Me-I Lab Mannual

MP-I Lab Manual IIIrd Sem Mechanical Engineering Department
By: - Aj ay Gupta L. J. Pol ytechni c Page 1

AIM: To prepare a pattern for a given pattern drawing by using carpentry
hand tools and equipment.

INTRODUCTION:

The pattern making is the first step for casting process. It is defined as A model which is
used to form a mould in which molten material is cast.
The process of making a pattern is known as pattern making. Pattern making deals
with construction of pattern from various metals and nonmetals. Pattern is designed,
constructed and finished carefully to produce close tolerance & smooth casting finish.
In Engg, the patternmaker is recognized as one of the most highly skilled
craftsman. He is able to read drawing, handle the tools, which is necessary to prepare a
pattern or core box.

FUNCTIONS OF PATTERNS:

Pattern prepares a mould cavity for the purpose of making a casting.
Pattern possesses core prints which produces seats in form of extra recess for core
placement in the mould.
It establishes the parting line and parting surfaces in the mould.
Runner, gates and riser may form a part of the pattern.
Properly constructed patterns minimize overall cost of the casting.
Pattern may help in establishing locating pins on the mould and therefore on
the casting with a purpose to check the casting dimensions.
Properly made pattern having finished and smooth surface reduce casting defects.
SUBJECT:
Manuf. Process-I
AIM: Preparation of pattern.
EXPERIMENT NO: 1 DATE: DOC. CODE:
LJP/MED/MP-I_III/NO.1


TOOLS AND EQUIPMENTS USED FOR MAKING PATTERN;
Hand Saw, Try Square, Marking Gauge, Rasp, and Hammer, Paring Chisel, Mortise
Chisel, Smooth File and Triangle File.

SEQUENCE OF OPERATION:

First off all draw layout of pattern with exact scale & dimension & allowance.
After that give necessary color to some important lines.
Take piece of wood. It must be moisture free.
After that marking & measuring done with the help of suitable steel or set square,
check surface which is flat enough or have some slope with try square means
measure for right angle.
Now cut work piece to required size with hand saw. Now start cutting from end &
make block with paring chisel and hammer and give primary finish with rasp and
smooth file.
After performing that start cutting middle portion. In this portion mortise chisel
and rasp is used. Make required size with paring chisel and hammer. After that
finish the surface with smooth file and triangle file. Because of less gap is there
triangle file is used. It is very critical portion so cutting should be done very
carefully. After completing this operation make all surface of pattern smooth by
file. Now again measure all cutting and finished portion and take necessary steps if
required.

CARE TO BE TAKEN DURING PATTERN MAKING OPERATION:

While cutting operation is being performed cut the piece slightly more than
required size so we can do any further finishing.
While using chisel make careful use of hammer otherwise more material will cut
than required.
Now make pattern bigger than required casting due to shrinkage.


Make pattern tapered inward slightly by giving draft allowance to avoid damage to
mould.
Give distortion allowance if necessary.

PATTERN MATERIALS:

Different types of material are used to make a pattern. These materials are as follows:

1) WOOD:

Wood is the most popular and commonly used material for pattern making.

ADVANTAGES
Wood can be easily worked.
It is light in weight.
It is easily available.
It is very cheap.
It is easy to join.
It is easy to obtain good surface finish.
Wooden laminated patterns are strong.
It can be easily repaired.

DI SADVANTAGES
It is susceptible to moisture.
It tends to warp.
It wears out quickly due to sand abrasion.
It is weaker than metallic patterns.

USES
It use when a small number of casting are to be produced.
When patterns are in bigger size then it is easy to make from wood.


2) METAL:

Metallic patterns are preferred when the number of castings required is large
enough to justify their use. These patterns are not much affected by moisture as wooden
pattern. The metals commonly used for pattern making are cast iron, brass and bronzes and
aluminum alloys.
ADVANTAGES
It is cheap
It is easy to file and fit
It is strong
It has good resistance against sand abrasion
Good surface finish

DI SADVANTAGES
It is heavy
It is brittle and hence it can be easily broken
It may rust

3) PLASTIC:

Plastics are getting more popularity now a days because the patterns made of these
materials are lighter, stronger, moisture and wear resistant, non sticky to molding sand,
durable and they are not affected by the moisture of the molding sand. Moreover they impart
very smooth surface finish on the pattern surface. These materials are somewhat fragile, less
resistant to sudden loading and their section may need metal reinforcement.

ADVANTAGES

It is light in weight, strong and wear resistance.
Good surface finish is achieved.


It has very low solid shrinkage.
Because of it glossy surface it can be withdrawn from the mould very easily without
injuring the mould.

DI SADVANTAGE:
Due to its brittleness metal reinforcement is required.
It is not suitable for machine moulding.

4) PLASTERS:

This material belongs to gypsum family which can be easily cast and worked with
wooden tools and preferable for producing highly intricate casting. The main advantages of
plaster are that it has high compressive strength and is of high expansion setting type which
compensate for the shrinkage allowance of the casting metal. Plaster of Paris pattern can be
prepared either by directly pouring the slurry of plaster and water in moulds prepared earlier
from a master pattern or by sweeping it into desired shape or form by the sweep and stickle
method. It is also preferred for production of small size intricate castings and making core
boxes.

5) WAX:

Patterns made from wax are excellent for investment casting process. The
materials used are blends of several types of waxes, and other additives which act as
polymerizing agents, stabilizers, etc. The commonly used waxes are paraffin wax, shellac
wax, bees-wax, ceresin wax, and micro-crystalline wax. The properties desired in a good wax
pattern include low ash content up to 0.05 per cent, resistant to the primary coat material used
for investment, high tensile strength and hardness, and substantial weld strength.

REQUIREMENTS OF PATTERN MATERIALS:
It should be easily worked, shaped, joined.
Light in weight.


It may be strong, hard, and durable. So that it may be resistance to wear and abrasion,
to corrosion and to chemical action.
Dimensionally stable in all situation.
Easily available at low cost.
Repairable and reused.
It should be able to take good surface finish.

PATTERN ALLOWANCE:
The size of a pattern is never kept the same as that of the desired casting because of the
fact that during cooling the casting is subjected to various effects and hence to compensate
for these effects, corresponding allowances are given in the pattern. These various allowances
given to pattern can be enumerated as, allowance for shrinkage, allowance for machining,
allowance for draft, allowance for rapping or shake, allowance for distortion and allowance
for mould wall movement. These allowances are discussed as under.

1. SHRINKAGE ALLOWANCE
In practice it is found that all common cast metals shrink a significant amount
when they are cooled from the molten state. The total contraction in volume is divided into
the following parts:
Liquid contraction, i.e. the contraction during the period in which the temperature
of the liquid metal or alloy falls from the pouring temperature to the liquidus temperature.
Contraction on cooling from the liquidus to the solidus temperature, i.e. solidifying
contraction. . Contraction that results thereafter until the temperature reaches the room
temperature. This is known as solid contraction. The first two of the above are taken care of
by proper gating and risering. Only the last one, i.e. the solid contraction is taken care by the
pattern makers by giving a positive shrinkage allowance. This contraction allowance is
different for different metals.



1. DRAFT OR TAPER ALLOWANCE
Taper allowance is also a positive allowance and is given on all the vertical
surfaces of pattern so that its withdrawal becomes easier. The normal amount of taper on the
external surfaces varies from 10 mm to 20 mm/mt. On interior holes and recesses which are
smaller in size, the taper should be around 60 mm/mt. These values are greatly affected by
the size of the pattern and the molding method. In machine molding its, value varies from 10
mm to 50 mm/mt.

2. MACHINING ALLOWANCE
It is a positive allowance given to compensate for the amount of material that is
lost in machining or finishing the casting. If this allowance is not given, the casting will
become undersize after machining. The amount of this allowance depends on the size of
casting, methods of machining and the degree of finish. In general, however, the value varies
from 3 mm. to 18 mm.
3. DISTORTION ALLOWANCE
This allowance is applied to the castings which have the tendency to distort during
cooling due to thermal stresses developed. For example a casting in the form of U shape will
contract at the closed end on cooling, while the open end will remain fixed in position.
Therefore, to avoid the distortion, the legs of U pattern must converge slightly so that the
sides will remain parallel after cooling.

4. RAPPING OR SHAKE ALLOWANCE
Before withdrawing the pattern it is rapped and thereby the size of the mould
cavity increases. Actually by rapping, the external sections move outwards increasing the size
and internal sections move inwards decreasing the size. This movement may be insignificant
in the case of small and medium size castings, but it is significant in the case of large
castings. This allowance is kept negative and hence the pattern is made slightly smaller in
dimensions 0.5-1.0 mm.


COLOUR CODE FOR PATTERNS:
1. Surfaces to be left unfinished are to be painted Black.
2. Surfaces to be machined are to be painted Red.
3. Seats for loose piece are to be marked by red strips on yellow background.
4. Core prints are to be painted yellow.
5. Stop off are to be marked by diagonal black strips on yellow background.

TYPES OF PATTERNS:

1. TWO-PIECE OR SPLIT PATTERN

When solid pattern is difficult for withdrawal from the mold cavity, then solid
pattern is splited in two parts. Split pattern is made in two pieces which are joined at the
parting line by means of dowel pins. The splitting at the parting line is done to facilitate the
withdrawal of the pattern. A typical example is shown in fig.

2. MATCH PLATE PATTERN

This pattern is made in two halves and is on mounted on the opposite sides of a
wooden or metallic plate, known as match plate. The gates and runners are also attached to
the plate. This pattern is used in machine molding. A typical example of match plate pattern
is shown in fig.

3. COPE AND DRAG PATTERN

In this case, cope and drag part of the mould are prepared separately. This is done
when the complete mould is too heavy to be handled by one operator. The pattern is made up
of two halves, which are mounted on different plates. A typical example of match plate
pattern is shown in fig.

4. LOOSE-PIECE PATTERN

Loose piece pattern is used when pattern is difficult for with drawl from the
mould. Loose pieces are provided on the pattern and they are the part of pattern. The main


pattern is removed first leaving the loose piece portion of the pattern in the mould. Finally the
loose piece is withdrawal separately leaving the intricate mould.

5. GATED PATTERN

In the mass production of casings, multi cavity moulds are used. Such moulds are
formed by joining a number of patterns and gates and providing a common runner for the
molten metal, as shown in Fig. These patterns are made of metals, and metallic pieces to form
gates and runners are attached to the pattern.

6. SEGMENTAL PATTERN

Patterns of this type are generally used for circular castings, for example wheel
rim, gear blank etc. Such patterns are sections of a pattern so arranged as to form a complete
mould by being moved to form each section of the mould. The movement of segmental
pattern is guided by the use of a central pivot. A segment pattern for a wheel rim is shown in
Fig.

7. SWEEP PATTERN

Sweep patterns are used for forming large circular moulds of symmetric kind by
revolving a sweep attached to a spindle as shown in Fig. Actually a sweep is a template of
wood or metal and is attached to the spindle at one edge and the other edge has a contour
depending upon the desired shape of the mould. The pivot end is attached to a stake of metal
in the center of the mould.

8. SKELETON PATTERN

When only a small number of large and heavy castings are to be made, it is not
economical to make a solid pattern. In such cases, however, a skeleton pattern may be used.
This is a ribbed construction of wood which forms an outline of the pattern to be made. This
frame work is filled with loam sand and rammed. The surplus sand is removed by strickle
board. For round shapes, the pattern is made in two halves which are joined with glue or by
means of screws etc. A typical skeleton pattern is shown in Fig.


Match Plate Pattern

Gated Pattern

Sweep Pattern

Segmental Pattern



AIM: To study and observe various stages of casting through
demonstration of Sand Casting Process.
INTRODUCTION:
Casting is defined as the process in which molten metal flows by gravity or
other force into a mold where it solidifies in the shape of the mold cavity metal casting
process begins by creating a mold, which is the reverse shape of the part we need. Casting is
one of oldest and one of the most popular processes of converting materials into final useful
shapes. Casting process is primarily used for shaping metallic materials; although it can be
adopted for shaping other materials such as ceramic, polymeric and glassy materials. In
casting, a solid is melted, treated to proper temperature and then poured into a cavity called
mold, which contains it in proper shape during solidification. Simple or complex shapes can
be made from any metal that can be melted. The resulting product can have virtually any
configuration the designer desires.
Casting product range in size from a fraction of centimetre and fraction of
kilogram to over 10 meters and many tons. Moreover casting has marked advantages in
production of complex shapes, of parts having hollow sections or internal cavities, of parts
that contain irregular curved surfaces and of parts made from metals which are difficult to
machine.
Several casting processes have been developed to suit economic production of cast
products with desired mechanical properties, dimensional accuracy, surface finish etc. The
various processes differ primarily in mold material (whether sand, metal or other material)
and pouring method (gravity, pressure or vacuum). All the processes share the requirement
SUBJECT:
Manuf. Process-I
AIM: Introduction to casting process.


that the material solidify in a manner that would avoid potential defects such as shrinkage
voids, gas porosity and trapped inclusions.
Any casting process involves three basic steps, i.e. mold making, melting and
pouring of metals into the mold cavity, and removal and finishing of casting after complete
solidification.
SAND CASTING PROCESSES:
Sand is one of the cheaper, fairly refractory materials and hence commonly used
for making mold cavities. Sand basically, contains grains of silica (SiO2) and some
impurities. For mold making purposes sand is mixed with a binder material such as clay,
molasses, oil, resin etc.
GREEN SAND MOLDING:
In green sand molding process, clay (a silicate material) along with water (to
activate clay) is used as binder. The mold making essentially consists of preparing a cavity
having the same shape as the part to be cast. There are many ways to obtain such a cavity or
mold, and in this demonstration you will learn to make it using a wooden pattern, metal
flasks and green-sand as mold material.
A pattern is a reusable form having approximately the same shape and size as the
part to be cast. A pattern can be made out of wood, metal or plastic; wood being the most
common material. Green sand refers to an intimate mixture of sand (usually river sand),
bentonite clay (3-7 percent by weight of sand, to provide bonding or adhesion between sand
grains), and water (3-6 percent by weight of sand, necessary to activate the bonding action of
the clay). Mixing the above ingredients in a sand muller best provides the intimate mixing action.
In practice, a major part of this sand mixture consists of return sand, i.e. the reusable portion of the
sand left after the solidified metal casting has been removed from the mold. Molding flasks are
rectangular frames with open ends, which serve as containers in which the mold is prepared.
Normally a pair of flasks is used; the upper flask is referred to as Cope and the lower one as drag.
A riddle is a relatively coarse sieve. Riddling the green sand helps in breaking the lump and aerates
the sand.


Sometimes the casting itself must have a hole or cavity in or on it. In that case the liquid
metal must be prevented from filling certain portions of the mold. A core is used to block-off
portions of the mold from being filled by the liquid metal. A core is normally made using sand with a
suitable binder like molasses. Core is prepared by filling the core-box with core sand to get the
desired shape and the baking this sand core in an oven at suitable temperature.
During mold making a suitable gating system and a riser is also provided. The gating
system is the network of channels used to deliver the molten metal from outside the mold into the
mold cavity. The various components of the gating system are pouring cup, sprue, runners and gates.
Riser or feeder head is a small cavity attached to the casting cavity and the liquid metal of the riser
serves to compensate the shrinkage in the casting during solidification.
Fig. shows the various parts of a typical sand mold. Several hand tools, such as rammer,
trowel, sprue pin, draw spike, slick, vent wire, gate cutter, strike off bar etc. are used as aids in
making a mold.
MELTING AND POURING OF METALS:
The next important step in the making of casting is the melting of metal. A melting
process must be capable of providing molten metal not only at the proper temperature but
also in the desired quantity, with an acceptable quality, and within a reasonable cost.
In order to transfer the metal from the furnace into the molds, some type of
pouring device, or ladle, must be used. The primary considerations are to maintain the metal
at the proper temperature for pouring and to ensure that only quality metal will get into the
molds. The operations involved in melting of metal in oil fired furnace/induction furnace and
pouring of liquid metal into the mold cavity will be shown during the demonstration.
REMOVAL AND FINISHING OF CASTINGS:
After complete solidification, the castings are removed from the mold. Most
castings require some cleaning and finishing operations, such as removal of cores, removal of
gates and risers, removal of fins and flash, cleaning of surfaces, etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF CASTING PROCESS:
There are a large number of industrial casting processes as shown in fig below.


These can be classified based on the mould material, method of producing the mould and the
pressure on molten metal during filling (gravity, centrifugal force, vacuum, low pressure,
high pressure). Permanent or metal moulds are used in gravity and pressure die casting
processes, suitable for producing a large number of components. In expendable mould
processes (sand, shell and investment), a new mould is required for every casting or a bunch
of castings with a common gating and feeding system produced in the same mould.
Expendable moulds can be made using either permanent pattern or expendable pattern.
Permanent pattern can be made from wood, metal or plastic. In expendable pattern processes
(also called investment processes), each pattern produces only one casting. Such patterns are
made of wax, expandable polystyrene (EPS) or other polymer materials.



Cross Section of a Typical Two-Part Sand Mold, Indicating Various Mold
Components And Terminology

A Mould Ready For Pouring


Mold Making



AIM: To prepare a mould with the help of pre-prepared pattern.
INTRODUCTION:
A mould can be described as a void character in compact sand mass which when
filled with molten metal, will produce a casting. Mould is the impression left behind by a
pattern after with draw of the pattern. It is obvious that the sand void or cavity will referable
the shape and size of the pattern. The operation of producing this cavity or mould is called
moulding.
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENTS:
Foundry tools and equipments may be classified into hand tools and mechanical
tools.
HAND TOOLS:
The common hand tools used in foundry shop are fairly numerous. A brief
description of the following foundry tools used frequently by moulder is given as under.

HAND RIDDLE:
Hand riddle is shown in fig. It consists of a screen
of standard circular wire mesh equipped with circular wooden
frame. It is generally used for cleaning the sand for removing
foreign material such as nails, shot metal, splinters of wood etc.
from it. Even power operated riddles are available for ridding
large volume of sand.
SUBJECT:
Manuf. Process-I
AIM: Preparation of mould.


SHOVEL:
Shovel is shown in Fig. A. It consists of a steel pan fitted with a long wooden
handle. It is used in mixing, tempering and conditioning the foundry sand by hand. It is also
used for moving and transforming the molding sand to the container and molding box or
flask. It should always be kept clean.
RAMMERS:
Rammers are shown in Fig. B.
These are required for striking the molding
sand mass in the molding box to pack or
compact it uniformly all around the pattern.
The common forms of rammers used in
ramming are hand rammer, peen rammer,
floor rammer and pneumatic rammer which
are briefly described as:
1) Hand Rammer:
It is generally made of wood or metal. It is small and one end of which
carries a wedge type construction, called peen and the other end possesses a solid
cylindrical shape known as butt. It is used for ramming the sand in bench molding
work.
2) Peen Rammer:
It has a wedge-shaped construction formed at the bottom of a metallic rod.
It is generally used in packing the molding sand in pockets and comers.
3) Floor Rammer:
It consists of a long steel bar carrying a peen at one end and a flat portion
on the other. It is a heavier and larger in comparison to hand rammer. Its specific
use is in floor molding for ramming the sand for larger molds. Due to its large
length, the moulder can operate it in standing position.

A
B


4) Pneumatic Rammers:
They save considerable time and labour and are used for making large
molds.
SPRUE PIN:
Sprue pin is shown in Fig. It is a tapered rod of wood or iron
which is placed or pushed in cope to join mold cavity while the molding
sand in the cope is being rammed. Later its withdrawal from cope produce
a vertical hole in molding sand, called sprue through which the molten
metal is poured into the mould using gating system. It helps to make a
passage for pouring molten metal in mold through gating system.
STRIKE OFF BAR:
Strike off bar fig. is a flat bar having straight edge and is made of wood or iron. It
is used to strike off or remove the excess sand from the top of a molding box after completion
of ramming thereby making its surface plane and smooth. Its one edge is made bevelled and
the other end is kept perfectly smooth and plane.

MALLET:
Mallet is similar to a wooden hammer and is generally as used in carpentry or
sheet metal shops. In molding shop, it is used for driving the draw spike into the pattern and
then rapping it for separation from the mould surfaces so that pattern can be easily withdrawn
leaving the mold cavity without damaging the mold surfaces.
DRAW SPIKE:
Draw spike is shown Fig-C. It is a tapered steel rod having a loop or ring at its one
end and a sharp point at the other. It may have screw threads on the end to engage metal


pattern for it withdrawal from the mold. It is used for driven into pattern which is embedded
in the molding sand and raps the pattern to get separated from the pattern and finally draws
out it from the mold cavity.
VENT ROD:
Vent rod is shown in Fig-D. It is a thin spiked steel rod or wire carrying a pointed
edge at one end and a wooden handle or a bent loop at the other. After ramming and striking
off the excess sand it is utilized to pierce series of small holes in the molding sand in the cope
portion. The series of pierced small holes are called vents holes which allow the exit or
escape of steam and gases during pouring mold and solidifying of the molten metal for
getting a sound casting.

LIFTERS:
Lifters are shown in Fig. They are also known as cleaners or finishing tool which
are made of thin sections of steel of various length and width with one end bent at right angle.
They are used for cleaning, repairing and finishing the bottom and sides of deep and narrow
openings in mold cavity after withdrawal of pattern. They are also used for removing loose
sand from mold cavity.
C
D


TROWELS:
Trowels are shown in Fig. They are utilized for finishing flat surfaces and joints
and partings lines of the mold. They consist of metal blade made of iron and are equipped
with a wooden handle. The common metal blade shapes of trowels may be pointed or
contoured or rectangular oriented. The trowels are basically employed for smoothing or
slicking the surfaces of molds. They may also be used to cut in-gates and repair the mold
surfaces.

SLICKS:
Slicks are shown in Fig. They are also recognized as small double ended mold
finishing tool which are generally used for repairing and finishing the mold surfaces and their
edges after withdrawal of the pattern. The commonly used slicks are of the types of heart and
leaf, square and heart, spoon and bead and heart and spoon. The nomenclatures of the slicks
are largely due to their shapes.


SMOOTHER:
Smothers are shown in Fig. According to their use and shape they are given
different names. They are also known as finishing tools which are commonly used for
repairing and finishing flat and round surfaces, round or square corners and edges of molds.

SWAB:
Swab is shown in Fig. It is a small hemp fiber brush used for
moistening the edges of sand mould, which are in contact with the pattern
surface before withdrawing the pattern. It is used for sweeping away the
molding sand from the mold surface and pattern. It is also used for coating
the liquid blacking on the mold faces in dry sand molds.
SPIRIT LEVEL:
Spirit level is used by moulder to check whether the sand bed or molding box is
horizontal or not.



GATE CUTTER:
Gate cutter Fig. is a small shaped piece of sheet metal commonly used to cut
runners and feeding gates for connecting sprue hole with the mold cavity.

GAGGERS:
Gaggers are pieces of wires or rods bent at one or both ends which are used for
reinforcing the downward projecting sand mass in the cope are known as gaggers. They
support hanging bodies of sand. They possess a length varying from 2 to 50 cm. A gagger is
always used in cope area and it may reach up to 6 mm away from the pattern. It should be
coated with clay wash so that the sand adheres to it. Its surface should be rough in order to
have a good grip with the molding sand. It is made up of steel reinforcing bar.
BELLOWS:
Bellows gun is shown in Fig. It is hand
operated leather made device equipped with compressed
air jet to blow or pump air when operated. It is used to
blow away the loose or unwanted sand from the surfaces
of mold cavities.
CLAMPS, COTTERS AND WEDGES:
They are made of steel and are used for clamping the molding boxes firmly
together during pouring.
FLASK:
The common flasks are also called as containers which are used in foundry shop as mold
boxes, crucibles and ladles.



MOULDING BOXES:
Moulding boxes are made with the hinge at one corner and a lock on the opposite
corner. They are also known as snap molding boxes which are generally used for making
sand molds. A snap molding is made of wood and is hinged at one corner. It has special
applications in bench molding in green sand work for
small nonferrous castings. The mold is first made in the
snap flask and then it is removed and replaced by a steel
jacket. Thus, a number of molds can be prepared using
the same set of boxes. As an alternative to the wooden
snap boxes the cast-aluminum tapered closed boxes are
finding favour in modern foundries. They carry a tapered
inside surface which is accurately ground and finished.
A solid structure of this box gives more rigidity and
strength than the open type. These boxes are also removed after assembling the mould. Large
molding boxes are equipped with reinforcing cross bars and ribs to hold the heavy mass of
sand and support gaggers. The size, material and construction of the molding box depend
upon the size of the casting.
MECHANICAL TOOLS:
The mechanical tools in the foundry include the many type of moulding machines
that will ram the mould, roll it over and draw. The pattern besides, there are poured operated
riddles. Sand mixers sand conveyors etc. the mould is each poured and shaken out
mechanically and the casting are taken by machine to the clearing department.
SEQUENCE OF OPERATION:
1) Place the drag part of the pattern with parting surface down on ground or
molding board at the center of the drag (flask).
2) Riddle molding sand to a depth of about 2 cm in the drag and pack this sand
carefully around the pattern with fingers.
3) Heap more molding sand in the drag and ram with rammer carefully.


4) Strike off the excess sand using strike bar.
5) Make vent holes to within 1 cm of the pattern surface in the drag.
6) Turn this complete drag and place the cope portion (flask) over it.
7) Place the cope half of the pattern over the drag pattern matching the guide pins
and apply parting sand over the parting surface. Also place the sprue pin and riser
pin in proper positions.
8) Complete the cope half by repeating steps (2) to (5).
9) Remove the sprue and riser pins and make a pouring basin. Separate the cope and
drag halves, and place them with their parting faces up.
10) Moisten sand at the copes of the pattern and remove pattern halves carefully
using draw spikes.
11) Cut gate and runner in the drag. Repair and clean the cavities in the two mold
halves.
12) Place the core in position, assembled the two mold halves assemble and clamp
them together.



AIM: To impart the knowledge of core and core making.
INTRODUCTION:
Casting are often required to have holes, recesses etc, of various size and shapes. These
impressions are obtained by using sand cores which are separately made in boxes known as
core boxes. The core which are prepaid separately in core boxes are called dry sand core and
are held and located in the mould in the seats or the core prints provided in the patterns. The
cores which are the part of mould are known as green sand cores.
For supporting the cores in the mould cavity an impression in the form of a recess is
made in the mould with the help of a projection suitably placed on the pattern is known as
core print .A core print is an added projection on a pattern and it forms a seat which is used to
support and located core in the mould. There are several types of core prints, vertical or cope
and drag core print, balancing core print, cover or hanging core print, wing or drop core print.
CORE REQUIREMENTS:
Cores are subjected to server condition since after pouring the mould they are
surrounded on all sides by molten metal; consequently they must possess some special
characteristics which are as follows:
1. Core must be strong enough to retain its shape withstand handing
and to resist erosion and deformation by metal during filling of the mould.
2. Core must be permeable to allow the gases to escape easily.
3. Core should be highly refractory in nature to withstand high temperature of metal.
SUBJECT:
Manuf. Process-I
AIM: Demonstration of Core.


4. Core must be stable with minimum of contraction and expansion to make a true form
of casting.
5. Cores should be sufficiently collapsible i.e they should be disintegrate and collapse
after the metal solidifies, to minimize strain on the casting and to facilitate removal of
core from the casting
TYPES OF CORE:
The cores used in foundries are typed according to their shape and their position in
the mould. The common types of cores are described below:
1. HORIZONTAL CORES:
The most common type is the horizontal core. The core is usually cylindrical in form
and is laid horizontally at the parting line of the mould. The ends of core rest in the seats
provided by core prints on the pattern.
2. VERTICAL CORE:
This is placed in vertical position both in cope and drags halves of the mould.
Usually top and bottom of the core are provided with a taper, but the amount of taper on the
top is grater then that at the bottom.
3. BALANCED CORE:
When the casting is to have an opening only one core print is available on the pattern
a balanced core is suitable. The core is print in such cases should be large enough to give
proper bearing to the corr. In case the core is sufficiently long, it may be supported at the free
end by means of a chaplet.
4. HANGING AND COVER CORE:
If core hangs from the cope and does not have any support at the bottom of the drag,
it is referred to as a hanging core. In this case, it may be necessary to fasten the core with a
wire or rod that may extend through the cope. On the other hand, if it has its support on the


drag it is called cover core. In this case the core serves as cover for the mould, and also as a
support for hanging the main body of the core.
1. WUING CORE:
A wing core is used when hole or recess is to be obtained in the casting either
above or below the parting line. In this case, the side of core print is given sufficient amount
of taper so that the core can be placed readily in the mould. It is also called drop core, tail
core, chair core, and saddle core.
2. RAMP-UP CORE:
It is sometimes necessary to set a core with the pattern before mould is rammed
up. Such a core is called ram up core. It is used when the core detail is located in an
inaccessible position in both interior and exterior portions of castings.
3. KISS CORE:
When pattern is not provided with core print and no seat available for the core, the
core is held in position between cope and drag by the pressure of the cope. This core is called
kiss core. They are suitable when a number of holes of less dimension accuracy are required.

CORE MAKING:
Core making consists of the following operation:
1. CORE SAND PREPARETION:
The first consideration in making a core is to mix and prepare the sand properly. The
mixture must be homogenous so that the core will be of uniform strength throughout the
core. Core sands are generally mixed in (1) Roller mills (2) Core mixers.
The ingredients of core sands are sand and binder, Core sands are usually silica but
zircon, olivine, carbon and chamotte sands are used. Sands that contain more than 5% clay
cannot be used for cores; Excessive clay reduces not only permeability but also collapsibility.
The type of sand to be used depends on the size, of core and also on the pouring
temperature on initial. Core sand have no natural bonds hence some other materials are added


to the sand to act as binders which cement the sand particle together before and after the cores
are baked. They impart strength and sufficient degree of collapsibility in addition to giving
good permeability, ample refractoriness and other qualities that core should poses. Core
binders used are of three general types.
(a) Binders that harden at room temperature.
(b) Binders those require baking to harden.
(c) Clays.
Various commercial are available in the market, which consists of dextrin, oils, resins,
cereals, molasses, and protein.
Core oil is more popular as core binders because they are very economical and produce
better cores. The chief ingredients of these core oils are vegetable oil, linseed oil, and corn
oil. This oil has following advantages.
1. They are easy to use for core making.
2. It can be a parted easily after casting.
3. The green and dry strength of core be controlled.
4. The baked cores are very hard and not easily damaged in handling.

2. CORE MOULDING :
Cores are made manually or with machines. Core boxes, the methods used to ram
the core are usually done by machines. It may be of two types (1) Core Blowing Machines (2)
Core Ramming Machines, e.g. jolting squeezing, slinging. The principles that they apply for
making a sand mould apply also to making a sand core.
Except for low volume production, or very large cores, the sand mixture is
compressed air. The degree of compactness depends on the type of blinder used and on size
and shape of core.


Fragile and medium size core are often reinforced with steel wires and rods so that
they will have sufficient strength to resist the forces. In large cores, perforated pipes or arbors
are used.
i. After the cores are prepared and placed on metal plate, they are baked to remove the
moisture and to develop strength of binders in core over at temperature from 150 C to 400 C,
depending on type of binder used the size of the cores, and the length of baking time. The
core plates called driers are usually perforated to permit the circulation of gases and to lessen
sticking of core to the support. As rule, one or more vents are provided in cores to discharge
of gases from core prints.
According to the kind of production the core drying ovens are classified as:
1. Core ovens :
(a) Batch type (b) Continuous type.
2. Dielectric bakers.

ii. Batch type ovens are preferred for a high rate of production of small and medium size
cores. The core racks move slowly through these ovens on a continuous with backing time
controlled by the rate of travel of the conveyor. Because the oven is operated steadily at a
fixed temperature and because all cores are in heated zones for the same length of time, only
a narrow range of sizes can be baked properly.
Core-drying ovens are usually headed by coal, coke, oil, gas or electricity.
Dielectric bakers can bake cores in a small fraction of time required for baking the
same cores to conventional ovens. Dielectric heating is employed in modern core ovens for
high quality cores made from resin binders. The material to be heated dielectrically is placed
between the parallel cement bonded asbestos plated or electrodes and high frequency current
is passed through it. The main advantage of these ovens is that they are faster in operation
and a good temperature control is possible.



3. CORE FINISHING :
After the baking operation are core are smoother. All rough places and unwanted
fins are removed by filling. Some cores are removed by filling. Some cores are made in two
or more pieces which must be assembled by pasting together with dextrin of other water
soluble binders.
The last operation in the making of core is to apply a fine refractory coating or
core wash to the surface. This is sometimes called core-dressing. This coating prevents the
metal from penetrating into the cores and provide smoother surface to the casting. Some
materials used for core washers include graphite, silica, mica, zircon, flour, and a rubber-base
chemical spray. Coating may be applied to the core surface by brushing, dipping, or spraying.
4. CORE SHIFTING :
A core must be securely fixed with stand the upward of molten metal. If cores
does not stay in just right place in mould, the walls of the cavity it produces will not be if
proper thickness. To keep the cores in place during casting some forms of chaplets are
required. Chaplets are supporters of cores. These are rods with flat or curved plates riveted to
them.



Horizontal Core


AIM: To study various casting defects found in casting.

INTRODUCTION:
A casting defect is an irregularity in the metal casting process that is undesired.
Some defects can be tolerated while others can be repaired otherwise they must be
eliminated. They are broken down into five main categories: gas porosity, shrinkage
defects, mold material defects, pouring metal defects, and metallurgical defects.
The following are the major defects which are likely to occur in sand castings:
1. Gas defects
2. Shrinkage cavities
3. Moulding material defects
4. Pouring metal defects
5. Metallurgical defects

GAS DEFECTS:
These defects are due to lower gas passing tendency of the mould which is caused
by lower venting , lower permeability of the mould and improper design of the casting. The
lower permeability of the mould is due to use of finer size grains of sand, higher percentage
of clay & moisture and excessive ramming of the mould.
The various gas defects and remedies are discussed here in detail.

SUBJECT:
Manuf. Process-I
AIM: Casting defects.


PROBABLE CAUSES AND SUGGESTED REMEDIES OF VARIOUS CASTING
DEFECTS:
Sr.
No.
Name of
Casting
Defect
Problem causes Suggested Remedies
1. Blow Holes
1. Excess moisture content in
molding sand.
2. Rust and moisture on Chills,
chaplets and inserts.
3. Cores not sufficient baked.
4. Excessive use of organic
binders.
5. Molds not adequately vented.
6. Molds rammed very hard.
1. Control of moisture content.
2. Use of rust free chills, chaplet
and clean inserts.
3. Bake cores properly.
4. Ram the mold less hard.

5. Provide adequate venting in
mold and cores.
2. Shrinkage
1. Faulty gating and risering
system.
2. Improper chilling.
1. Ensure proper directional
solidification by modifying
gating, risering and chilling.
3. Porosity
1. High pouring temperature.
2. Gas dissolved in metal
charge.
3. Less flux used.
4. Molten metal not properly
degassed.
5. Slow solidification of casting.
6. High moisture and low
permeability in mold.
1. Regulate pouring
temperature.
2. Control metal composition.
3. Increase flux proportions.
4. Ensure effective degassing.

5. Modify gating and risering.
6. Reduce moisture and increase
permeability of mold.
4. Misruns
1. Lack of fluidity in molten
metal.
1. Adjust proper pouring
temperature.


2. Faulty design.
3. Faulty gating.
2. Modify design.
3. Modify gating system.
5. Hot Tears
1. Lack of collapsibility of core.
2. Lack of collapsibility of
mold.
3. Faulty design.
4. Hard ramming of mold.
1. Improve core collapsibility.
2. Improve mold collapsibility.

3. Modify casting design.
4. Improve softer ramming.
6.
Metal
Penetration
1. Large grain size and used.
2. Soft ramming of mold.
3. Molding sand or core has low
strength.
4. Molding sand or core has
high permeability.
5. Pouring temperature of metal
too high.
1. Use sand having finer grain
size.
2. Provide hard ramming.
3. Suitably adjust pouring
temperature.
7. Cold Shuts
1. Lack of fluidity in molten
metal.
2. Faulty design.
3. Faulty gating.
1. Adjust proper pouring
temperature.
2. Modify design.
8.
Cuts and
Washes
1. Low strength of mold and
core.
2. Lack of binders in facing and
core stand.
3. Faulty gating.
1. Improve mold and core
strength.
2. Add more binders to facing
and core sand.
3. Improve gating.
9. Inclusion
1. Faulty gating.
2. Faulty pouring.

3. Interior molding or core sand.

2. Improve pouring to minimize
turbulence.
3. Use of superior sand of good


4. Soft ramming of mold.
5. Rough handling of mold and
core.
strength.
4. Provide hard, ramming.
10. Fusion
1. Low refractoriness in
molding sand.
2. Faulty gating.
3. Too high pouring temperature
of metal.
4. Poor facing sand.
1. Improve refractoriness of
sand.
3. Use lower pouring
temperature.
4. Improve quality of facing
sand.
11. Swells
1. Too soft ramming of mold.
2. Low strength of mold and
core.
3. Mold not properly supported.
1. Provide hard ramming.
2. Increase strength of both
mold and core.

12. Hard Spot
1. Faulty metal composition.

2. Faulty casting design.
1. Suitably charge metal
composition.
2. Modify casting design
13. Warpage
1. Continuous large flat surfaces
on casting indicating a poor
design.
2. No directional solidification
of casting.
1. Follow principle of sufficient
directional solidification.

2. Make good casting design.
14. Crushes
1. Defective core boxes
producing over-sized cores.
2. Worn out core prints on
patterns producing under
sized seats for cores in the
1. Repair or replace the pins, for
removing defects.
2. Repair or replace dowels
which cause misalignment.
3. Provide adequate support to


mold.
3. Careless assembly of cores in
the mold.
core.
4. Increase strength of both
mold and core.
15. Drops
1. Low green strength in
molding sand and core.
2. Too soft ramming.
3. Inadequate reinforcement of
sand and core projections.
1. Increase green strength of
sand mold.
2. Provide harder ramming.
3. Provide adequate
reinforcement to sand
projections and core by using
nails and gaggers.
16.
Run out,
Fins and
Flash
1. Faulty molding.

2. Defective molding boxes.
1. Improving molding
technique.
2. Change the defective
molding boxes.
3. Keep weights on mold boxes.



Various Gas Defects



AIM: To study Gas welding process.
INTRODUCTION & DEFINITION:
Gas welding is a fusion welding process. Joint is produced by heat of combustion
of an oxygen and fuel gas mixture. The gas many be acetylene, hydrogen, propane or butane.
The intense heat thus produced melts and fuses together the edges of the parts to
be welded generally with the addition of a filler metal, without using addition pressure.

PRINCIPLE AT OPERATION (OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING):
When acetylene is mixed with oxygen in correct proportion in the welding torch
and ignited, the flame resulting at the tip of the torch is sufficiently hot to melt and joint the
parent metal.
The oxy-acetylene flame reaches a temp. of about 3200 F (melting temp.) and thus
can melt all commercial metals.
Oxy-acetylene welding does not require the components to be forced together
under pressure until the weld forms and solidifies.

GAS WELDING EQUIPMENTS
1) Oxygen Gas cylinder (Painted black)
2) Acetylene gas cylinder (Painted maroon)
3) Oxygen pressure regulator
4) Acetylene pressure regulator
5) Oxygen gas hose (blue)
SUBJECT:
Manuf. Process-I
AIM: To study Gas welding process.


6) Acetylene gas hose (red)
7) Welding torch or blow pipe
8) A set of nozzles and gas lighter
9) Trolleys for the transportation of cylinder
10) A set of keys and spanners
11) Filler rods and fluxes
12) Protective clothing for the welder (e.g. asbestos apron, gloves, goggles, etc.)

TYPES OF WELDING FLAMES:
1) Neutral Flames
2) Oxidizing Flames
3) Reducing Flames
4) Acetylene Flames
The correct type of flame is essential for the production of satisfactory welds.
The flame must be of the proper size, shape and condition in order to operate with
maximum efficiency.

(1)NEUTRAL FLAME:
It can be produced when approximately equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene
are mixed in the welding torch and burnt at the torch tip. This type of flame has a nicely
defined inner cone, which is light in blue in colour. It is surrounded by an outer flame
envelope, which is usually a much darker blue than the inner cone.
A neutral flame effects no chemical change in the molten metal and therefore it
will not oxide or carburize the metal. Temp nearly 3200 Celsius
The natural flame is commonly used for the welding of (1) Mild steel
(2) Stainless steel (3) Cast iron (4) Copper (5) Aluminum.



(2) OXIDIZING FLAME:
If the supply of oxygen is further increased after achieving neutral flame the result will be
an oxidizing flame, which is rich in oxygen.
Temp may be up to 3400 Celsius.
The outer flame envelop is much shorter and fan out of the end.
This flame is of limited use in welding.

(3) REDUCING FLAME:
If the volume of oxygen supplied to the neutral flame is reduced the resulting
flame will be a carburizing or reducing flame I.e. rich in acetylene.
A reducing flame can be recognized by acetylene feather, which exists between the
inner cone and the outer envelope. The outer flame envelope is longer than that of the
neutral flame and is usually much brighter in colour.
Approximate temp. is at 3038 Celsius
This flame is very well used for welding high carbon steel.



OXY-ACETYLENE GAS WELDING SET UP


NEUTRAL FLAME

OXIDIZING FLAME

CARBURIZING (REDUCING) FLAME

GAS WELDING FLAME

HOW WELDING WORKS


AIM: To study Arc welding process and to prepare a job by using Flux
shielded metal Arc welding.
INTRODUCTION:
Arc welding is a group of wilding process where in joint is product by heating
obtained by electrical arcs, mostly without the application of pressure and with or without the
use of filler metal depending upon the base plate thickness.
TYPES OF ARC WELDING PROCESS:
1) Carbon Arc welding
2) Shielded-metal arc welding
3) Submerged arc welding
4) TIG welding
5) MIG welding
6) Arc spot welding
7) Plasma Arc welding Etc.

FLUX SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING:
Definition: It is an Arc Welding process in which joint is produced by heating the work
piece with an electric arc without application of pressure without use of filler metal. The
electrode itself metals and supplies the necessary filler metal.
The flux covering decomposes due to arc heat and performs many functions like,
Arc stability.
Weld metal protection from atmosphere, etc.
SUBJECT:
Manuf. Process-I
AIM: Arc Welding Process.


WORKING PRINCIPAL OF PROCESS:

Heat required for welding is obtained from the arc struck between a coated
electrode and the work piece. The arc temperature and thus are heat can be increased or
decreased by employing higher or lower arc currents.
A high current arc with a smaller arc length produces a very intense heat.
The arc metals the electrode and the job, through the arc, and arc deposited along
the joint to be welded. The flux coating metals produces a gaseous shielded and slags to
prevent atmospheric contamination of the molted metal.

ESTABLISHMENT OF ARC:
In manual arc welding arc between the electrode and the work pieces is generally
struck either by momentarily touching the former with the later and taking it (electrode) a
predetermined distance away from the work piece (generally 5mm) or by scratching the
electrode on the job in the arc of a circle.

PROCESS:
Complete edge preparation by selecting one of the types according to thickness of
work pieces and type of material.
Check welding equipment and always take care of electric circuit.
Once the arc has been established and the arc length adjusted, the electrode is
inclined to an angle of approximately 20 degree with the vertical.
The electrode is progressed along the joint at a constant speed, it is lowered, at the
same time and a rate of which it is melting.
This is necessary to maintain a constant arc gap. The bead width can be increased by
employing higher arc currents, lower arc travel speed and by suitable weaving the
electrode.



WELDING EQUIPMENTS:
AC or DC supply
Electrode holder
Welding cables
Welding electrodes
Goggles & protective glass, gloves etc.

ADVANTAGES OF FLUX SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING:
It is the simplest of all the arc welding processes.
The Equipment can be portable and the cost is fairly low.
Due to availability of a wide variety of electrodes, it finds innumerable applications.
A big range of metals and their alloys can be welded.
The quality of weld is good.
Welding can be carried out in any position.

LIMITATION OF FLUX SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING:
Because if limited length of each electrode and brittle flux coating on it
mechanization is difficult.
In welding long joints a defect may occur at the place where welding is restarted with
the new electrode.
The process uses stick electrodes and thus it is slower as compared to MIG welding.
Because of flux-coated electrodes, the chances of slag entrapment and other related
defects are more compare to MIG or TIG welding.
Because of fumes and particles of slug the arc and metal transfer is not very clear and
thus welding control is a beat difficult as compare to MIG welding.



APPLICATION OF FLUX SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING:
Almost all the commonly employed metals and their alloys can be welded by their
process.
This process is used both as fabrication process and for maintenance and repair jobs.
The process finds application in
Air receivers, tank, boiler and pressure vessels fabrications
b. Ship building
c. Pipes and penstock joining
d. Building and bridge construction
e. Automotive and aircraft industry, etc.

WELDING DEFECTS IN WELDING:
Cracks
Distortion
Incomplete penetration
Inclusion
Porosity and blowholes
Poor fusion
Poor weld bead appearance
Spatter
Under cutting & over lapping

(Note: Students have to download/attach the figures/image of different welding defects
in their manual.)



(a) Schematic illustration of the shielded metal arc
welding process.
(b) Schematic illustration of the Shielded Metal Arc
Welding Operation.



AIM: To study resistance welding process and prepare job by using
resistance welding process.

INTRODUCTION:
Welding is a process of metal joining similar type of metals by application of heat,
with or without application of pressure and with or without addition of filler material.
Resistance welding is one of the welding processes in which joint is obtained by
application of heat produced due to resistance to the electric current, with application of
pressure and without addition of filler material.
There are several types of resistance welding processes but the most important are:
Butt Welding
Spot Welding
Seam Welding
Projection Welding
Percussion Welding

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF RESISTANCE WELDING PROCESS:

Two factors mainly responsible for resistance welding are:

1. The generation of heat at the place where two pieces are to be joined.
2. The application of pressure at the place where a weld joint is to be formed.

SUBJECT:
Manuf. Process-I
AIM: Resistance Welding Process.


2. Heat: The heat H for electric resistance welding is generated by passing a large amount
of electrical current (of the order of 3000A 1,00,000A with a voltage between 1 25 volts)
through two pieces of metal that are touching each other.

Heat generation due to resistance to electric current according to the equation

H = I
2
RT
Where, H = Heat generated
R = Resistance of assembly (work piece)
T = Time duration of current flow
I = Current
Current (I) is electric current of high, order that can be obtained by step down
transformer shown in current diagram.
Resistance (R) is of three types
Resistance of the work piece R
1

Resistance between the electrodes and the work R
2
.
Resistance between the faying surfaces of the two metal pieces to be welded together
R
3
.
To obtain sound weld and to avoid over heating of the welding electrodes R
1
& R
2
should be
kept low as possible with respect to R
3
.
Time (T), it is the time duration for which current is supplied to circuit.
Especially in resistance spot welding machine four definite segments or periods of timing are
set up during one welding cycle as shown in diagram.
Squeezing time
Weld time
Hold time
Off time


In automatic machines all this segments of times are controlled automatically where
in manually operated machines weld time is controlled automatically and the operator himself
adjusts the remaining.
Weld times range from one half cycle of 50 cycle frequency for thinnest sheet to as
long as several seconds for thicker plates, depending upon the metal being welded.

3. Pressure: It can be exerted on the work pieces by the welding electrode during the
welding cycle to:
It brings the various inter faces into intimate contact.
It ensures the completion of the electrical circuit.
It permits the weld to be made lower temperatures.
It provides a forging action and thus reduces weld porosity.
As shown in circuit diagram preferably to copper electrodes are incorporated in a
circuit of low resistance and metals to be welded are pressed between the electrodes by
application of pressure. When current I will flow through the resistance of work piece in this
electric circuit for T time duration H amount of heat will be generated at joining surface of
work piece. When sufficient amount of heat will be generated metal at joining surface will
reach at plastic state and due to application of pressure, joint may be obtain.

WELDINNG JOINT TYPES:
Welds are made at the junction of the various pieces that make up the weldment.
The junctions of parts, or joints, are defined as the location where two or more numbers are to
be joined. Parts being joined to produce the weldment may be in the form of rolled plate,
sheet, shapes, pipes, castings, forgings, or billets. The five basic types of welding joints are
listed below.
a. B, Butt Joint: A joint between two members lying approximately in the same
plane.


b. C, Corner Joint: A joint between two members located approximately at right
angles to each other in the form of an angle.

c. E, Edge Joint: A joint between the edges of two or more parallel or mainly
parallel members.
d. L, Lap Joint: A joint between two overlapping members.

e. T, Tee Joint: A joint between two members located approximately at right angles to
each other in the form of a T.

SELECTION OF WELD JOINT:
Each weld type cannot always be combined with each joint type to make a weld
joint. Table shows the welds applicable to the basic joints.
SPOT WELDING PROCESS:
Definition: Spot welding is one of the resistance welding processes in which over lapping
sheets are joined by local fusion at one or more spots by the heat generated by resistance to
the flow of electric current through work pieces by application of pressure.

PROCEDURE:
Initial Preparation:
The job should be clean, free from grease, dirt, paint, scale, oxide etc.
Electrical tip surface should clean, to reduce resistance R
2
by good contact.
Water is running through the electrodes for heavy duty machines,
a) To avoid them from getting overheated and thus damaged.
b) Cool the weld.
Proper welding current has been set on the current selector switch.
Proper time has been set on the weld timer.


Step 1: Electrodes are brought together against the overlapping work pieces and pressure
applied so that the surface comes in physical contact.
Step 2: Welding current is switched on for a definite period of time. It may be at the order
of 3000A to 1, 00,000A or a fraction of second or for few seconds depending upon the nature
of material and its thickness.
Due to that as the current passes through one electrode and the work pieces to the other
electrodes, a small area at contact is heated up to 815c to 930c.
To achieve satisfactory spot weld, the nugget area of coalesced metal should form with no
melting of the material between the faying surfaces.
Step 3: At this stage the welding current is cut off. Extra electrode force is than applied or
force is prolonged till the metal cools down and gains strength.
Step 4: The electrode pressure is released to remove the spot welded work piece.
Applications: This method may be used to weld steel and other metal parts up to a total
thickness of 12 mm. practically, all combination of ductile metals and alloys can be spot
welded. The spot welding method is widely used for fabricating all types of sheet metal
structures where mechanical strength rather than water or air tightness is required. This may
be applied to all types of boxes, cans, enclosing cases, etc.
Advantages of Spot welding:
Low cost, so very economical.
High speed of welding.
Less skilled worker can also perform the task.
More general elimination of warping or distortion of parts.
High uniformity of products.
Operations may be made automatic or semi automatic
No edge preparation is needed.


SPOT RESITANCE WELDING SET UP

PRINCIPLE OF ARC WELDING PROCESS


(a) Sequence in the Resistance Spot Welding operation.
(b) Cross-section of a spot weld, showing weld nugget and
light indentation by the electrode on sheet surfaces.



AIM: To study cold drawing process and their application.

INTRODUCTION:
Drawing operations involves the forcing of metal through a die by means of a
tensile force applied to the exit side of the die. Most of the plastic flow is caused by the
compressive force which arises from the reaction of the metal with the die. Usually the metal
has a circular symmetry, but this is not an absolute requirement.
Rods, tubes and extrusion are often given a cold finishing operation to reduce the
size, increase the length, improve the finish, and provide better accuracy. In general the
preparatory steps in cold drawing of bars and tubes that have been hot rolled is that of
removing all traces of scale. This is best done by immersing them in a vat of dilute sulphuric
acid from 15 to 30 minutes, removing and washing in fresh water. After the scale is removed
the material is washed in lime to remove the acid. The lime, plus shop or oil act as good
drawing lubricants.
TYPES OF DRAWING PROCESS:
There are three types of drawing process which are as follows:
WIRE DRAWING:
A wire by definition is circular with small diameter so that it is flexible. The
process of wire drawing is to obtain wires from rods of bigger diameter through a die wire
drawing is always a cold working process.
SUBJECT:
Manuf. Process-I
AIM: To study Cold Drawing process and their
application.


A typical wire drawing die is shown in fig. the wire drawing die is of conical
shape. The end of the rod or wire, which is to be further reduced is made into a point shape
and inserted the die opening. This end is than gripped on the other side with a gripper which
would then pull the wire through the die. The wire thus drawn is than coiled round a power
reel.
Before the wire is drawn the stock needs to be prepared for wire drawing. The
material should be sufficiently ductile since it is pulled by the tensile forces. Hence, the wire
may have to be annealed properly to provide the necessary ductility. Further the wire is to go
through the conical portion and then pulled out through the exit by the gripper.
In this process there is no force applied for pushing the wire in to the die from the
entrance side. To make for an easier entrance of wire in to the die the end of the stock is made
pointed to facilitate the entry. This pointing is done by means of rotary swaging or by simple
hammering.
The other aspect of preparation needed is the cleaning of the wire and lubricating
it as it flows through the die. Cleaning is essentially done to remove any scale and rust
present on the surface which may severely affect the die. It is normally done by acid pickling.
The wire is coated with a thin coat of ferrous hydroxide which when combined
with lime act as filler for lubricant. This process is called sulling.
The dies used for wire drawing are affected by high stresses and abrasion. The
various die materials that are used are chilled cast iron, tool steel, tungsten carbide and
diamond. For very large size alloy steels are used for making dies. The tungsten carbide is
used for medium size wire and large production, the tungsten carbide dies are preferred
because of their long life which is 2 to 3 times that of alloy steel. For very fine wires,
diamond dies are used.
Wire drawing improves the mechanical properties because of cold working. The
material loses its ductility during this process and when it is to be repeatedly drawn to bring it
to final size, intermediate annealing is required to restore the ductility. The drawing machine
can be arranged in tandem so that the wire coming from one side is coiled up to sufficient
length before it is re-entered into the subsequent die and so on.



BLANK DRAWING OR CUPPING:
It is the process of making cup, shells, and similar articles from metal blanks. The
setup is similar to that used in blanking except that the punch and die are provided with the
necessary rounding at the corners to allow for the smooth flow of metal during drawing. The
blank is first kept on die plate. The punch slowly descends on the blank and forces it to take
the cup shape formed by the end of punch, by time it reaches the bottom of the die.
When the cup reaches the counter bored portion of the die, the top edges of cup
formed around the punch expands slightly due to spring back. When the punch moves in
return stroke, the cup would be stripped by this counter bored portion. Second draw or more
draw performed on blank for further reduction in diameter and to increase height. Diameter of
such part is less than its height such process is known as deep drawing. The ratio D/d is
known as drawing ratio where D is the diameter of blank and d is the diameter of cup. It is
assumed that there is no change in thickness during drawing process.

TUBE DRAWING:
Tube drawing is similar to wire drawing except for the fact that the dies are bigger
because of the tube size being larger than the wire. But tube drawn in coiled from is to
straightened and then cut into proper length.
For larger size stock called bar, the heavy equipment which generally keeps the
drawn product straight, is used since bar cannot be coiled. The straight drawing equipment
consists of a table which contains roller on which the bar stock is fed into the die head after
pointing. The point of bar is then pulled out through the die and put on carriage. The carriage
will be somewhat like an endless chain with grips which grasp the metal protruding from the
die and pull along as the chain moves. The bar coming out of die are generally of short
length, so that when they are completely drawn, they can be transported to another place from
the draw bench.
Tube drawing requires a mandrel of requisite diameter to form the internal hole.
There may be more than one pass required to get the final size and when the final size is


obtained, the tube may be annealed and straightened. This process is used to make seamless
tube and oxy-acetylene cylinder.

CHARACTERISTIC OF DRAWING PROCESS:
Characteristics Are As Follows:
Mechanical and chemical properties of metal are not much affected by drawing.
By drawing process maximum reduction up to 50% of blank area can be achieved.
Compressive test is necessary of metal for the process like deep drawing.
Cracks can be avoided by intermediate annealing.
Strength and hardness of metal increase.
Good surface finish and accuracy can be achieved.

DEFECTS IN DRAWING PROCESS:

Wrinkle: it occurs when pressure pad and blank holder is not used. It also developed due to
lack of proper clearance between die and punch.

Excessive reduction in work piece thickness: it occurs when there is no proper radius on
punch and die and also due to improper pressure.

Cracks: if the speed of drawing tool is not uniform, fracture of metal take place. In addition
to this cracks developed in side wall when excessive pressure is applied by blank holder.



Wire Drawing Process

Tube Making



AIM: To study the brazing and soldering process.
INTRODUCTION:
Soldering and brazing provide permanent joint to bond metal pieces. Soldering
and brazing process lie somewhere in between fusion welding and solid state welding. These
processes have some advantages over welding process. These can join the metal having poor
weldability, dissimilar metals; very less amount of heating is needed. The major disadvantage
of joint made by soldering and brazing has low strength as compared to welded joint.
OBJECTIVE:
After studying this, you should be able to
Introduction to allied welding processes,
Welding soldering and brazing comparative study,
Different methods of soldering and brazing and machine tool, and
Defects and applications of soldering and brazing.
PRINCIPLE OF BRAZING:
In case of brazing joining of metal pieces is done with the help of filler metal.
Filler metal is melted and distributed by capillary action between the faying surfaces of the
metallic parts being joined. In this case only filler metal melts. There is no melting of work-
piece metal. The filler metal (brazing metal) should have the melting point more than 450C.
Its melting point should be lesser than the melting point of work-piece metal. The
metallurgical bonding between work and filler metal and geometric constrictions imposed on
SUBJECT:
Manuf. Process-I
AIM: Brazing and Soldering Process.


the joint by the work-piece metal make the joint stronger than the filler metal out of which the
joint has been formed.
BRAZING PROCESSES:
All the processes covered here can also be applied to soldering processes. These
common processes are being described below.
TORCH BRAZINNG:
In case of torch brazing, flux is applied to the part surfaces and a torch is used
to focus flame against the work at the joint. A reducing flame is used to prevent the
oxidation. Filler metal wire or rod is added to the joint. Torch uses mixture of two
gases, oxygen and acetylene, as a fuel like gas welding.
FURNACE BRAZING:
In this case, furnace is used to heat the work-pieces to be joined by brazing
operation. In medium production, usually in batches, the component parts and brazing
metal are loaded into a furnace, heated to brazing temperature, and then cooled and
removed. If high production rate is required all the parts and brazing material are
loaded on a conveyer to pass through then into a furnace. A neutral or reducing
atmosphere is desired to make a good quality joint.

INDUCTION BRAZING:
Induction brazing uses electrical resistance of work-piece and high frequency
current induced into the same as a source of heat generation. The parts are pre-loaded
with filler metal and placed in a high frequency AC field. A frequency ranging from 5
to 5000 kHz is used. High frequency power source provides surface heating; however,
low frequency causes deeper heating into the work-pieces. Low frequency current is
recommended for heavier and big sections (work-pieces). Any production rate low to
high can be achieved by this process.



RESISTANCE BRAZING:
In case of resistance welding the work-pieces are directly connected to
electrical rather than induction of electric current line induction brazing. Heat to melt
the filler metal is obtained by resistance to flow of electric current through the joint to
be made. Equipment for resistance brazing is same that is used for resistance welding,
only lower power ratings are used in this case. Filler metal into the joint is placed
between the electrodes before passing current through them. Rapid heating cycles can
be achieved in resistance welding. It is recommended to make smaller joints.

DIP BRAZING:
In this case heating of the joint is done by immersing it into the molten soft
bath or molten metal bath. In case of salt bath method, filler metal is pre-loaded to the
joint and flux is contained in to the hot salt bath. The filler metal melts into the joint
when it is submerged into the hot bath. Its solidification and formation of the joint
takes place after taking out the work-piece from the bath. In case of metal bath
method, the bath contains molten filler metal. The joint is applied with flux and dipped
to the bath. Molten filler metal, fills the joint through capillary action. The joint forms
after its solidification after taking it out from molten metal bath. Fast heating is
possible in this case. It is recommended for making multiple joints in a single work-
piece or joining multiple pairs of work-pieces simultaneously.

INFRARED BRAZING:
It uses infrared lamps. These lamps are capable of focused heating of very thin
sections. They can generate upto 5000 watts of radiant heat energy. The generated heat
is focused at the joint for brazing which are pre-loaded with filler metal and flux. The
process is recommended and limited to join very thin sections.

BRAZE WELDING:
This process also resembles with welding so it is categorize as one of the
welding process too. There is no capillary action between the faying surfaces of metal


parts to fill the joint. The joint to be made is prepared as V groove as shown in the
Figure (A), a greater quantity of filler metal is deposited into the same as compared to
other brazing processes. In this case entire V groove is filled with filler metal, no
base material melts. Major application of braze welding is in repair works.

BRAZING JOINTS AND SURFACE PREPARATION:
Common categorization of joint is butt joint and lap joint is also applicable to
brazing joints. Normally a butt joint provides very limited area for brazing. We know the
strength of the joint depends on the brazing area and so limited brazing area is responsible for
week joint formation. To increase the brazing area the mating parts are often scarified or
stepped by altering them through extra processing. This are demonstrated in Figure (B). The
extra processing makes the alignment of parts, during brazing, slightly difficult.
The other type of joint used in brazing is lap joint. Lap joint can provide relatively
larger overlapping area and so better strength. The parts (work-pieces) to the joined are kept
so that some of their contact area should remain overlapped. Brazing is done on the
overlapped edges of both the parts. Some examples of lapped brazed joints are shown in
Figure (C).
In case of lapped joints over lap of at least three times the thickness of the thinner
part is recommended. An advantage of brazing over welding while making lap joints in that
the filler metal is bonded to the work-pieces throughout the entire interface area between the
parts rather than only at the edges. Clearance between the mating surfaces should be large
enough so that molten filler metal can flow throughout the entire overlapped area. At the
same time clearance should be small enough so that capillary action can exists to facilitate the
flow of molten filler metal between the overlapped area. Recommended clearance is upto
0.25 mm. Other important instruction for making brazing joint is cleanliness of mating
surfaces. The mating surfaces should be free of oxides, oils, grease, etc. to make wetting and
capillary action comfortable. Cleaning may be done using mechanical means or by chemical
treatments depending on the situation.



BRAZING FLUXES, EQUIPMENTS AND FILLER METAL:
Main property of brazing filler metal is its fluidity, its capability of penetration
into the interface of surfaces. Melting point of filler metal must be compatible with work-
piece metal. Molten filler metal should also be chemically insensitive to the work-piece
metal. Filler metal can be sued in any form including powder or paste.
Purpose of brazing flux is same it is in case of welding. It prevents formation of
oxides and other unwanted by products making the joint weaker. Characteristics of a good
flux are:
(a) Low melting temperature,
(b) Less viscosity so that filler metal (molten) can displace it, and
(c) Adhering to the work-piece.
Common fluxes are borax, borates, chlorides and florides.

PRINCIPLE OF SOLDERING:
Soldering is very much similar to brazing and its principle is same as that of
brazing. The major difference lies with the filler metal, the filler metal used in case of
soldering should have the melting temperature lower than 450oC. The surfaces to be soldered
must be pre-cleaned so that these are faces of oxides, oils, etc. An appropriate flux must be
applied to the faying surfaces and then surfaces are heated. Filler metal called solder is added
to the joint, which distributes between the closely fitted surfaces. Strength of soldered joint is
much lesser than welded joint and less than a brazed joint.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOLDERS:
Most of the solder metals are the alloy of tin and lead. These alloys exhibit a wide
range of melting point so different type of soldering metal can be used for variety of
applications. Percentage of lead is kept least due to its toxic properties. Tin becomes
chemically active at soldering temperature and promotes the wetting action required for
making the joint. Copper, silver and antimony are also used in soldering metal as per the


strength requirements of the joint. Different solder their melting point and applications are
given in the Table.
Filler Metal Composition Melting
Point
Applications
Tin Lead Silver Zinc Antimony
- 96 04 - - 305C
Joint making at
elevated temperature
60 40 - - - 188C Electronic circuits
50 50 - - - 199C Wire joining
40 60 - - - 208C
Automobile
radiators
91 - - 09 - 200C
Joining of
aluminium wires
95 - - - 05 238C Plumbing etc.

A solder is selected on the basis of its melting point. If metals to be joined have higher
melting point solder of higher melting point is generally selected. Solder of high melting
point provides better strength of the joint.

TYPES OF SOLDERING FLUX:
Soldering fluxes can be classified as :
a) Organic, and
b) Inorganic fluxes.
ORGANIC FLUXES:
Organic fluxes are either rosin or water soluble materials. Rosin used for fluxes
are wood gum, and other rosin which are not water soluble. Organic fluxes are mostly used
for electrical and electronic circuit making. These are chemically unstable at elevated
temperature but non-corrosive at room temperature.


INORGANIC FLUXES:
Inorganic fluxes are consists of inorganic acids; mixture of metal chlorides (zinc
and ammonium chlorides). These are used to achieve rapid and active fluxing where
formations of oxide films are problems.
Fluxes should be removed after soldering either by washing with water or by
chemical solvents. The main functions performed by fluxes are:
a) Remove oxide films and tarnish from base part surfaces,
b) Prevent oxidation during heating, and
c) Promote wetting of the faying surfaces.
The fluxes should
a) Be molten at soldering temperature,
b) Be readily displaced by the molten solder during the process, and
c) Leave a residue that is non-corrosive and non-conductive.

SOLDERING METHODS:
There is a lot of similarity between soldering and brazing processes. The major
difference between them is less heat and lower temperature is required in case of soldering.
The different processes (methods) used in soldering are touch soldering, furnace soldering,
resistance soldering, dip soldering and infrared soldering. All the above methods are common
to both soldering and brazing processes. There are some more methods used in case of
soldering only, these are hand soldering; wave soldering and reflow soldering. These methods
are described below.
HAND SOLDERING:
Hand soldering is done manually using solder iron. Small joints are made by
this way in very short duration approximately in one second.

WAVE SOLDERING:
Wave soldering is a mechanical and technique that allows multiple lead wires
to be soldered to a Printed Circuit Board (PCB) as it passes over a wave of molten
solder. In this process a PCB on which electronic components have been placed with


their lead wires extending through the through the holes in the board, is loaded onto a
conveyor for transport through the wave soldering equipment. The conveyor supports
the PCB on its sides, so its underside is exposed to the processing steps, which consists
of the following:
a) Flux is applied through foaming, spraying, brushing, and
b) Wave soldering is used pump liquid solder from a molten both on to the bottom
of board to make soldering connections between lead wire and metal circuit on
the board.
REFLOW SOLDERING:
This process is also widely used in electronics to assemble surface mount
components to print circuit boards. In this process a solder paste consisting of solder
powders in a flux binder is applied to spots on the board where electrical contacts are
to be made between surface mount components and the copper circuit. The
components are placed on the paste spots, and the board is heated to melt the solder,
forming mechanical and electrical bonds between the component leads and the copper
on the circuit board.
SOLDERING TOOLS:
The main tool used for soldering is the soldering iron. In addition to soldering
some consumable are also used in the process of soldering like fluxes, solder wire or stick
and spelter. These are described below.

SOLDERING IRON:
It consists of a copper bit attached to iron rod at its one end, and a wooden
handle at the other end. It is used to melt the filler metal and paste it to make the joint.
A soldering iron can be a forge soldering iron which is heated in a furnace to have
sufficient temperature to melt the filler metal or it can be electric solder iron. Electric
solder iron is heated by passing electric current through it. Use of electric solder iron is
popular and cost effective. It is used in making very precise joints in electronic and
electrical equipment.


SPELTER:
Spelter is an alloy of zinc and copper in equal proportion. This is one of the
filler metal with low melting point with other desirable properties to make good
quality solder joint.
Different types of solders and fluxes, which are common consumables used
in soldering have already been described. Some precautions are to be followed to keep
the soldering tools as described below.
a) Selection of correct tool according to the process. A defective tool should not be
used.
b) Electrically heated solder iron should have proper earthing.
c) Hot solder iron, when idle, should be placed on its proper stand.
d) Tip of the solder iron should be cleaned before, its use.
e) Solder iron should be gripped at its handle while in use.

SOLDERING PROCEDURE:
Following sequential steps should be carried out as soldering procedure.

WORK PREPARATION:
Work-pieces which are to be joined together should be perfectly clean. There
should not be any dirt, dust, rust, paint or grease. This is so that the solder or spelter
can stick to the joint with proper strength. Cleaning is done with the help of a file or
sandpaper. In case of joining of conducting wires, insulation of portion to be joined
should be perfectly removed. Sometimes chemicals are used to clean the work-pieces.
De-scaling (removal of scaling) is done by dipping the work-pieces into dilute HCl.

PREPARATION OF JOINT:
After cleaning work-pieces should be kept together in correct position to make the
final joint work-pieces should be clamped to avoid any relative movement between
them that may disturb the joint making. At the joint smaller grooves are made on the


work-pieces to facilitate better flow of molten solder and so good strength of the joint.
There may be the two objectives of joint:
To bear load, and
To make electrical contact.
In case of load bearing joints lap joint or butt joints are preferred. It is important
to note down that strength of a soldered joint cannot be compared with welded joint. If
electrical contact is to be made the solder should be so selected that resistance of joint
should match with the resistance of the conductor.

FLUXING:
Fluxing includes selection of appropriate flux and its application to the
joint. Selection of flux depends on the material of work-piece keeping its purpose in
view. It is applied to the joint with the help of a brush before soldering. It avoids
oxidation of molten metal, helps in flow of molten solder into the joint and so
maintains strength of the joint.

TINNING:
In this step of soldering procedure, the bit of solder iron is cleaned;
application of flux is done over it. It is brought in contact of solder wire so the bit
carries sufficient amount of molten solder over it. After that it is used to make tags of
solder at various processes throughout the joint. If soldering is done to make electrical
contacts of conductivity wires the complete joint is made by tagging few times. In case
of long joint, after tagging the molten solder is filled to the joint by bringing hot bit of
solder iron and solder wire together in contact with the joint. Filling the joint with
molten solder and allowing to solidify is the last step of the procedure called soldering.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS IN SOLDERING:
Keep solder iron always on its stand.
All electrically operated instruments/equipment should have proper earthing.


Sometimes emission of (smoke) soldering operation may be poisonous due to a
particular type of flux. Operator should have protection from the same.
Flux should be applied gradually while soldering.
While diluting HCl, water should not be added to HCl but HCl should be mixed into
the water drop by drop, to avoid accident.
Work place should have enough ventilation and smoking should be strictly prohibited
during the operation. Work place should have the facility of first aid.
It should be noted down good quality surface preparation always contributes to good
quality joint.



Fig (A): Braze Weld

Fig (B): Brazed Butt Joints


Fig (C): Examples of Lap Joints By Brazing

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MP-I Lab Manual IIIrd Sem Mechanical Engineering Department

By: - Aj ay Gupta L. J. Pol ytechni c Page 1

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