is made practical by transferring the signal from the carrier onto an intermediate fre"uency in
the radio by a process called heterodyning. In a heterodyne receier! most of the electronics is (ept tuned to
the intermediate fre"uency so that only a small portion of the receier circuit must be retuned when
changing stations.

A$ radio uses the electrical image of a sound source to modulate the amplitude of a carrier wae. At the
receier end in the detection process! that image is stripped bac( off the carrier and turned bac( into sound
by a loudspea(er.
F( Radio
2hen information is broadcast from an %$ radio station! the electrical image of the sound )ta(en from a
microphone or other program source, is used to modulate the fre"uency of the carrier wae transmitted
from the broadcast antenna of the radio station. &his is in contrast to A$ radio where the signal is used to
modulate the amplitude of the carrier.
%$ radio has a greater bandwidth than A$ in the commercial fre"uency ranges used for each and this led
to its early use for broadcasting stereo radio. %$ tends to be less affected by electrical interference such as
storms. A$ stereo is now aailable! howeer it is not widely used in Australia and will probably be
superseded by digital stereo radio.
&he %$ band of the electromagnetic spectrum is between .. $H/ and 57. $H/ and the carrier waes for
indiidual stations are separated by :77 (H/ for a ma'imum of 577 stations. &hese %$ stations hae a ;3
(H/ ma'imum deiation from the centre fre"uency! which leaes :3 (H/ upper and lower <guard bands= to
minimise interaction with the ad>acent fre"uency band. &his separation of the stations is much wider than
that for A$ stations! allowing the broadcast of a wider fre"uency band for higher fidelity music broadcast.
It also permits the use of sub-carriers which ma(e possible the broadcast of %$ Stereo signals.

%$ radio uses the electrical image of a sound source to modulate the fre"uency of a carrier wae. At the
receier end in the detection process! that image is stripped bac( off the carrier and turned bac( into sound
by a loudspea(er.
!ommunication &ands
&he radio spectrum is diided into fre"uency bands! the use of which is goerned by international
agreements. *icences are re"uired to transmit signals in most of the bands.
Low Frequency (LF) - -7 4H/ to -77 4H/ although there are signals transmitted well below this region
principally the 0$E?A naigation networ(.
Medium Frequency (MF) - -77 4H/ to - $H/ which mainly includes the A$ radio band of about 3-7
4H/ to 5637 4H/ )aries between countries,.
High Frequency (HF)- - $H/ to -7 $H/ and comprises amateur radio! short wae broadcasters among a
host of others. *argely becoming superseded by satellite transmissions.
Very High Frequency (VHF) - -7 $H/ to -77 $H/ occupied by traditional &1 stations! some amateur
bands! commercial two way radio! maritime and aircraft bands as well as the %$ radio band of .. - 57.
$H/.
Ultra-high Frequency (UHF) - -77 $H/ to - ?H/ this band is occupied by 9H% &1! some radar
installations! mobile phones! two-way radios.
Beyond 3 H! is mainly used for satellite transmissions.
It is interesting to note by way of numerical comparison that firstly! each band is 57 times the preious
band. Secondly the *% band spanning -7 to -77 4h/ could be duplicated 57!777 times oer in the space
occupied by the 9H% band.
Also at the bottom end of -7 4h/ the signal cycle repeats -7 777 times a second. At the top of the 9H%
band the signal cycle repeats - 777 777 777 times a second )mind boggling eh@,.
(obile Phone Frequencies
)'(
?lobal System for $obile Aommunication. A communication standard in three fre"uency bands! 877 $H/!
5.77 $H/ and 5877 $H/. &he term ?S$ is often used in A9S&#A*IA to refer to the 877 $H/ band
while the 5.77 $H/ band is referred to as BAC. &he ?S$ Association is responsible for the deelopment!
deployment and eolution of the ?S$ standard.
)'(*++
A networ( which operates in the 877$H/ ?S$ band.
)'(,-++
A networ( which operates in the 5.77$H/ ?S$ band.
)'(,*++
A networ( that operates in the 5877$H/ ?S$ band. Some networ(s in the 9SA! South America! Asia and
Africa use this band.
What is .&andwidth/0
(efinitions of Bandwidth on the Web)
A measure of the capacity of a communications channel. &he higher a channelDs bandwidth! the
more information it can carry.
www.tamu.edu/ode/glossary.html
&he amount of information or data that can be sent oer a networ( connection in a gien period of
time. Bandwidth is usually stated in bits per second )bps,! (ilobits per second )(bps,! or megabits
per second )mps,.
www.tecrime.com/7gloss.htm
A relatie range of fre"uencies that can carry a signal on a transmission medium.
www.adaptiedigital.com/serices/serEdefinitions.htm
Bandwidth is the amount of data that can be transferred oer the networ( in a fi'ed amount of
time. 0n the Cet! it is usually e'pressed in bits per second )bps, or in higher units li(e $bps
)millions of bits per second,. :... modem can delier :.!.77 bps! a &5 line is about 5.3 $bps.
www.hosttrail.com/glossary/b/
A measure of spectrum )fre"uency, use or capacity. %or instance! a oice transmission by telephone
re"uires a bandwidth of about -777 cycles per second )- 4H/,. A &1 channel occupies a
bandwidth of 6 million cycles per second )6 $H/, in terrestrial Systems. In satellite based systems
a larger bandwidth of 5;.3 to ;: $H/ is used to spread or <dither= the teleision signal in order to
preent interference.
www.spidersat.net/glossary/glossaryEb.htm
&he range of fre"uencies! e'pressed in hert/ )H/,! that can pass oer a gien transmission channel.
&he bandwidth determines the rate at which information can be transmitted through the circuit.
www.ssloral.com/html/products/glossary.html
&he information carrying capacity of the fiber. &he bandwidth for a gien waelength is the lowest
fre"uency at which optical power has decreased by - dB! e'pressed in $H/-(m. At fre"uencies
higher than the recommended bandwidth! modal dispersion creates distortion ma(ing signals
unreadable.
www.iec-usa.com/Browse7:/?*SB.html
Communicating with Eectromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic waves are used to transmit information. This information may be from sound, including voices and
music, or it may be from images or digital data from a computer.
The principle is the same for all of these. A particular frequency of electromagnetic wave has one or more of its
properties altered slightly by combining a pure carrier signal with the information being sent. This may be a
simple case of the superposition of the information onto the carrier, producing a resultant waveform. This is an
application of the principle of superposition. Digital communications technology involves the switching on and off
of a wave, representing zeros and ones, which can then be used to encode information.
Amplitude and Frequency Modulation
The important thing in any communications system is to be able to send information from one place to another.
This means we have to find a way to impress that information on the radio wave in such a way that it can be
recovered at the other end. This process is known as modulation. In order to modulate a radio wave, we have to
change either or both of the two basic characteristics of the wave: the amplitude or the frequency.
AM : Amplitude Modulation
If we change the amplitude, or strength, of the signal in a way corresponding
to the information we are trying to send, we are using amplitude modulation,
or AM. The earliest means of radio communications was by Morse code, and
the code key would turn the transmitter on and off. The amplitude went from
nothing to full power whenever the key was pressed, a basic form of AM.
Modern AM transmitters vary the signal level smoothly in direct proportion to
the sound they are transmitting. Positive peaks of the sound produce
maximum radio energy, and negative peaks of the sound produce minimum
energy.
The main disadvantage of AM is that most natural and man made radio noise
is AM in nature, and AM receivers have no means of rejecting that noise.
Also, weak signals are (because of their lower amplitude) quieter than strong
ones, which requires the receiver to have circuits to compensate for the signal
level differences.
FM" Frequency
Modulation
In an attempt to overcome these problems, a man named Edwin H.
Armstrong invented a system that would overcome the difficulties of
amplitude noise. Instead of modulating the strength (or amplitude) of
the transmitted signal, or carrier, he modulated the frequency.
Though many engineers at that time said that FM was not practical,
Armstrong proved them all wrong, and FM today is the mainstay of
the broadcast radio services.
When information is encoded using frequency modulated, the
frequency of the carrier wave is varied according to the modulating
signal. For example, positive peaks would produce a higher
frequency, while negative peaks would produce a lower frequency. At the receiving end, a limiting circuit removes
all amplitude variations from the signal, and a discriminator circuit converts the frequency variations back to the
original signal.
In this way, the effects of amplitude noise are minimized. Since the recovered audio is dependent only on the
frequency, and not the strength, no compensation for different signal levels is required, as is the case with AM
receivers.
Digital Encoding
In this process the information is converted to a string of binary numbers, zeroes and ones, which are transmitted
using light (optical fibre telephone transmission of voice and internet), microwave (cellular phone) or television
(soon to be introduced in Australia) electromagnetic waves. When information is digitally encoded, the signal has
just two states, usually called on and off. Once the information has been encoded, a digital stream of data looks
much the same regardless of whether it is computer data, sound information or pictures.
Digital communication is now a key form of communication, affecting personal communication, TV as well as all
computer data on the Internet and all the essential data associated with global economic transactions.
Limitations of Communication 6sing Eectromagnetic Waves
The following table summarises the application of various forms of electromagnetic radiation to communications
technology and includes some of the limiting characteristics of each.
Type of /adiation Communication 6se Limitations of this Technoogy
gamma5rays
+ot used &oo high a 're1uency 'or electronic detection and
processing! &oo penetrating! ?angerous!
:5rays
+ot used &oo high a 're1uency 'or electronic detection and
processing! &oo penetrating! ?angerous!
ultraviolet
Some 're1uencies used in optical 'i,re communications
technology
>t is di''icult to generate ultraviolet light using solid state
electronics
visi,le
Csed in optical 'i,re communication technology @ voice<
music< data< video in'ormation
Cannot ,e used in air ,ecause o' inter'erence created
,y am,ient light< scattering and a,sorption ,y the
atmosphere! >s only line o' sight in air!
Attenuation o' the signal occurs in optical 'i,res due to
a,sorption ,y impurities in the glass!
near5in'rared
Line o' sight only in air! Attenuation o' the signal occurs
in optical 'i,res due to a,sorption ,y impurities in the
glass!
in'rared
Csed ,y hand5held remote control devices
Attenuation o' the signal occurs in optical 'i,res due to
a,sorption ,y impurities in the glass!
>s only line o' sight unless re'lected 'rom o,Dects in a
room
micro-aves
Cellular phone net-orks< -ireless computer net-orks @
voice< music< data< video in'ormation
Line o' sight
&E -aves
&E @ transmission o' audio< video in'ormation
Soon te:t and other data -ill also ,e transmitted using
digital &E
Close to line o' sight only! 9e'lection 'rom o,Dects
resulting in t-o signals can ,e a pro,lem (this causes
ghosting on &E sets)
radio -aves
9adio @ voice and music< some amateur enthusiasts
transmit pictures as -ell!
Some radio -avelengths are re'lected ,y atmospheric
layers and there'ore overcome line o' site limitations o'
shorter -avelengths!
Cannot carry as much in'ormation as higher 're1uency
-aves
Su,Dect to inter'erence in the atmosphere ,y electrical
storms
Electrical power lines are being developed as a medium through which to transmit information, including Internet
access. This technology is currently being tested and implemented in some countries. Data transmitted through this
medium is digitally encoded and the signal is superimposed on the electrical voltage delivering power to homes.
Here is another model representing an electromagnetic wave.
'hysics syabus ()#)9
Syllabus here is the October 2002 Update
/efection
Let us review the two laws of reflection of a ray from a plane surface.
3. The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection from a plane surface
4. The incident and reflected wave propagation directions are in the same plane as the normal to the
reflecting surface. This is illustrated in the following diagram.
Principle of Reversibility
Any path along which a ray of light travels is reversible. In the diagram below, if a ray of light travels from the
ladybird to the mirror to the eye, then rays of light reflected from the eye also travel along the same path, to the
mirror and then to the ladybird. In practice, this is very important in human visual communication. It means that if
we can see someones eyes, then under most circumstances, they can also see ours.
A Philosophical Introduction
In a sense we never see an object. We only ever see an image of the object produced by light being emitted from
the object in the case of a luminous object, or reflected from the object. This light enters the eye and an image of
the object is produced on the retina. This in turn excites nerves sending electrical signals to the brain. The brain
produces a 'mental picture' of the object. Generally the position of the image which we perceive is in the same
position as the object. However the eye and mind are easily deceived. This deception is the principle of all optical
instruments.
If the path of the rays of light travelling from an object is altered in any way we perceive the position of the object
as being at the position from which the rays appear to come. The diagram showing the beetle illustrates this point.
When we see an object reflected in a plane mirror the object always appears to be behind the mirror. We are so
used to the behaviour of mirrors that we take for granted the position of the object - but have you ever watched an
animal with little 'mirror experience' trying to cope with the image it sees in the mirror?
In addition to the mirror producing leftright reversal the following rules also apply to reflection from a plane
mirror.
The image of an object in a plane mirror is the same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front.
A line joining the object to the image is at right angles to the mirror.
The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the mirror are in the one plane.
Try the simple experiment shown using a glass and a coin. It illustrates the how easy it is for our perception of
things around us to be altered if the path of the light coming from those objects has been altered.
#e cannot usually see the path o$ light coming $rom an o%&ect' (ur mind interprets the )isi%le world
around us on the %asis that light always tra)els in straight lines' #hen the situation arises when it
does not* we are o$ten $ooled + the world does not appear to %e quite the way we e,pect'
Before considering how a lens produces an image of an object, it is necessary to understand a little of how the eye
works. We see objects because:
1. They reflect light, which enters the eye.
2. They emit their own light, which enters the eye.
In either case the rays which enter the eye appear to diverge from their source i.e. the object at which we are
looking. This is shown in the following diagram.
-he rays o$ light originating at the point . spread out in e)ery direction $rom the source' .ome o$
these rays enter the eye' /otice that the rays entering the eye are di)erging (mo)ing apart)' -he
human eye0%rain uses this di)ergence o$ the rays to produce an image o$ the o%&ect at the point $rom
which the rays appear to emanate' 1$ we place some o%&ect in %etween the source and the eye which
change the path o$ the light our senses tell us that the o%&ect is in the position $rom which the rays o$
light appear to emanate* e)en i$ it is not really there'
With a plane mirror the rays of light from a particular point on an object continue to diverge after they strike the
mirror surface. To an observer, the image of the object appears to be at the point from which the diverging rays of
light appear to emanate. This is illustrated in the following diagram.
The image produced by a plane mirror can be described as -
a. Virtual (it can only be seen by looking into the mirror)
b. Upright
c. Laterally inverted
d. Same size as the object
e. In the same plane as the object
Point to think about: How tall would a vertical plane mirror have
to be in order to see ALL of one's own image?
All forms of electromagnetic radiation can be reflected, however different materials are required to do this for
different types of radiation. In some applications use is made of curved reflecting surfaces. Such applications
include optical instruments (such as astronomical telescopes, some telephoto camera lenses), radio telescope,
satellite TV antennas, and microwave transmitters and receivers.
The laws of refection always apply. The angle of incidence and the angle of reflection are measured relative to the
normal at the point of reflection. The normal for a circular mirror at any point on the mirrors surface, is a line
passing through that point, and the centre of curvature.
Investigation
Investigate, using a ray box kit, the reflection of light rays of incident on the mirror surfaces, including plane
mirrors and curved mirrors as shown in the following diagrams. [Hint: Draw the normal to the surface at the point
of reflection when analysing the reflections]. Discuss the relationship between a ray and a wave front.
Laws of /efection from a Spherica &irror
In the context of the following discussion, a mirror is any reflecting surface for a particular form of electromagnetic
radiation.
Curved mirrors are capable of producing real images (concave mirrors) or virtual images (convex/concave mirrors
depending on where the object is placed in relation to the mirror). The most common types of curved mirrors in use
are concave mirrors with either a circular or parabolic cross section. Some applications of concave mirrors include
shaving/makeup mirrors, car headlamp reflectors and astronomical reflecting telescopes. Concave reflectors are
used in satellite TV dishes and radio telescopes. These reflect electromagnetic waves, which have wavelengths
longer than light microwaves and radio waves.
The image produced by a reflector depends on the nature of the reflector whether it is plane, concave or convex
and the position of the object producing the rays to be reflected in relation to the reflector. Images are described
as being either real or virtual.
A real image is one that can be projected onto a screen and viewed. Astronomical telescopes produce a real image
which is projected onto an electronic screen similar to that found in a video camera, or onto a photographic film to
produce an image. A real image is the result of rays of light from each point on the object, converging to a
corresponding point on the image. Cameras produce a real image of the scene being photographed.
A virtual image is the result of rays of light from each point on the object, appearing to diverge from a
corresponding point on the objects image. A virtual image can only be seen by looking at the image in the mirror.
Plane mirrors and shaving/makeup mirrors produce virtual images.
Applications of Plane Refectors
Plane mirrors find numerous applications including bathroom mirrors and rear vision mirrors in cars.
Concave Refectors
The following diagram shows the reflection of three rays by a concave mirror.
A particularly important type of concave reflector is the parabolic reflector. Such a reflector has a parabolic cross-
sectional shape and it has the important property that all rays travelling parallel to the principal axis of the parabolic
reflector are reflected to the focus of the parabola.

Rays striking the dishes above are reflected to the antenna at the focus of the dish. This increases the strength of the
signal falling on the antenna.
It also follows from the principal of reversibility that any rays originating at the focus of a parabolic reflector will
be reflected so that they travel away parallel to the principal axis. Parabolic reflectors are used on both transmitting
and receiving antennas. The purpose of the dish on a transmitting antenna is to beam the transmitted energy in a
particular direction so that energy is not wasted sending signals to places where they are of no use. This is
particularly important on satellites, which have a limited energy storage capacity.

Astronomical reflecting telescopes make use of large parabolic mirrors to gather large amounts of light from faint
objects to make them visible. The largest telescopes have mirrors more than 10 metres in diameter.
Question: Compare the light gathering capacity of the human eye with that of a 10 metre reflecting telescope.
Applications of Concave Refectors

Satellite dishes use a concave reflector to reflect and focus the incoming microwaves onto the antenna near the
centre of the dish at the focus. Concave reflectors can also focus the rays of the Sun to produce high temperatures.
Applications of Convex Refectors
Refection from the Ionosphere
/efection of rad io waves
from th eiono sph ere
Convex Mirror
An image of any part of an object is formed by a mirror, or visible in a mirror at the point where two rays
emanating from that point either
converge to if they are convergent rays
appear to diverge from if they are divergent rays
/efraction
When light travels from one transparent medium to another with different optical properties, its speed changes. If
the ray of light meets the boundary at any angle other than the normal, the direction of propagation changes, a
phenomenon called refraction.
This is illustrated in the following photograph showing a ray of light from a ray box striking a transparent
Perspex (acrylic plastic) rectangular prism. Notice that some of the light is reflected at the interface, and some is
transmitted through the prism. The ray of light refracts as it enters the prism, and again as it leaves the prism.
The angle between the incident ray and the normal to the interface (or boundary) is called the angle of incidence ( i)
and the angle between the normal and the refracted ray is called the angle of refraction (r).
The refraction at the point at which the ray enters the prism is towards the normal i.e. the angle of refraction ( r) is
less than the angle of incidence (i). As the ray leaves the prism, it refracts away from the normal and it deviates by
the same angle as it did on entering the prism, but in the opposite direction. The emergent ray thus propagates
parallel to the original incident ray because the sides of the prism are parallel to each other.
The ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum, to the velocity in the medium is called the refractive index of the
medium.
Refractive index has the symbol n.
n =
velocity of light in incident medium
velocity of light in refracted medium
=
v
i
v
r
=
sin(i)
sin(r)
If the medium on the left is a vacuum (or air as a close approximation as far as light is concerned) this becomes
Refractive Index, n =
sin(i)
sin(r)
= =
velocity of light in vacuum
velocity of light in the medium
This relationship indicates that as the angle of incidence is increased, the angle of refraction also increases, but in
such a way that the ratio of the sine ratios of the angles is constant.
fig )I, fig )II, fig )III,
Question 1 he angles of incidence &i' and refraction &r' in figure &*' showing the path of light through a
prism are +,- and ./.+- respectively. 0rom which material, in the following table is the
prism made1 2glass3
Question 2 What angle of incidence would produce and angle of refraction of +,- in this material,
illustrated in fig &**'1 24+.5-3
Question 3 What is the angle of refraction if the angle of incidence is 6,- as shown in figure &***'1 2+7-3
Medium Refractive Index
vacuum 1.0 (definition)
air 1.003
water 1.33
glass 1.5
diamond 2.42
Investigation
perform an investigation and gather information to graph the angle of incidence and
refraction for light encountering a medium change showing the relationship
between these angles
perform a first-hand investigation and gather information to measure the refractive
index of glass or perspex, compare the result with a published value and propose
explanations for any differences
solve problems and analyse information using Snells Law
[syllabus]
Variation of /efracted Ange with Incident Ange
The following table shows data relating to the refraction of light at a plane interface between air (refractive index
1.00) and glass with a refractive index of 1.5.
incident
angle (i)
refracted
angle (r)
sin(i) sin(r)
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
10.000 6.633 0.174 0.116
20.000 13.064 0.342 0.226
30.000 19.099 0.500 0.327
40.000 24.553 0.643 0.416
50.000 29.261 0.766 0.489
60.000 33.080 0.866 0.546
70.000 35.894 0.940 0.586
80.000 37.617 0.985 0.610
90.000 38.197 1.000 0.618
This data is presented in the following graphs. [The table of data has been abbreviated and the data at 5 increments
has been included in the graphs]
This graph shows the non-linear relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction. This graph
shows that as the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction increases at a decreasing rate. No
mathematical relationship can be deduced by simply looking at the shape of this graph. The relationship is
summarised by Snells Law, which can be deduced from the linear relationship in the following graph.
Snells law is expressed in the mathematical form:
sin(i)
sin(r)
=
The constant, n is called the refractive index. It is a constant for any given material, but the value varies from one
material to another.
*ispersion
The amount that light slows down when it enters a medium such as glass from either air or a vacuum depends on
the refractive index of the material.
The change in velocity and hence the amount of refraction which occurs is also dependant on the frequency of the
light. This gives rise to dispersion, and under special conditions the formation of a spectrum. A material in which
the speed of light also depends on its frequency is called a dispersive medium.
Shorter wavelengths (the violet end of the spectrum) are slowed down the most in a dispersive medium.
Consequently violet and blue light are refracted the most, and red light is refracted the least. This property is used
to split light into its spectral components using a prism. This process is called dispersion.
It is sometimes said that in a dispersive medium, the refractive index is wavelength dependent. It is better to say
that the refractive index is frequency dependent, because when ray of light enters a transparent medium and slows
down, the frequency remains the same and the wavelength is reduced. Colour is often related to wavelength of
light, which is fine in a vacuum or in air. In other transparent media however, the wavelength changes significantly
as the waves propagate through the medium. The colour does not change, because it is dependent on the frequency.
Tota Interna /efection
When light travels from one medium to another, it may change velocity. If the angle of incidence is other than zero
(perpendicular to the boundary surface), and the lights velocity changes, then refraction (bending) of the light
occurs. Note that each of the paths in figures IIII are reversible as indicated below.
fig )I, fig )II, fig )III,
fig (IV) fig (V) fig (VI)
In the following diagram, the light in the prism meets the interface at the critical angle i
c
, the angle at which the
refracted ray travels parallel to the interface after refraction.
If the angle of incidence, i, exceeds the critical angle, all of the light will be reflected back into the medium, with
none passing through the interface.
For light travelling from a medium into a vacuum (or air as a close approximation), the critical angle is calculated
from the relationship:
Sin(i
c
) =
1
n
Note that a critical angle only exists when a ray of light is travelling in a medium of higher refractive index when it
meets a boundary with a medium of lower refractive index. This situation commonly applies to light travelling in a
transparent liquid or solid medium when it meets an interface of that medium with air.
The critical angle is also defined for light passing from one transparent medium to another of lower refractive index
(n
1
), in which case, the critical angle is defined as:
sin(i
c
) =
n
1
n
2
[note that the sine ratio must me less than 1 and hence critical angle only has meaning if light is travelling from a
medium of higher to a medium of lower refractive index.
&his is illustrated in the following diagram.
Fuestion Aonsider the case in which a ray of water is traelling in water and it arries at the
surface with an angle of incidence of :7G. &he refractie inde' of water is 5.--. At
what angle will the emergent ray of light trael when it leaes the water@ Hanswer
:;GI
Note that in solving this problem, because the light is travelling initially in the medium the equation relating the
angles of incidence and refraction becomes
sin(i)
sin(r)
=
1
n
where n is the refractive index of the medium.
Question What is the critical angle of diamond (n
diamond
= 2.5) [23.5]
3ibre 0ptics
The phenomenon of total internal reflection is the basis of fibre optics communication. This has arguably
transformed the world as much as the invention of the wheel and the car, or the use of electricity.
The idea of communicating by light was around for a long time, long before fibre optics. It took many years for the
ideas behind fibre optics to evolve from conventional optics. Light travels in straight lines. Even though lenses can
bend light and mirrors can deflect it, light still travels in straight lines between the optical devices. Many inventions
depend on this principle, including telescopes, microscopes and cameras. However, there are times when light is
needed to probe inside corners that are not in straight lines. This problem arose long before the solution was found.
The need to pipe light from place to place, for communicating, viewing, illuminating and other purposes led to the
invention of fibre optics.
What are Optical Fibres?
Optical fibres are fibres of glass, usually about 120 micrometres in diameter, which are used to carry signals in the
form of pulses of light over distances up to 50 km without the need for amplification. These signals may be coded
voice communications or computer data of any type.
%istory
Interest in the use of light as a carrier for information grew in the 1960s with the advent of the laser as a source of
coherent light. Initially the transmission distances were very short, but as manufacturing techniques for very pure
glass were developed in the 1970s, it became feasible to use optical fibres as a practical information transmission
medium. At the same time developments in semiconductor laser light sources and detectors meant that by 1980
worldwide installation of fibre optic communication systems had been achieved.
Advantages
Capacity
Optical fibres carry signals with much less energy loss than copper cable and with a much higher bandwidth. This
means that fibres can carry more channels of information over longer distances and with fewer repeaters required
than is possible using copper wires.
Si:e and Weight
Optical fibre cables are much lighter and thinner than copper cables having the same bandwidth. This means that
much less space is required in underground cabling ducts. Also they are easier for installation engineers to handle.
Security
Optical fibres are much more difficult to tap information from undetected; a great advantage for banks and security
installations. They are immune to electromagnetic interference from radio signals, car ignition systems, lightning
etc. They can be routed safely through explosive or flammable atmospheres, for example, in the petrochemical
industries or munitions sites, without any risk of ignition.
/unning Costs
The main consideration in choosing fibre when installing domestic cable TV networks is the electric bill. Although
copper coaxial cable can handle the bandwidth requirement over the short distances of a housing scheme, a copper
system consumes far greater amounts of electrical energy than fibre, simply to carry the signals.
*isadvantages
'rice
In spite of the fact that the raw material for making optical fibres, sand, is abundant and cheap, optical fibres are
still more expensive per metre than copper. Having said this, one fibre can carry many more signals than a single
copper cable and the large transmission distances mean that fewer expensive repeaters are required.
Specia S!is
Optical fibres cannot be joined (spliced) together as a easily as copper cable and requires additional training of
personnel and the use of expensive precision splicing and measurement equipment
Areas of Application
Teecommunications
Optical fibres are now the standard point-to-point cable link between telephone substations.
Local Area Networks (LANs)
Multimode fibre is commonly used as the backbone to carry signals between the hubs of LANs from where
copper coaxial cable takes the data to the desktop. Fibre links to the desktop, however, are also common.
Cabe TV
As mentioned above domestic cable TV networks use optical fibre because of its very low power consumption.
CCTV
Closed circuit television security systems use optical fibre because of its inherent security, as well as the other
advantages mentioned above.
Basics of Fibre Optics
The structure of a typical optical fibre is shown in the diagram. The concentric layers of an optical fibre include the
light-carrying core, the cladding and the protective buffer.
Core the inner light-carrying component.
Cladding the middle layer, which serves to confine the light to the core. It must have a lower refractive index
than the core.
Buffer the outer layer serving to protect the core and cladding from damage.
Light entering one end of the optical fibre is transmitted along the optical fibre by total internal reflection.
Light rays travel straight lines in any uniform medium. A change in the properties of the medium (e.g. density due
to temperature difference) can reflect or bend (refract) the light rays.
Once the information is digitally encoded, at the transmitting end, the signal is converted from electrical energy to
light energy, and them transmitted along the optical fibre. This information is sent along the fibre as a series of
coded pulses of light. A pulse is either an ON or and OFF state light or no light. At the receiving end, the light is
converted back into digital electrical signals and then decoded if necessary to analogue information.
The transmission of light along optical fibres depends on basic properties of optics, and the interaction of light with
matter.
Light rays travel straight lines between optical elements, which can reflect or bend (refract) them. Light is only a
small part of electromagnetic radiation. The fundamental nature of all electromagnetic radiation is the same. The
difference between radiation in difference parts of the spectrum is a quantity that can be described in terms of the
wavelength of the waves
energy of photons
frequency of oscillation of the electromagnetic fields.
Most optical fibres transmit light in the near infrared light at wavelengths in the range 8001600 nm. The glass
used for most fibres is transparent at these wavelengths. Plastic fibres transmit best at visible wavelengths, but they
are not as transparent at those wavelengths as glass fibres are in the infrared. Special fibres, which are currently in
development, are made of materials other than silica and can transmit light at longer infrared wavelengths. Some
special grade glass can transmit some near ultraviolet light.
Refractive Index and Total Internal Refection in Optical Fibres
The most important optical measurement for any transparent material is its refractive index (n). The refractive
index is the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum to the speed of light in the medium:
n =

where c is the speed of light in vacuum and v

m
is the speed of light in the medium.
The speed of light in a material is always slower than in vacuum, so the refractive index has a value greater than
1.0. Although light travels in straight lines through homogeneous optical materials, light is bent at the surface. This
happens because of the refractive index change at the interface between the media. When the angle of incidence
exceeds a critical value, where the sine of the angle equals 1.0, the light will undergo total internal reflection and be
bounced back into the glass, as shown in the figure below.
The light will thus propagate along the fibre, bouncing from side to side as it does so, being internally reflected
each time.
It is this phenomenon of total internal reflection that keeps light confined in optical fibres and is the basic principle
underlying the operation of an optical fibre.
Optical fibre technology is used extensively as a means of communication including cable TV,
telecommunications, and the transmission of computer data. Optical fibres are also used in a variety of medical
instruments used for visual examination inside the body through a bundle of optical fibres inserted through a small
opening. Medical instruments using optical fibres include endoscopes, arthroscopes and laparoscopes. Minimally
invasive surgery is conducted using optical fibre instruments to see inside the body.
Minimally invasive surgery is conducted using optical fibre instruments to see inside the body. A common example
is the replacement of the anterior cruciate ligament in the knee.

Images showing a normal anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) and a repaired ACL
This part of the anatomy is frequently torn in sports such as netball and football, which involve vigorous twisting
forces on the knees.
Why Fibre Optics?
The fundamental difference between a fibre optic communication system and other types is that signals are
transmitted as light. Conventional electronic communication relies on electrons passing through cables. Microwave
communication relies on microwaves travelling through air or space.
High transmission capacity, and long transmission distance are two major advantages of fibre optics compared with
metal cables. However, different factors can dictate the choice of fibre for other applications.
*****
Physics Syllabus 8.2.5
;'S Assignment
http://www.howstuffworks.com/gps.htm
http://www.trimble.com/gps/howworks/aa_hw1.htm
http://www.redsword.com/gps/apps/index.htm
http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/gpsinfo.html
Due: _________________________
What is the major purpose of the GPS system?
Explain in less than 500 words (plus appropriate diagrams)
how GPS works. You may quote web sources providing the
information is acknowledged (state the URL) and shown as a
quotation
**
.
Your answer must include information about
The orbital period of the satellites
The orbital radius of the satellites
The wavelength electromagnetic waves used by the GPS
system
The role of atomic clocks
Answer the following more general questions
What technological developments do you consider essential to
the development of Global Positioning
Explain what determines the orbital period of a satellite.
Quotations: It is acceptable, and you are encouraged to use short or extended quotations in your assignment.
Severe penalties, including the awarding of zero for the task, may be made for plagiarised information, i.e. quotes
not acknowledged as such. Plagiarism is intellectual dishonesty.
Short quotes can be given in quotation marks as follows:
" Once the GPS receiver has locked on to 3 satellites, it can display your longitude and latitude to about 100 foot
accuracy. If the receiver can see 4 satellites it can also tell you your altitude. With this information you know
exactly where you are"
4
Longer quotes should be indented from the main text as follows:
The Global Positioning System is a constellation of satellites that orbit the earth twice a day,
transmitting precise time and position (latitude, longitude and altitude) information. With a GPS
receiver, users can determine their location anywhere on the Earth. Position and navigation
information is vital to a broad range of professional and personal activities, including hiking, hunting,
camping, boating, surveying, aviation, national defense, vehicle tracking, navigation and more.
The complete system consists of 24 satellites orbiting about 12,000 miles above the Earth, and five
ground stations to monitor and manage the satellite constellation. These satellites provide 24-hour-a-
day coverage for both two-and three-dimensional positioning anywhere on Earth.
The source reference for the quote can appear immediately following, or preferably as a numbered footnote.
http://www.thegpsstore.com/cgi-bin/SoftCart.exe/site/learngps.htm?
L+thegpsstore+uvrq4278+956810104
4
A footnote should be used to state the source of the quotation: e.g. www.
The global positioning satellite system (GPS)
&he 'ollo-ing is a research proDect done ,y Alan Lam (Fear $$ )((() on the goba position sateite system!
What is the Major Purpose of the GPS?
The major purpose of a GPS is to locate your positioning in the global basis, in
reference to longitude and latitude. GPS provides users with accurate information
about their position and velocity, as well as the time, anywhere in the world and in
all weather conditions.
How does GPS work?
GPS satellites travel in circular orbits at an altitude of 20 100 km giving them a
period of 12 hours. The orbits are tilted to the Earths equator by 55 degrees to
ensure coverage of polar regions.
?BS determines location by computing the difference between the time that a signal is
sent and the time it is receied. ?BS satellites carry atomic cloc(s that proide
e'tremely accurate time. &he time information is placed in the codes broadcast by the
satellite so that a receier can continuously determine the time the signal was
broadcast. &he signal contains data that a receier uses to compute the locations of
the satellites and to ma(e other ad>ustments needed for accurate positioning. &he
receier uses the time difference between the
time of signal reception and the broadcast time
to compute the distance! or range! from the
receier to the satellite.
The receiver must account for propagation
delays, or decreases in the signal's speed
caused by the ionosphere and the troposphere.
With information about the ranges to three
satellites and the location of the satellite when
the signal was sent, the receiver can compute
its own three-dimensional position.
An atomic clock synchronized to GPS is required in order to compute ranges from
these three signals. However, by taking a measurement from a fourth satellite, the
receiver avoids the need for an atomic clock. Thus, the receiver uses four satellites to
compute latitude, longitude, altitude, and time.
*eveopment
GPS is available in two basic forms: the standard positioning service (SPS) and the
precise positioning service (PPS). SPS provides a horizontal position that is accurate
to about 100 m. PPS is accurate to about 20 m. For authorised usersnormally the
United States military and its alliesPPS also provides greater resistance to
jamming and immunity to deceptive signals.
Enhanced techniques such as differential GPS (DGPS) and the use of a carrier
frequency processing have been developed for GPS. DGPS employs fixed stations on
the earth as well as satellites and provides a horizontal position accurate to about 3
m. Surveyors pioneered the use of a carrier frequency processing to compute
positions to within about 1 cm. SPS, DGPS, and carrier techniques are accessible to
all users.
The availability of GPS is currently limited by the number and integrity of the
satellites in orbit. Outages due to failed satellites still occur and affect many users
simultaneously. Failures can be detected immediately and users can be notified
within seconds or minutes depending on the users specific situation. Most repairs
are accomplished within one hour. As GPS becomes integrated into critical
operations such as traffic control in the national airspace system, techniques for
monitoring the integrity of GPS on-board and for rapid notification of failures are
being developed and implemented.
As of March 1994, 24 GPS satellites were in operation. Replenishment satellites are
ready for launch, and contracts have been awarded to provide satellites into the 21st
century. GPS applications continue to grow in land, sea, air, and space navigation.
The ability to enhance safety and to decrease fuel consumption will make GPS an
important component of travel in the international airspace system. Airplanes will
use GPS for landing at fogbound airports. Automobiles will use GPS as part of
intelligent transportation systems. Emerging technologies will enable GPS to
determine not only the position of a vehicle but also its altitude.
Sateites
GPS satellites fly in circular orbits at an altitude of 20,100 km and with a period of
12 hours. The orbits are tilted to the earth's equator by 55 degrees to ensure coverage
of polar regions. Powered by solar cells, the satellites continuously orient themselves
to point their solar panels toward the sun and their antennae toward the earth. Each
satellite contains four atomic clocks.
The control segment monitor the GPS satellites and uses measurements collected by
the monitor stations to predict the behavior of each satellite's orbit and clock. The
prediction data is uplinked, or transmitted, to the satellites for transmission to the
users. The control segment also ensures that the GPS satellite orbits and clocks
remain within acceptable limits.
The user segment includes the equipment of the military personnel and civilians who
receive GPS signals. Military GPS user equipment has been integrated into fighters,
bombers, tankers, helicopters, ships, submarines, tanks, jeeps, and soldiers
equipment. In addition to basic navigation activities, military applications of GPS
include target designation, close air support, smart weapons, and rendezvous.
With more than 500 000 GPS receivers, the civilian community has its own large and
diverse user segment. Surveyors use GPS to save time over standard survey methods.
GPS is used by aircraft and ships for en route navigation and for airport or harbor
approaches. GPS tracking systems are used to route and monitor delivery vans and
emergency vehicles. In a method called precision farming, GPS is used to monitor
and control the application of agricultural fertilizer and pesticides. GPS is available
as an in-car navigation aid and is used by hikers and hunters. GPS is also used on the
Space Shuttle. Because the GPS user does not need to communicate with the
satellite, GPS can serve an unlimited number of users.
[source: Research assignment by Alan Lam]
Some useful GPS links
http://www.howstuffworks.com/gps.htm
The above site is a very good outline of GPS operation with links, including
http://www.trimble.com/gps/howworks/aa_hw1.htm
The above site has an excellent detailed explanation of GPS operation
http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/gps.html
The above site is very detailed. Technology is comprehensively explained.
Research Assignment CD and DVD
In this assignment, you will be required to identify data sources, gather and process information from those
secondary sources to identify areas of current research relating to the use of CD and DVD technologies. You are
required to discuss some of the underlying physical principles used in these technologies. In your assignment, you
are required to identify and outline the work of a practising Australian scientist in field related to the application of
this technology.
The following extract from the Physics Syllabus is being addressed by this assignment.
/ st(ent1
.$)! discusses the
validity and
relia,ility o' data
gathered 'rom G
secondary sources
$)!% gather in'ormation 'rom secondary sources ,yB
a) accessing in'ormation 'rom a range o' resources< including popular scienti'ic Dournals<
digital technologies and the >nternet
,) practising e''icient data collection techni1ues to identi'y use'ul in'ormation in secondary
sources
c) e:tracting in'ormation 'rom numerical data in graphs and ta,les as -ell as 'rom -ritten
and spoken material in all its 'orms
d) summarising and collating in'ormation 'rom a range o' resources
e) identi'ying practising male and 'emale Australian scientists< the areas in -hich they are
currently -orking and in'ormation a,out their research
$)!7 process in'ormation toB
d) evaluate the validity o' G secondary in'ormation and data in relation to the area o'
investigation
e) assess the relia,ility o' G secondary in'ormation and data ,y considering in'ormation 'rom
various sources
/ st(ent1
.$%! identi'ies
appropriate
terminology and
reporting styles to
communicate
in'ormation and
understanding in
physics
St(ents1
$%!$ present in'ormation ,yB
a) selecting and using appropriate te:t types or com,inations thereo'< 'or oral and -ritten
presentations
,) selecting and using appropriate media to present data and in'ormation
c) selecting and using appropriate methods to ackno-ledge sources o' in'ormation
e) using a variety o' pictorial representations to sho- relationships and present in'ormation
clearly and succinctly
') selecting and dra-ing appropriate graphs to convey in'ormation and relationships clearly
and accurately
Physic Research Task
he dot points are from the physics syllabus.
here are two words, 8identify9 and 8discuss9 from the :"! glossary.
8*dentify9 is defined by the :"! in the conte%t of physics as 8recognise and name9.
8(iscuss9 means to 8*dentify issues and provide points for and;or against9
Your task
*nvestigate either
<( ; (=( technology
he global positioning system &>?!'
"utline the development and use of the technology chosen.
(iscuss the underlying physical principles used by the technology.
!uggested length of report)
"utline @ about /,, words plus appropriate diagrams.
(iscussion about 4,, words plus appropriate diagrams.
!ources of diagrams must be cited
/
.
*t is acceptable to quote information from te%ts or the internet, however any sections used verbatim must
be put in quotation marks, and the source referenced with a footnote
5
.
Aou must cite your sources for all information. .,B will be deducted if this is not doneC
Dand in your report on A+ paper with your name on each sheet.
(o not place the report in a plastic folder or sleeve.
(ate due) EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE
5
If from a book, state TITLE, AUTHOR, PUBLISHER and YEAR OF PUBLICATION. If from an internet site,
state the URL, and if possible, the AUTHOR. Use internet sources of which, to your best judgement, are reliable
ones.
6
Fearn how to use footnotes on your word processor of choice. *t is usually very easy.
Appendix 1
Frequency vs Wavelength of a Wave
The new New South Wales Physics syllabus requires that students gain first hand experience in the use of
electronic data logging equipment. The following notes place an emphasis on this background, however the general
principles are widely applicable. Specifically, the stage 6 Physics syllabus states;
12.2 (a) using appropriate data collection techniques, employing appropriate
technologies, including data loggers and sensors
[Reference: Section 8.1 Physics Skills]
The module The World Communicates requires that students perform a first-hand investigation to gather
information about the frequency, amplitude and velocity of waves using an oscilloscope and electronic data-
logging equipment and plan, choose equipment for and perform a first-hand investigation to gather information
to identify the relationship between frequency and wavelength of a wave
[Reference: Section 8.2 The World Communicates]
Hand held data logging e"uipment such as the &e'as Instruments Aalculator Based *aboratory )AB*, can
be used with the &I-.-+ calculator and a microphone probe to efficiently meet these syllabus re"uirements!
and to immerse students in a meaningful learning e'perience.
&he aboe photograph shows the &e'as Instruments graphics calculator and AB* with the microphone
probe attached. &he graph isible on the calculator screen was obtained with the microphone and shows the
record of the sound produced by a tuning for(. &he microphone is ery sensitie! as this record shows.
&he &e'as Instruments AB* and graphics calculator proides students with a coneniently portable system
of data logging which is simple to use and which can be used for a wide ariety of e'periments across the
science curriculum. &he system has the adantage of using the same software to ac"uire data from a whole
range of sensors! so that once students hae used the e"uipment >ust once! they hae the s(ills necessary to
carry out a large number of other inestigations.
&he use of this e"uipment engages students in the process of data ac"uisition which scientists themseles
might use. &he classroom anecdote seres to illustrate how this e"uipment can be used to help student
achiee a range of s(ills based outcomes. &hese are discussed in detail in the appendi'.
&he calculator software used by my students in this inestigation is called <Bhysics= )naturally enoughJ,.
&his is an e'cellent program written by 1ernierK for the &I programmable calculators. &his software can
coneniently be left on the calculator for the entire physics course. Brogramming s(ills are not re"uired by
the students or the teacher. &he entire data gathering process is menu drien L that is! students select the
desired option from a numbered list simply by pressing the appropriate number on the calculator (eyboard.
&he se"uence of screens through which the student naigates is shown below. Since it ta(es less than -7
seconds to go through these steps! een when mista(es happen! it is "uic( and easy to repeat the whole
process. &he following se"uence of images shows the successie screens displays of the graphics calculator
as this process is e'ecutedMnine (eystro(es were re"uired to ac"uire the dataJ
5 : - N
3 6 ; .
8 57 55
In this inestigation! students were re"uired to measure the length of a ibrating guitar string at each of the
frets on one string! and to use the data logger to gather data permitting the fre"uency to be determined.
&he guitar! with the string lengths that were measured! is shown in the following photograph. &he lowest E
string was used! beginning with the string open! that is the whole length of the string was ibrating. &he
string was then successiely shortened by pressing the string down on the appropriate frets.
&he following photograph shows the microphone sensor in position! along with the AB* and &I-.-+
calculator.
&he graphics calculator displays the waeform of the sound produced by the ibrating guitar string as
shown in the preceding calculator screen grabs. H&hese were coneniently obtained using the &I ?raphlin(
cable and software L ersions are aailable for $acintosh and BA computers,
Although it is possible to coneniently transfer this data to a computer using the &I ?raphlin( cable to
connect the computer and calculator! this was not necessary in this inestigation. &he self-contained nature
of hand held data loggers is one of the adantages offered oer data loggers which tie up computers which
can be used more effectiely elsewhere.
It is possible to determine alues of indiidual data points on the graph simply by moing a crosshair along
the graph with the cursor control (eys on the calculator. &wo such points are shown in the following screen
grabs from the calculator.
&he difference in the times indicated )O-alues, in the two screen grabs is thus twice the period of the
stringDs ibration. &his alue is 7.75-;.:N seconds! giing a fre"uency of ;:.6 H/ for the open E string.
)&he guitar was not tuned to the correct true pitch,.
Alearly some sub>ectie >udgement is re"uired in determining these points. &he benefits of using two or
more waelengths! and determining an aerage alue for the period was a significant concept deeloped
with the studentsD in discussing the gathering and interpretation of the data.
&he period of the stringDs motion was determined and students too( turns in calculating the fre"uency from
this data. As the data was gathered! other students were also entering the results! waelength and fre"uency
into the 1ernierP ?raphical AnalysisP program running on a computer in the laboratory.
The *ata
The following table shows some sample data.
String Length Wavelength Frequency f * l 1/wavelength
0.649 1.298 85.36 110.80 0.77
0.612 1.224 88.99 108.92 0.817
0.577 1.154 91.48 105.57 0.867
0.545 1.09 95.37 103.96 0.917
0.514 1.028 101.58 104.42 0.973
0.495 0.99 109.47 108.38 1.01
0.458 0.916 115.91 106.17 1.092
0.432 0.864 121.48 104.96 1.157
0.408 0.816 127.28 103.86 1.225
0.384 0.768 135.34 103.94 1.302
0.363 0.726 146.43 106.31 1.377
0.342 0.684 158.09 108.14 1.462
0.323 0.646 167.31 108.08 1.548
Anaysis of the *ata
The graphical analysis software, Graphical Analysis 2.0 that we used allows the data to be graphed very easily
simply by dragging the appropriate spreadsheet column heading onto the desired axis of the graph. I chose to use
this software because it is much simpler to use for graphing results than spreadsheet programs such as Microsoft
Excel. The resulting wavelength versus frequency relationship is shown in the following graph. The curve is
fitted using the programs built in capacity, specifying an inverse mathematical model.
frequency (Hz)
The Graphical Analysis software was then used to create a new column of data, the reciprocal of the frequency.
Considerable classroom discussion was needed at this stage to ensure that students understood that it could not be
assumed that the above graph was hyperbolic additionally, many students did not recall the mathematical
knowledge dealing with this. This was a conceptual problem requiring resolution in the analysis process.
The resulting graph was as follows.
frequency (Hz)
This graph clearly shows the inversely proportional relationship between frequency and wavelength.
A number of features relating to the production of sound by the guitar are worth noting, including the following;
The strings vary in thickness. This difference is measured quantitatively as the mass per unit length (kg/m).
One string was chosen for this experiment, so that this variable was kept constant.
The strings are also under different tensions. Tensions are measured in force units newtons (N). The use of
one string only served to keep this variable constant in the experiment.
When a string is plucked, it vibrates and the vibration is a transverse wave motion of the string.
As the string vibrates, energy is transferred to the body of the guitar, and this larger surface area vibrates the
surrounding air creating a longitudinal sound wave.
The transverse wave in the string and the longitudinal wave in the air have the same frequency.
The speed of the wave along the string is different from the speed of the sound in air. The speed of a wave in a
medium depends on the properties of the medium such as tension and mass per unit of length (in a string) and
in the case of gases, temperature and the molecular nature of the gas. Sound travels faster in helium than in
nitrogen.
2hile the students commenced their formal report on the e'periment! the teacher may hae time to print the
graphs of the results and photocopy them in a few minutes so that all members of the class had hard copies
of the graphs to include in their reports.
<eyond This Investigation
It is possible to use this same data logging equipment to investigate the principal of superposition of waves. This is
a convenient viable alternative to using a cathode ray oscilloscope for this purpose. But that is another story. It is
also possible to examine the absorption and transmission characteristics of different materials. This was
successfully carried out by another class with their physics teacher.
&eeting Syabus /e.uirements
Reflecting on the new NSW Physics syllabus and this experiment, many of the requirements were met in a
stimulating and fun manner for the students. Consider the following list from the syllabus table 8.1
.tudents"
Met 2omments
11.1 identify data sources to:
(a) analyse complex problems to determine appropriate
ways in which each aspect may be researched
The investigation was to determine a
frequency-wavelength relationship.
Neither variable could be directly
measured.
(b) determine the type of data that needs to be collected and
explain the qualitative or quantitative analysis that will
be required for this data to be useful
Measure length of string to
calculate the wavelength of the
wave in the string.
Gather waveform data to find
wave period.
(c) identify the orders of magnitude that will be appropriate and
the uncertainty that may be present in the measurement
of data
Estimates of the possible errors in
measuring the length of vibrating
string and the period from the
waveform shown on the Texas
Instruments graphics calculator.
(d) identify and use correct units for data that will be
collected
Length in metres
Period in seconds, frequency in hertz
(e) recommend the use of an appropriate technology or
strategy for data collection or information gathering that
will assist efficient future analysis
Students had previously used the
Texas Instruments graphics
calculator and CBL data logger
quickly recognised the benefits of
rapid and simple data acquisition
with this technology
11.2 plan first-hand investigations to:
(a) demonstrate the use of the terms dependent and
independent to describe variables involved in the
investigation
Independent vibrating string length
(varied by pressing string onto
successive frets)
Dependent period and hence
frequency
(b) identify variables that need to be kept constant, develop
strategies to ensure that these variables are kept
constant, and demonstrate the use of a control
Tension in the string frequency
increases with increasing tension
Mass/unit length of string (same
string used throughout the
experiment)
(c) design investigations that allow valid and reliable data
and information to be collected
Students discussed the
appropriateness and convenience of
the hand-held data logging approach.
The positioning of the microphone
was quite important, as was how hard
the string was plucked.
(d) describe and trial procedures to undertake investigations
and explain why a procedure, a sequence of procedures
or the repetition of procedures is appropriate
Occasionally, unusual data were
recorded. The ease with which
electronic data logging allows the
measurements to be repeated and
checked is an advantage.
(e) predict possible issues that may arise during the course
of an investigation and identify strategies to address
these issues if necessary
11.3 choose equipment or resources by:
(a) identifying and/or setting up the most appropriate
equipment or combination of equipment needed to
undertake the investigation
Since students had already used this

equipment to measure the speed of
sound, it was a natural and simple
extension to use it for this
experiment.
(b) carrying out a risk assessment of intended experimental
procedures and identifying and addressing potential
hazards
(c) identifying technology that could be used during
investigations and determining its suitability and
effectiveness for its potential role in the procedure or
investigation
A comparison of the use of an

oscilloscope with the hand-held
approach was instructive.
(d) recognising the difference between destructive and non-
destructive testing of material and analysing potentially
different results from these two procedures
12.1 perform first-hand investigations by:
(a) carrying out the planned procedure, recognising where
and when modifications are needed and analysing the
effect of these adjustments
Students had to realise that the

wavelength was twice the length of
the vibrating string and the frequency
had to be calculated from the period
deduced from the waveform data.
(b) efficiently undertaking the planned procedure to
minimise hazards and wastage of resources
(c) disposing carefully and safely of any waste materials
produced during the investigation
(d) identifying and using safe work practices during
investigations
12.2 gather first-hand information by:
(a) using appropriate data collection techniques, employing
appropriate technologies, including data loggers and
sensors
The achievement of this outcome is

self-evident.
(b) measuring, observing and recording results in accessible
and recognisable forms, carrying out repeat trials as
appropriate
Repetition was used. The relationship

between pressure variations of a
longitudinal wave sound and the
transverse wave on the seen on the
graphics calculator affords an
excellent opportunity to discuss
different ways of viewing data.
12.3 gather information from secondary sources by:
(a) accessing information from a range of resources,
including popular scientific journals, digital
technologies and the Internet
The achievement of this outcome is

self-evident.
(b) practising efficient data collection techniques to identify
useful information in secondary sources
(c) extracting information from numerical data in graphs
and tables as well as from written and spoken material
in all its forms
The determination of the period of

oscillation from the acquired data,
and the subsequent calculation of
frequency from this was an important
conceptual step in this experiment.
(d) summarising and collating information from a range of
resources
(e) identifying practising male and female Australian
scientists, the areas in which they are currently working
and information about their research
12.4 process information to:
(a) assess the accuracy of any measurements and
calculations and the relative importance of the data and
information gathered
Comparison of the measured

frequency with that predicted by the
mathematical model for the
frequency of notes on the musical
scale was a useful check on the order
of magnitude of the results.
(b) identify and apply appropriate mathematical formulae
and concepts
Inverse proportionality was the

important mathematical concept
developed.
(c) best illustrate trends and patterns by selecting and using
appropriate methods, including computer assisted
analysis
Computer analysis was simple using
the software designed specifically for
the TI-graphing calculators.
(d) evaluate the validity of first-hand and secondary
information and data in relation to the area of
investigation
See comment above relating to

12.4(a)
(e) assess the reliability of first-hand and secondary
information and data by considering information from
various sources
See comment above relating to

12.4(a)
(f) assess the accuracy of scientific information presented
in mass media by comparison with similar information
presented in scientific journals
13.1 present information by:
(a) selecting and using appropriate text types or
combinations thereof, for oral and written presentations
Consideration of this is an essential

part of the formal reporting process.
(b) selecting and using appropriate media to present data
and information
Data was presented primarily in

graphical form, on both the calculator
and on a computer.
(c) selecting and using appropriate methods to acknowledge
sources of information
(d) using symbols and formulae to express relationships and
using appropriate units for physical quantities
F 1/ was examined successfully.

(e) using a variety of pictorial representations to show
relationships and present information clearly and
succinctly
(f) selecting and drawing appropriate graphs to convey
information and relationships clearly and accurately
(g) identifying situations where use of a curve of best fit is
appropriate to present graphical information
14.1 analyse information to:
(a) identify trends, patterns and relationships as well as
contradictions in data and information
The need to change the graphed

quantities (f vs 1/) was an important
aspect of the analysis.
(b) justify inferences and conclusions Done in the light of graphical
analysis.
(c) identify and explain how data supports or refutes an
hypothesis, a prediction or a proposed solution to a
problem
(d) predict outcomes and generate plausible explanations
related to the observations
(e) make and justify generalisations
(f) use models, including mathematical ones, to explain
phenomena and/or make predictions
v = f
(g) use cause and effect relationships to explain phenomena
(h) identify examples of the interconnectedness of ideas or
scientific principles
14.2 solve problems by:
(a) identifying and explaining the nature of a problem
(b) describing and selecting from different strategies, those
which could be used to solve a problem
Experimental design modification

took place as the investigation
proceeded.
(c) using identified strategies to develop a range of possible
solutions to a particular problem
(d) evaluating the appropriateness of different strategies for
solving an identified problem
Comparison of hand-held digital

technology with the alternative of
using an oscilloscope.
14.3 use available evidence to:
(a) design and produce creative solutions to problems
(b) propose ideas that demonstrate coherence and logical
progression and include correct use of scientific
principles and ideas
(c) apply critical thinking in the consideration of
predictions, hypotheses and the results of investigations
(d) formulate cause and effect relationships
Return
Appendix 2
The purpose of this article is to explore some issues relating to learning processes and practical work. Whilst this
discussion is drawn from my classes investigations of sound waves as required by the new HSC Physics syllabus,
the principles are universally applicable across other science disciplines as well as to junior science.
The experimental problem involved measuring the speed of sound. This was first carried out using a starting gun
and stopwatches. This process took about 70 minutes. A high-tech version of the experiment was subsequently
done using a Texas Instruments data logger. This took less than 2 minutes, and produced far more accurate results.
The effective use of technology enhances students' understanding and more time is spent discussing the physics
rather than gather the data.
A comparison of the two methods and the contribution each made to both students learning and meeting the
requirements of a new syllabus are explored in this article.
The process will be discussed under the following headings.
Setting the Problem
Discussing the Possible Solutions
Gathering the Data
Analysing the Results
Reflecting on the Analysis
Further Explorations Data Logging
Extensions to Other Syllabus Requirements
Setting the 'robem
The syllabus requires students to perform a first-hand
investigation to gather information about the frequency,
amplitude and velocity of waves using an oscilloscope and
electronic data-logging equipment (8.2.1) As will be seen in this
paper, several other outcomes were met whilst carrying out this
investigation.
As a pre-lab task, I set the students the problem of designing an
experiment to measure the speed of sound. They were told only
that a stopwatch had to be used to gather some of the data
required. The underlying principle was simple measure the time
taken for sound to travel a set distance and use the time-distance
data to calculate the speed.
Students were given two days to think about the problem, and to
write a concise description of exactly how the experiment would be carried out detailing what tasks would be
done by the different group members. Many variations were suggested, but a discussion of the students plans in
the class narrowed these to two distinct approaches. Both made use of a starting gun to produce the sound
although one student suggested, seriously I think, that a shot-gun be used!
1. Have the person with the starting gun stand about !! m from a group of people
with stopwatches who would watch for the smo"e of the gun and start the watch at this
time, and then stop the watches when they heard the sound. #t was also suggested that the
person with the starting gun fire if at "nown intervals so that the time measurers would be
ready, and several sets of results could be recorded.
2. $ive the person with the starting gun a stopwatch, and coordinate the starting of
his%her stopwatch with the starting of the other watches used to measure the time ta"en for
sound to travel a measured distance. The starting gun would then be fired e&actly on each
minute from a set distance and the people with the stopwatches would use the lap button to
measure the time at which the sound reached them.
The use of the lap button meant that the watch could be kept running and several sets of results recorded.
i.e. the starting gun would be fired at 5 minutes, and the stopwatches would record the lap time as 5 minutes
1.69 seconds and so on at the 6
th
, 7
th
and subsequent minutes.
*iscussing the 'ossibe Soutions
Most students identified the need to take as many readings as possible in order to obtain an average, suggesting that
they expected variation in the times recorded. A discussion of this point developed the idea that this is only valid if
the measurements are subject to random variations. Because of human reaction time, there is a systematic error,
which affects the results. This is explored later in this article.
Also implicit, and recognised by most students, was the fact that the velocity of light, allowing the smoke of the
gun to be seen, is very much greater that the sound velocity being investigated. This fact was discussed by the
group in the context of the delay between lightning and thunder, and seeing the smoke from a starting gun and
hearing the sound. We had just had a swimming carnival so the latter was a recent observation for most of the class
members.
It was decided to use the second method, because it meant that no communication was needed between the starting
gun operator and the people measuring the times. This was thought desirable in case the gun misfired or there was
some other problem. The experiment could go on, just ignoring the results at the minute when the problem
occurred. The students tried using cheap two-way radios to communicate, but they would not transmit over the
range chosen for the experiment.
The range to be measured out was discussed by the class. Short distances would permit easy communication
between the person firing the starting gun and the stopwatch operators, however longer distances would ensure that
random errors would less significant if the times being measured were greater. Eventually a distance of 400 m was
decided upon.
This distance was measured out in a straight line using a trundle wheel and by cross-checking the distance against
that indicated by a Global Positioning Satellite unit (no, our science department does not own one it was
borrowed!) mentioned in the NSW Physics syllabus, section 8.2.5. The intentional error incorporated into signals
sent to the GPS unit demonstrated to students that a high-tech approach does not necessarily mean greater accuracy.
The GPS unit produced distance readings ranging from 460 to 530 metres while the experiment was being carried
out.
;athering the *ata
The students organised themselves to carry out all the required tasks, measuring distances, operating the starting
gun (following proper training with due regard to safety issues, especially hearing protection), measuring times and
making a record of the results.
Part of the results:
Time of Firing
(minutes)
Time for Sound to Reach Timers (seconds)
6 1.86, 1.68, 1.73, 1.64, 1.68
7 1.64, 1.79, 1.94
8 1.78, 1.70, 1.70, 1.83
Average of all of the above times
1.7475 s
The number of results for each minute varied because some students missed hearing or responding to the sound of
the starting gun. More results were obtained, however those shown above are sufficient to illustrate an interesting
aspect of the students analyses.
Anaysing the /esuts
The velocity of sound was to be calculated from v = s/t. This seemed like the simplest step in the process.
I did not suspect that this would present too many students with difficulty. However the students values for the
velocity of sound fell into two groups. (Well three, some just got the maths wrong!)
Some students obtained a value of 229 ms
1
and others obtained 228 ms
1
.
/efecting on the Anaysis
An investigation of their analysis lead to the following realisation on my part.
Some students had taken the average of all the 12 times (1.7475 seconds) and used this to obtain the 229 ms
1
figure.
Other students had averaged each set of results and then taken an average of those three figures as shown below.
The use of this figure in the calculations produced the result of 228 ms
1
. Explaining the difference, and the correct
analysis, to the students was not a simple exercise!
Results Summary
Time of Firing
(minutes)
Average
(s)
6 1.718
7 1.790
8 1.7525
1.7535
Two classes conducted this experiment independently and both obtained values for the speed of sound in air which
is well below the accepted value*.
[* This is 331+0.59T ms
1
, where T = temperature in C.]
On the day the speed should have been around 349 ms
1
.
Many students dismissed this significant difference as human error (my most hated phrase in physics practical
reports, because it is vague and shows no real understanding of the error sources).
Some students identified reaction time as the source of the difference, but none went on to explain how this could
account for the experimental velocity value being too small.
It was discussed how a slow response in stopping the watch on hearing the sound would result in a time which was
too large and hence a velocity which was too small. This was a good opportunity to discuss the effect of a
systematic error on experimental results.
Another common error in students discussions was the statement that the times were incorrect due to human
reflex time. It was necessary to clarify the difference between this involuntary response to a stimulus and the
purely voluntary action of using a stopwatch.
The students were then questioned on how to modify the experiment so that the systematic error could be
eliminated. Suggestions put forward included:
1. Have the timers start the watch on seeing the smoke and stop it on hearing the sound (one of the original
suggestions). The argument put forward being that if the same reaction time happened in response to both
stimuli, the consistent delay in both responses would make the time recorded the true time for the sound to
reach the observer.
2. Have groups time the sound when it reached say 200 m then 400 m. Subtracting the two times, which would
both include a reaction component, would give the actual sound travel time.
3. Use an electronic timing device with a very fast response time to stop the watch.
The last alternative lead on to the next part of this experiment, which related well to the syllabus requirement to use
electronic data logging techniques in the physics course [NSW Physics syllabus reference P12.2(a)].
3urther E=porations *ata Logging
In the next class the following technique was used to determine the speed of sound. A 2 m length of 80 mm
diameter PVC pipe was sealed at one end with a plastic lid. A Texas Instruments data logger, consisting of a
graphics calculator, CBL (calculator based laboratory) and a microphone sensor was set up as follows.
The above diagram is from an excellent book published by Vernier
which details 34 experiments which can be

carried out using a wide range of sensors in conjunction with the Texas Instruments data loggers.
Time (s)
A short, sharp sound worked best, the microphone at the end of the tube detecting the sound as it entered the PVC
pipe and then detecting the echo. The microphone-data logger produces a graph of the sound level at the
microphone vs time.
In accordance with the syllabus! a short digression into the energy transformations inoled in this process
is appropriate. Another conceptual problem needing to be discussed is the representation of sound waes!
which are longitudinal! as transerse wae patterns. &his is especially important in relation to the analysis
of sound using an oscilloscope. A &e'as Instruments data logger with a microphone input is ideal for
inestigating many properties of sound L but that is a matter for another storyJ
The graph shows the record obtained by the data logger.
Although in class, students worked directly with the graphical
results displayed on the TI-83+ calculator, the results were
transferred to a computer to print copies for the students
reports.
As a classroom management strategy, the transfer of data to
computer, and the printing of the graph for students was done
by the teacher while they were writing their lab report in
class. This took just a few minutes using the excellent
Vernier software, Graphical Analysis 2.0
, - available for
both PC and Macintosh computers. Graphical Analysis 2.0
allows data to be transferred from the TI calculator to a

computer for analysis. The software is very simple to use and
has some powerful features. It can be also used to manually
enter data in a built-in spreadsheet for exceptionally easy
graphing and analysis.
Since the class was able to carry this experiment out in a
couple of minutes, plenty of time remained in the lesson to
commence an investigation using into the relationship
between wavelength and frequency (NSW Physics syllabus
reference 8.2.1) using a guitar and the Texas Instruments data logger and microphone sensor. But that is another
success story. Get into data logging to bring physics into the 21
st
century!
&eeting Syabus /e.uirements
Reflecting on the new NSW Physics syllabus and this experiment, many of the requirements were met in a
stimulating and fun manner for the students. Consider the following list from the syllabus table 8.1
Students>
Met? Comments
$$!$ identi'y data sources toB
(a) analyse comple: pro,lems to determine appropriate -ays in -hich
each aspect may ,e researched
(,) determine the type o' data that needs to ,e collected and e:plain the
1ualitative or 1uantitative analysis that -ill ,e re1uired 'or this data to
,e use'ul
Measurement of distances and times
Application of v = s/t
(c) identi'y the orders o' magnitude that -ill ,e appropriate and the
uncertainty that may ,e present in the measurement o' data
Significant variations in speed of sound
arose due to variability of human reaction
time in using stopwatches. It is an
interesting exercise to devise an experiment
to measure the reaction time.
(d) identi'y and use correct units 'or data that -ill ,e collected Quantities encountered distance (m) and
time (s) and velocity (ms
1
).
(e) recommend the use o' an appropriate technology or strategy 'or data
collection or in'ormation gathering that -ill assist e''icient 'uture
analysis
Two versions of the experiment allowed not
only selection, but comparison of different
technologies and strategies.
$$!) plan 'irst5hand investigations toB
(a) demonstrate the use o' the terms HdependentI and HindependentI to
descri,e varia,les involved in the investigation
Distance is the independent variable, and
time the dependent variable when using the
starting gun/stopwatch strategy
(,) identi'y varia,les that need to ,e kept constant< develop strategies to
ensure that these varia,les are kept constant< and demonstrate the
use o' a control
In the data logging approach, the length of
tube was a constant variable, as was the
position of the microphone at the end of the
tube.
(c) design investigations that allo- valid and relia,le data and
in'ormation to ,e collected
Possible sources of error were identified in
both the planning and analysis stages.
(d) descri,e and trial procedures to undertake investigations and e:plain
-hy a procedure< a se1uence o' procedures or the repetition o'
procedures is appropriate
The modification of the students' individual
plans on the basis of class discussion was a
significant part of the process. The correct
sequence of events was essential.
(e) predict possi,le issues that may arise during the course o' an
investigation and identi'y strategies to address these issues i'
necessary
e.g. misfiring of the gun, mistiming
$$!% choose e1uipment or resources ,yB
(a) identi'ying andAor setting up the most appropriate e1uipment or
com,ination o' e1uipment needed to undertake the investigation
Two approaches once again permitted a
comparison of equipment needs and a
discussion of what was most appropriate.
(,) carrying out a risk assessment o' intended e:perimental procedures
and identi'ying and addressing potential ha3ards
Hearing protection essential with starting
gun
Safe handling of starting caps
(c) identi'ying technology that could ,e used during investigations and
determining its suita,ility and e''ectiveness 'or its potential role in the
procedure or investigation
The role of technology in the data logging
approach in eliminating the problem of
human reaction time was a significant
aspect of the investigation.
(d) recognising the di''erence ,et-een destructive and non5destructive
testing o' material and analysing potentially di''erent results 'rom
these t-o procedures
$)!$ per'orm 'irst5hand investigations ,yB
(a) carrying out the planned procedure< recognising -here and -hen
modi'ications are needed and analysing the e''ect o' these
adDustments
In the data logging approach, a variety of

sound sources were experimented with - a
simple clap of the hands proving most
effective.
(,) e''iciently undertaking the planned procedure to minimise ha3ards
and -astage o' resources

Safety issues relating to the starting gun
were paramount in the planning
(c) disposing care'ully and sa'ely o' any -aste materials produced
during the investigation
(d) identi'ying and using sa'e -ork practices during investigations
Safety issues again!
$)!) gather 'irst5hand in'ormation ,yB
(a) using appropriate data collection techni1ues< employing appropriate
technologies< including data loggers and sensors

The use of data logging technology directly
met this requirement.
(,) measuring< o,serving and recording results in accessi,le and
recognisa,le 'orms< carrying out repeat trials as appropriate

Repetition of the experiment was a planned
part of the investigation.
$)!% gather in'ormation 'rom secondary sources ,yB
(a) accessing in'ormation 'rom a range o' resources< including popular
scienti'ic Dournals< digital technologies and the >nternet
Finding out the accepted value of the speed

of sound and its variation with temperature
(,) practising e''icient data collection techni1ues to identi'y use'ul
in'ormation in secondary sources
(c) e:tracting in'ormation 'rom numerical data in graphs and ta,les as
-ell as 'rom -ritten and spoken material in all its 'orms

Collected data was tabulated, averages
found, systematic errors identified and
appropriate rounding of results carried out.
(d) summarising and collating in'ormation 'rom a range o' resources
(e) identi'ying practising male and 'emale Australian scientists< the areas
in -hich they are currently -orking and in'ormation a,out their
research
$)!7 process in'ormation toB
(a) assess the accuracy o' any measurements and calculations and the
relative importance o' the data and in'ormation gathered

Rounding of results to appropriate number
of significant figures.
(,) identi'y and apply appropriate mathematical 'ormulae and concepts
Use of v = s/t
(c) ,est illustrate trends and patterns ,y selecting and using appropriate
methods< including computer assisted analysis
(d) evaluate the validity o' 'irst5hand and secondary in'ormation and data
in relation to the area o' investigation
References were checked to ascertain the

accepted value of the speed of sound and
the effect of temperature on this variable.
(e) assess the relia,ility o' 'irst5hand and secondary in'ormation and
data ,y considering in'ormation 'rom various sources

See above.
(') assess the accuracy o' scienti'ic in'ormation presented in mass
media ,y comparison -ith similar in'ormation presented in scienti'ic
Dournals
$%!$ present in'ormation ,yB
(a) selecting and using appropriate te:t types or com,inations thereo'<
'or oral and -ritten presentations

Formal reporting of the investigation was
required.
(,) selecting and using appropriate media to present data and
in'ormation

Pencil and paper, as well as electronic and
computer based presentation of data.
(c) selecting and using appropriate methods to ackno-ledge sources o'
in'ormation
(d) using sym,ols and 'ormulae to e:press relationships and using
appropriate units 'or physical 1uantities

v = s/t
(e) using a variety o' pictorial representations to sho- relationships and
present in'ormation clearly and succinctly
(') selecting and dra-ing appropriate graphs to convey in'ormation and
relationships clearly and accurately
(g) identi'ying situations -here use o' a curve o' ,est 'it is appropriate to
present graphical in'ormation
$7!$ analyse in'ormation toB
(a) identi'y trends< patterns and relationships as -ell as contradictions in
data and in'ormation

NOT YET COMPLETED!
(,) Dusti'y in'erences and conclusions
(c) identi'y and e:plain ho- data supports or re'utes an hypothesis< a
prediction or a proposed solution to a pro,lem
(d) predict outcomes and generate plausi,le e:planations related to the
o,servations
(e) make and Dusti'y generalisations
Discussion of the validity of results in the
light of other variables such as temperature
is an area to be explored here.
(') use models< including mathematical ones< to e:plain phenomena
andAor make predictions

(g) use cause and e''ect relationships to e:plain phenomena
(h) identi'y e:amples o' the interconnectedness o' ideas or scienti'ic
principles
$7!) solve pro,lems ,yB
(a) identi'ying and e:plaining the nature o' a pro,lem
The original problem solving/experimental
design task is a significant part of the
process
(,) descri,ing and selecting 'rom di''erent strategies< those -hich could
,e used to solve a pro,lem

Students initially devised different methods
of finding the speed of sound. The class
discussion of the merits of each and the
selection of a final approach is an important
part of this learning experience.
(c) using identi'ied strategies to develop a range o' possi,le solutions to
a particular pro,lem

The subsequent use of data logging
technology and the elimination of human
reaction time as a variable was a significant
part of this investigation.
(d) evaluating the appropriateness o' di''erent strategies 'or solving an
identi'ied pro,lem

This occurs both when the students first
compare their different approaches to
measuring the speed of sound, and again
when comparing the data logging approach
with the stopwatch based approach.
$7!% use availa,le evidence toB
(a) design and produce creative solutions to pro,lems
The initial problem given to students was
open-ended. Open-ended problems play an
important role of the learning process.
(,) propose ideas that demonstrate coherence and logical progression and
include correct use o' scienti'ic principles and ideas
(c) apply critical thinking in the consideration o' predictions< hypotheses
and the results o' investigations

The systematic effect of reaction time on
the results using the stopwatch based
approach and the elimination of this in the
data logging approach was an important
area to explore during this investigation.
(d) 'ormulate cause and e''ect relationships
Return

Appendix 4
The following table provides definitions of key words, particularly a number relating to first-hand investigations.

hypothesis
A predictive statement -hich can ,e tested using a range o' methodsB most o'ten
associated -ith e:perimental procedure!
contro 1the contro in an
e=periment2
&he sample in an e:periment to -hich all the other samples are compared!
Variabe hed constant
0actors that may vary< ,ut 'or the purposes o' an e:periment are deli,erately held
constant so that a valid conclusion is possi,le!
dependent variabe
&he 'actor in the e:periment that changes as a result o' changes to the independent
varia,leJ conventionally plotted on the vertical (y) a:is o' a graph!
independent variabe
&he varia,le that is deli,erately changed< o'ten through a series o' preset values!
Conventionally plotted on the hori3ontal (:) a:is o' a graph!
.uantitative
>nvolving measured components (chemical 'ormulae or num,ers)!
reiabiity
&he degree -ith -hich repeated o,servation andAor measurements taken under identical
circumstances -ill yield the same results!
vaidity of first$hand data
&he e:tent to -hich the processes and resultant data measure -hat -as intended!
aw
A simple and precise statement that has ,een sho-n to ,e universally relia,le! >t
descri,es phenomena that occur -ith unvarying regularity under the same conditions!
La-s do not provide e:planationsJ they simply state the relationship ,et-een t-o
relevant varia,les! +o scienti'ic la- is ever conclusively veri'ied!
theory
A coherent e:planation o' a ,ody o' e:perimental evidence< ,ased upon a small num,er
o' assumptions! A theory provides predictions that can ,e tested against o,servations ,ut
is open to dou,t and re'utation! (e!g! atomic theory< theory o' relativity< theory o'
evolution)
mode
A mathematical< conceptual or physical representation ,ased on a simpli'ied set o'
assumptions! Models provide a means o' e:plaining< testing and predicting ,ehaviour
-ithin limited conditions!
For each mandatory first-hand investigation in the course you must be able to do the following:
$! Carify the aim or purpose o' the investigation
)! Identify all e1uipment and resources used to conduct the investigation
%! *escribe the correct use o' all e1uipment and resources
7! *iscuss the control o' varia,les in the investigation (controlled< independent< dependent)
"! /ecount the steps 'ollo-ed in the investigation
/! E=pain ho- vaidity and reiabiity -ere achieved
! Assess and minimise risks inherent in the investigation
*! /ecord data and results in ta,les and graphs (remem,er headings< la,els< 1uantities< units)
#! Anayse data (may involve dra-ing line o' ,est 'it< 'inding averages< comparing results< e1uations)
$(! Make a concusion in terms o' the aim o' the investigation
$$! Appy the principles A results o' the investigation to real5-orld e:amples!
Where the syllabus dot point specifies gather< identi'y data sources< plan< choose e1uipment or resources 'or
in addition to performing the investigation, these steps involve first looking at the problem to be
investigated, identifying variables that will affect the investigation (possibly by doing background
research/reading) and finding methods to control / vary these as required, looking at how measurements
will be taken and recorded, identifying any equipment needed and deciding on any safety precautions that
must be observed before conducting the investigation.

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2006 Edition Physics Topic 8.2 page 11

where c is the speed of light in vacuum and v

Since students had already used this

A comparison of the use of an

Students had to realise that the

The achievement of this outcome is

Repetition was used. The relationship

The achievement of this outcome is

The determination of the period of

Comparison of the measured

Inverse proportionality was the

See comment above relating to

See comment above relating to

Consideration of this is an essential

Data was presented primarily in

F 1/ was examined successfully.

The need to change the graphed

Experimental design modification

Comparison of hand-held digital

which details 34 experiments which can be

allows data to be transferred from the TI calculator to a

In the data logging approach, a variety of

Finding out the accepted value of the speed

References were checked to ascertain the

2006 Edition Physics Topic 8.2 page 83

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