Chapter 1 Chemical Reactions

Chapter 1.1 Writing Chemical Equations

Chemical equations have the general form: reactants products.
Substances that are present before the reaction takes place are called the reactants and
the new substances that are formed after the reaction has taken place are called
products.
The two ways of writing chemical equations are either writing as a word equation or as a
balanced formula equation.
An element only contains one type of atom.
A compound consists of two or more different types of atoms that are chemically bonded
together.
Ions have an electrical charge depending on if it has gained or lost electrons. If an atom
loses electrons then it has a positive charge and if an atom gains electrons then it has a
negative charge.
A polyatomic ion or radical is a charged particle that contains more than one type of
atom like ammonium, nitrate, etc.
Metallic bonding is when metals bond together e.g. gold and calcium. All metals except
for mercury are solid and 25:C.
Covalent bonding is when two non-metals bond together by sharing electrons.
A molecule is made up of non-metals and is the smallest number of atoms that exist
bonded together. E.g. a carbon dioxide molecule contains 1 carbon and 2 oxygen atoms.
Noble gases (group VIII) exist by themselves and are called monatomic.
A diatomic molecule consists of two non-metal atoms covalently bonded together.
Elements that are diatomic end in -ine, -gen (e.g. hydrogen, fluorine).
Ionic bonding usually involve metals combining with non-metals. The ionic compounds
are crystalline solids unless they are dissolved in water (aq).
The formula of ionic compounds show the ratio of the ions in the crystal not the actual
quantity. E.g. MgO shows that the ratio of magnesium to oxygen in the ion is 1:1.
Subscript numbers are the small numbers after the element. They show how many of
that type of atom or ion is in the formula.
Larger numbers in front of formulas show how much of each chemical is used and
produced during the reaction. We use these numbers to balance equations.
The Law of Conservation of Matter is a law stating that matter can be neither created
nor destroyed; it can only be changed from one form to another.
Another way of stating the above law is the Law of Conservation of Mass. This law states
that the mass of the products is equal to the mass of the reactants because nothing has
been destroyed or created.
There are four states which a chemical can be found in. These are solid (s), liquid (l), gas
(g) and aqueous (aq) which means that the chemical is dissolved in water.
The Standard Laboratory Condition is at 25:C and 1 atmosphere pressure.




Chapter 1.2 Rate and Yield Considerations
Yield is the amount of product obtained compared to the amount of reactants. This is
important for industries as the higher the yield the greater the profit. This can be
expressed as a percentage.
A fast reaction rate and a good yield is achieved by:
Carrying out the reaction at high temperatures because the reactants would have more
energy.
Using a catalyst that are not consumed in the reaction but help speed it up.
Removing the products as they are formed.
Constantly adding reactants to replace those used up.
Sulfuric acid (H
2
SO
4
) is a chemical that is very important to our everyday lives.
It is the cheapest bulk acid and it is produced in huge quantities worldwide thus its name
king of chemicals.
Sulfuric acid is used in the manufacture of fertilisers (ammonium sulphate), explosives
(nitro-glycerine), anaesthetics and dyes. It is also used in car batteries.
The properties of sulfuric acid are:
Strong acid
Very corrosive
Colourless
A Dense Liquid
Melting point 10.4 :C
Boiling point of 340:C
Very soluble in water
Acts as a drying agent (a desiccant)
Releases a large amount of heat when dissolved in water.

The Contact Process is the most common method used to produce sulfuric acid.
1. S
(s)
+ O
2(g)
--> SO
2(g)

2. 2SO
2(g)
+ O
2(g)
-->2SO
3(g)

3. SO
3(g)
+ H
2
SO
4(l)
--> H
2
S
2
O
7(l)
(Oleum)
4. H
2
S
2
O
7(l)
+ H
2
O
(l)
--> 2H
2
SO
4(l)












Chapter 1.3 100% Organic
Organic chemistry is the chemistry of carbon compounds.
Carbon has four valence electrons meaning that it can bond with up to four other atoms.
This makes carbon unique because it is able to form millions of stable compounds.
A single bond is when one pair of electrons is shared between two atoms.
A double bond is when one pair of electrons is shared between two atoms.
A triple bond is when one pair of electrons is shared between three atoms.
Theoretically a carbon can have a quadruple bond but scientists are yet to prove its
existence.
The simplest organic compounds contain only carbon and hydrogen atoms which are
called hydrocarbons. They are very important in our daily lives as cars run on
hydrocarbon fuels and many plastics that we used are derived from hydrocarbons.
Alkanes are hydrocarbons that only contain single bonds. They have the formula
(C
n
H
2n+2
)
A homologous series is a series of compounds that have the same general formula but
vary by a single parameter, in this case a -CH
2
unit.
The table below shows the prefixes that tell how many carbon atoms are in a compound.













Crude oil is formed from the remains of plants and animals that existed millions of years
ago. The crude oil is refined (separated into its components) by fractional distillation.
This is a process where the crude oil is heated and passed into a column where the
components are separated according to their boiling points into different fractions.
Some of these fractions are used but others are cracked which means producing shorter
chain alkanes and alkenes. This cracking is done by heating the large molecules in the
presence of a catalyst. (see example below)




















Alkenes contain double bonds and have the formula (C
n
H
2n
).
Alkenes are mostly used for making plastics such as polythene which is used to make
shopping bags.
Alkynes contain triple bonds and have the formula (C
n
H
2n-2
).
The simplest alkyne is ethyne, commonly known as acetylene. It can reach very high
temperatures when is burned in a stream of oxygen which is why oxyacetylene torches
are used in welding.
Alcohols contain the hydroxy group OH. The hydroxy group is known as a functional
group. This is an atom or a group of atoms that affects the properties of a compound.

The best known alcohol is ethanol and it is found in beer, wine and spirits. It is also an
excellent solvent and it is found in many glues, paints and inks and also used as a reactant
to make rubbers and flavourings.

Fermentation is one way of producing ethanol. The word equation for this reaction is:
Glucose ethanol + carbon dioxide
The catalyst is yeast.
Another widely used alcohol is 1, 2-ethanediol also known as antifreeze.
Methanol is the main component of methylated spirits.
Propanol is used as rubbing alcohol.
1, 2, 3-propanetriol also known as glycerine or glycerol is used in many moisturisers.
When hydrocarbons are burned in lots of oxygen, carbon dioxide and water is produced.
This is called complete combustion. The heat energy produced from this reaction can be
used to produce electricity e.g. coal fired power stations.
If the supply of oxygen is limited, an incomplete combustion may occur. This produces
less heat energy and also carbon monoxide gas, a deadly pollutant. Two simulatenous
equations: produces carbon monoxideand water and/or carbon and water.












Chapter 5 Motion
5.1 Describing motion
- Distance is the measurement of total length travelled. Displacement is distance regarding how
far you are from original starting point. Displacement is distance with direction. Symbol for
distance and displacement is both s. The SI unit is m.
- Speed is the rate at which distance is covered. Instantaneous speed is speed at any moment an
object is travelling. Average speed is equal to the total distance travelled on total time taken.
Velocity is speed in a direction (e.g. wind moving south). The symbol for speed and velocity is v, SI
is ms
-1
.
FORMULA
To find speed/ velocity: v=st
-1
.
Re-arrange to find distance/ displacement. Remember no fractions: always indices. Always 2
D.P. Speed+ Distance have magnitude, scalar quantity. Velocity+ Displacement have direction
and magnitude, vector quantity.
-Ticker timer is an instrument that breaks movement into a series of small intervals. Gives
accurate way of measuring distances travelled and times taken and provides data from which
speeds can be calculated. A small electric hammer strikes carbon paper at 50Hz (times per
second, same frequency as AC power supply).
-Distance time graph show total distance travelled by object over time. Time is on horizontal axis.
Steeper graphs indicate higher speed etc. The gradient gives average speed.
-Speed time graph shows what is happening in regards to the motion of the object. Time is on
horizontal axis. Gradient indicates speed, if it is flat it means constant speed. Area underneath the
graph gives distance travelled to the point.
5.2 Acceleration
-Acceleration is the rate at which speed or velocity changes. Deceleration/ negative acceleration/
retardation is slowing down. In speed time graph, rapid acceleration is steep gradient, constant
speed/ no acceleration is flat line.
FORMULA
Change in speed/ Time = Acceleration
v=u+at can be rearranged to form a=(v-u)t
-1
.
If you dont have time then: v
2
=u
2
+2as.
If you dont have final speed, s=ut+1/2at
2

V= final velocity, U= Initial velocity, A= acceleration, T= time. Acceleration is measured in speed
units per time unit. SI is ms
-2
.


5.3 Newtons First Law
-Force is a push, pull or twist that causes an object to either: accelerate, decelerate, change its
direction or change its shape. If any of these things happen, a force caused it.
-The first law: Anything at rest will stay that way unless pushed or pulled. Anything that is
moving will keep moving at the same speed and in the same direction unless a force changes it.
- Inertia is an example, where even if the car suddenly stops, you will still move at the
original speed of the car until another force stops you. It also explains why it feels lighter
when in a lift as it first moves. Also explains why when the car turns, you move sideways
(cause you still travel in a straight line when the car turns.)
-Types of forces:
-Contact Forces: friction, air resistance/ drag, buoyancy, surface tension, lift and thrust.
-Non contact force: Weight, electrostatic and magnetic repulsion.

5.4 Newtons Second Law
All acceleration requires a force, the bigger the force, the greater the acceleration. Mass affect
acceleration. Mass is the amount of matter in an object. SI is kg, Symbol is m.
-The second law: If the forces on an object are unbalanced then its motion will change. The
larger the force the bigger the change in motion. A change in motion is called acceleration and
will depend on the mass of the object.
FORMULA
F=ma (force equals mass * acceleration). SI newtons.
-Balancing forces, there is usually more than one force acting on any object. Some of the forces
may cancel out, and if it occurs then the overall force is zero. Thus no acceleration.
5.5 Newtons Third Law
-The third law: For every action force there is an equal and opposite reaction force. There is an
action/ reaction pair of equal and opposite forces, acting on a different object. They never act on
the same object.
-Reaction engines are called rockets as they use action/ reaction forces to provide thrust. They
expel massive quantities of gas in one direction to push in the other direction. The exhaust gases
are tiny, but have high acceleration. It is produced when propellant undergoes chemical
kabooming. A liquid propellant engine uses two liquefied gases e.g. oxygen and hydrogen and
combine them in a combustion chamber. The resulting exhaust stream produces thrust at
35meganewtons. And Accelerates at 3g. At first the rocket sits there until it overcomes gravity.
Solid fuel engines are simpler and cheaper and safer. They contain several chemical in
proportions that allow them to burn quickly without blowing up. Once started it cannot be
stopped. A space shuttle uses two SRBs (solid rocket boosters) which burn for a little over two
minutes before falling. These are the two thin engines.
5.6 Gravity
-Gravity is the rate of acceleration at which objects fall. Galileo proved that acceleration due to
gravity is the same for all similarly shaped objects regardless of weight. Acceleration due to
gravity also depends on the planet and distance from the centre. Symbol is g, SI ms
-2
.
Earths surfaces acceleration= 9.8ms
-2
. This means every second you fall, your speed increases by
around 10ms
-1
. In air acceleration is less because an object pushes air out of its way as it falls, and
the air pushes back with air resistance.
-Weight is the force on a mass that is caused by gravity. It is the force that pulls objects down to
the surface of a planet. Weight depends on the mass of the object and acceleration due to
gravity.
FORMULA

w=mg.
Weight = mass * accel. Due to gravity. SI is newtons.
-Terminal velocity- Air resistance increases as speed increases, the faster you fall the more the
resistance. Eventually it balances the weight, and the total acting force is zero. There is no more
acceleration and the object falls at a constant speed, called terminal velocity. The terminal
velocity varies depending on the shape and size of object.
Our weight often seems to increase because of inertia, g-force is used to describe this. 1g is one
gravity. 2g is gravity acting twice the force it normally has. 8-9g reduced blood supply to brain,
will cause blackouts.
5.7 Work and Energy
-Movement involves energy which is the ability to do work. Work happens whenever things are
shifted or rearranged by a force. The bigger the force, the more work done.
FORMULA

Work= force * distance shifted (displacement).
W=Fs. W is work, and the SI is joules.
-Kinetic energy is energy that is moving, when something moves it is said to have kinetic energy.
The heavier or faster the object, the more kinetic energy and more work done.
FORMULA

Kinetic energy= *mass* speed squared
KE=0.5mv
2
, KE is kinetic energy, it is measured in joules (J).
-Gravitational potential energy, potential energy is stored energy, it gives an object the potential
to do work. If you lift an object to a height you give it gravitational potential energy. The heavier
the object and the higher you lift it, the more energy it will have, and the more damage it will
cause.

FORMULA

Gravitational potential energy= mass* accel. Due to gravity * height.
GPE=mgh. GPE is gravitational potential energy and is in joules.
-Elastic potential energy, when elastic bands and springs are stretched or extended or
compressed they store energy. It is stored as elastic/ potential energy. They have the potential to
release energy and do work when they are let go, bouncing back to their original shape. E.g.
tennis ball compressed, then bounce back causing it to bounce.
Some materials are stiff, which means they need high forces to change shape.
Spring constant is a term used to measure the stiffness of materials, the higher the constant the
stiffer (and less elastic).
FORMULA
Elastic potential energy = 0.5 * spring constant * extension
2

EPE=0.5kx
2
. The x is the extension or compression of the object and is measured in metres. The
k is its spring constant and is measured in Nm
-1
.
Efficiency- Friction between moving surfaces wastes useful energy, converting some of it into
heat and sound. Efficiency is a measure of how much useful energy is retained in a conversion.

FORMULA
Efficiency = (Useful energy after the conversion/ Energy before the conversion) * 100%
For example, a rolling ball will stop due to friction. The kinetic energy it once had has been
converted away to heat and sound thus the efficiency is zero %. A 100% efficient machine would
run quietly and forever because all the energy conversion would be perfect. Another example is a
bouncing ball, losing energy each time it bounces.


Chapter 4 Genetics
Unit 4.1: Inheritance
Gregor Mendel = father of genetics, as he was the most successful to study genetics. He looked at
the characteristics of peas, or traits.
True-breeding plants: produce offspring with the same particular trait as the parent.
Mendel found that cross pollination of true-breeding plants will create an off-spring with the traits
of one of their parent (E.g. round pea + wrinkled pea = round pea offspring). This is known as F1
generation).
F1 generation plants were cross pollinated, then the
offspring may have both traits. This is known as F2
generation.
Traits are classified into two types:
Dominant: the trait from F1 generation
Recessive: the trait that was hidden in F1 generation,
but reappeared in the F2 generation.
Gametes: reproductive cells (ova, sperm) that
combine to form the first cell of a new organism,
with it receiving one hereditary gene from each
parent.
Gene: hereditary unit that defines a particular characteristic. Genes are a set of instructions which
determine your characteristics (hair, eye colour). Genes are located on specific portions of DNA
located on chromosomes.
Chromosomes: Found in the nucleus and the mitochrondria of a cell. They are long thread-like
structures made of DNA and protein.
Chromosomes come in homologous pair in a cell which is similar in shape and size, one from
mother and one from father.
Diploid cells: two of each type of chromosome in the cell. Half come from dad, the other from
mum.
Therefore gametes contain only one of the full pair of each type of chromosome, hence named
haploid cells (23 chromosomes).
Mitosis:
What is mitosis?
Mitosis is a form of cell division in which one cell divides itself in half in order to make
two identical copies of itself.
How it works?
Mitosis works through one cell dividing its nucleus (sort of like the brain of the cell) in
two, thus creating two copies of itself, and then it splits itself in half, creating two new
identical which are smaller sizes.







Meiosis: cell division in the ovaries and testes. It allows for the passing of chromosomes from two
parents to an offspring. During meiosis, the chromosomes are duplicated. There are two divisions:
1) Individual chromosome of each homologous pair separating to form two cells, with each
containing one copy of the chromosome.
2) The duplicated chromosome separates again, to form in the end four daughter cells.
What is Meiosis?
Meiosis is a form of cell division in which a diploid cell (one which contains 46 chromosomes) divides
itself in quarters to form four similar yet separate forms of itself. It is similar to mitosis but instead it is
made up of several divisions.
How it works?
The first step in meiosis is duplication within the parent cell which is similar to the duplication in
mitosis.
After this, the two homologous pairs of duplicates meet with each other and infuse characteristics
into the other and then split up again, thus making it similar to the parent cells but not identical. This
is a process unique to meiosis.
After this the four separate chromosomes line up and are split into two cells.
Then they line up again and are split up again. But inside the resulting haploid cells there are two
chromosome strands which were split from two different chromosomes, making the genetics of the
cell even more unique. This leaves four daughter cells which are similar but not identical.






















Alleles: different
forms of the same gene (e.g. colour gene for peas, one for green and one for
yellow).
Genotype: different combination of parent genes (one from each parent).
Homozygous: both alleles are the same
Hetereozygous: two alleles are different
Phenotype: appearance produced by genotype. Regardless of combination,
it will follow the characteristic of the dominant allele. E.g. G = dominant
gene (Green), g = recessive gene (yellow. GG and Gg = green, gg = yellow.
Punnett squares: used to represent heritance. Basically a square
which represents probability.
Codominance: In codominance the phenotype of the
heterozygous organism is a combination of the phenotypes of
the homozygous organism parents. Basically they are all
dominate, hence the offspring will become a mix.
Incomplete dominance: when the heterozygous offspring have
a phenotype between the phenotypes of the two homozygous
organism. E.g. snapdragon (flower): R+ R = R, W + W = W,
but R+ W = Pink

Unit 4.2: Human Inheritance
Characteristics are controlled by genes.
Albinism: inability to produce melanin (colour of
our skin), hence an albino has white hair and pink
eyes.
E.g. A = dominant normal colour, a = recessive
albinism. Two people with Aa will then have one in
four chance of creating an abinistic offpsring (AA,
Aa, aA and aa).
Blood type are in two groups: ABO and RH. RH are controlled by alleles, therefore, a person can be
homozygous or hetereozygous RH positive or homozygous RH negative. One allele is dominant over
the other.
ABO has 3 types of alleles: IA, IB and IO. . I
A
and I
B
are codominant, I
o
is recessive.
Eye colour: Brown eye (allele B) are dominant over blue (allele b). BB and Bb = brown, bb = blue.
Green/grey = forms of blue, hazel/black = forms of brown.
3 genes contribute to eye colour, 1
st
: chromosome 15
(brown and blue allele), 2
nd
: chromosome 19
(blue/green allele) and 3
rd
: chromosome 15 again (just
brown).

Discontinuous variation: distinct characteristic (left or
right handed).
Continuous variation: Height and eye colour (as theres a range and not just yes or no).
Pedigree: pictorial family tree where individuals in the family
who had a disease is marked. Symbols of pedigree are on the
right.
E.g. if both parents have night blindness, it doesnt mean
their child necessarily have night blindness too. (Could have
two recessive allele). If this is the case, then both the parents
are heterozygous.
REFER TO TEXTBOOK FOR MORE EXAMPLES
BEFORE EXAM.
X and Y chromosome: 22 pairs of chromosomes are the same
size and shape but 23
rd
pair is different (X and Y
chromosome).
Males have genotype XY, female has genotype XX. Ovas
contain an X and sperm has an X or Y. Hence it is the sperm which determines the offsprings sex.
X chromosome carries many genes, Y carries few
X chromosome will always control the phenotype of Y regardless if X is dominant or recessive. This is
because Y chromosome carries few genes, meaning most of the time there is no matching homologous
pair/ allele pair.
X-linked condition: X is the recessive gene, includes colour blindness and haemophilia. A lot more
frequent in male than female. This is because females have two X chromsomes and thus if their X
chromosome contains the dominant
allele they will have it hidden
(become a carrier) in comparison to
males where there is no other allele
to balance it out.

Unit 4.3: The Molecule of Life
J.Watson, M.Wilkins and F.Crick created model of DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid, and
it is a molecule which
carries the genetic code
that determines the
characteristics of living
things. It is in a shape of a
double helix.
DNA molecule = double
helix (Two strands with
bases in between).
The strands itself is made of alternating sugar and phosphate unit, with the lines in between being
nitrogen bases.
The four nitrogen bases are A (adenine), T (thymine), C (cytosine) and G (guanine).
Complementary pairs: A with T and C with G. Hence ATCGs complementary strand = TAGC.
Sequence/order of bases in the strand determines our hereditary.
DNA is replicated during mitosis. First, strands are unzipped, An exact copy is made by matching its
complementary bases. Therefore, two new DNA strands are formed, within each one, one old and one
new strand joining together
A gene can have up to 1000 bases. Difference of one gene to another is order of bases. Varying base
orders form varying genetic code. The genetic code determines the type/sequence of amino acids that
cells use to make protein molecule. The genetic code consists sets of 3 bases (codones). E.g. CAA =
valine. Thus each codon combination spells out a type of amino acid. 64 codons make up 20 different
amino acids.
Protein: polymers made of amino acids joined in a string.
The order of codons is the order of amino acids on a length of protein. Codons appear ot be universal
(same codon always specifies same amino acid).
Proteins determine characteristics, as they are enzymes that control chemical activities. E.g. tyrosine
(colourless amino acid) + tyrosinase (enzyme) = melanin (dark colour pigment). If enzyme is missing,
albinism results.
Gene expression: the appearance in the organism of the characteristic that the gene is coded is for.
Genes control when and where the gene is to act. Referred to switched on and off. If switched off at
some parts of the body, then the function wont happen in that area. This is caused by chemicals within
the cell.
Mutations: any spontaneous change in a gene or chromosome that may produce an alteration in the
related characteristic. Only mutations in gametes are inherited.
Mutagens: are mutation causing agents, e.g. X rays, ultra violet light, chemicals such as benzene.
Single-gene mutations: involve in one gene only. E.g. caused by sickle cell anaemia, results in
distorted haemoglobin and red blood cell shaped like a sickle. From on section of DNA being
copied incorrectly.
Whole-chromosome mutation: the whole chromosome added or lost (e.g. during meiosis,
gamete get an extra chromosome, resulting in spontaneous natural abortion or Down syndrome
(Tri-21).
Good mutations: E.g. granny smith apples.
Unit 4.4: Controlling inheritance (SOOOO LONG
:/)
Selective breeding: breeding to get the best benefits.
E.g. keeping the seeds from the best plants for next
years crop.
Genetic engineering: uses gene technology to
manipulate the DNA. This allows: isolation,
alteration, replication of the gene and reinsert the
gene into another organism or into another position
in the same organism. This technology has led to
larger harvests, greater disease resistance, improved
storage properties and food that last longer/taste
better.
GM food: E.g. GM cotton, canola oil and potatoes in chips. Benefits of GM include: produce bacteria
that can produce energy, clean up oil spills/process waste and can help to eliminate genetic diseases.
Gene technology: uses natural enzymes that either cut or joins DNA, with that segment of DNA
inserted into bacteria.
DNA is NOT directly inserted into the bacteria.
Plasmids (circular piece of DNA which occur naturally
in bacterial cells) are cut open by enzymes, then foreign
DNA is inserted, and the plasmid is rejoined. This
molecule is called recombinant DNA.
The altered plasmid is put into the bacteria. E.g. Insulin
and vaccines for Hep B are made this way.


Transgenics: the animal/ plant with new/ modified genes in
which are inserted ino their embryo or shot into their host
cells. Genes becoming permanently fixed hard, but successful
cells which harvest the new gene are isolated.
Prenatal testing: identifies genetic defects before a baby is
born. Gene probe: small piece of DNA with a base identical
to part of a gene thats defected. Therefore, a DNA sample
from the embryo are tested with the probe to see if theres any
problems with the baby.
There are two methods of prenatal testing: amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling. Work through
extracting fluid in mothers abdomen which contains cells which have fallen off during development, goes
through centrifuge and then cells are separated for testing.
Gene probes are also used in DNA fingerprinting to determine whether or not two people are related.
Everyone has an unique sequence of bases in their DNA (except identical twins).
Cloning: the production of an organism from a single cell. Each body cell contains all information
needed to make new organism. Clone results when one of these body cells is grown to produce a new
individual.
Example of cloning: refer to diagram on the right.
Therapeutic cloning: used to repair injuries by placing new cells in the damaged part of the body.
Full process is on the right.Stem cells grow into any type of cell given correction condition.
Gene cell therapy: removing the genetic material from some other parts body cells, manipulating it and
reinserting it into the person.
Genetic Map: shows the position of specific genes along the chromosomes. E.g. Human Genome
Project identifies every gene and base pairs in the genes of humans.












Chapter 7 Evolution
Unit 7.1: The Evolution of a Theory
Adaptations: the characteristics of an organism which suits to the environment and increase their chances
of survival. Adaptations are inherited, and are either structural (physical) or behavioural (the way the
organism act).
Structural: E.g. camouflage (colour or nearby objects), two headed, bright colour (poisonous),
mimic (e.g. owlet moth look like an owl, but actually isnt) and features that make the animal
look bigger than it is.
Behavioural: sit still to avoid predators, use tools, collect/store food for winter and form herds
to provide protection against predators.
Plants have adaptations too, such as an orchid mimics the shape, colour and smell of a female bee,
attracting male bees to transfer pollen from flower to another.
Variations: are the differences between the same species. Could be caused by mutations or environmental
factors. Those with favourable characteristics are the ones that are best adapted to the environment and
therefore has the highest chance of surviving/ being selected to live. Those without these characteristics
will most likely die out or become less common.
Evolution is the gradual development of different species from a common ancestor
Theory of biological evolution: states life has changed over time and is the gradual development of
different species from a common ancestor. Although it is only a theory (collection of hypotheses that has
been tested and supported consistently by avaliable evidence), its more reliable than believing in no proof
creation (god).
Basically two scientists came up with 2 theories, Lamarck and Darwin.
Theory Lamarcks Theory Darwins Theory
Recognised life form changes? Yes, Year 1809. Yes, Year 1858.
Nature of change Acquired characteristics: organisms
bring about changes in themselves.
Organism naturally vary and that
changes to the proportions of these
natural variations can only be seen
in populations.
Time for change to occur One lifetime. Many generations.
Advantage: Changes can be passed on. Also believed could be inherited.
Mechanism for change Depends on individuals striving
for perfection in itself.
Natural selection: the good ones live,
the crap ones die out.
Exanoke Short neck giraffe has to stretch its
neck to reach food, hence this gets
passed on to its offspring, making
Some giraffes had long/short necks. Long
necks survived as they can reach
food, short necks died out eventually.
their necks taller until no giraffes
have short necks anymore.
Therefore, long neck is all thats
left.
Evidence Adaptation, fossil record Adaptations, fossil record, homo-
logous sturutures, biogeographical
diversity patterns.
Darwin was unable to explain the source of the variation in species that was central to
his theory as he had no understanding of genetics as we do today.

Unit 7.2: Evolution Unravelled
Natural selection: process in which the environment causes favourable characteristics to be
more common, then after generations, the species will become better adapted as long as the
environment doesnt change. This usually takes too long to be observed, but bacteria and
insects are quicker.
E.g. Peppered moth changed from light to dark colour due to pollution soot on trees. If its
too light coloured, the moth is too easily spotted, hence it adapted to become dark. But now,
pollution is more regulated, therefore the moths are turning back to white again.
E.g. Mosquitoes by natural selection has adapted and became natural resistant to pesticides
developed over the 20 years. Or rabbits myxoma resistant.Or myxoma in rabbits where virus
want to live longer (thus taking longer to kill rabbit) causing these to be selected to live.
Species: group of organisms that normally interbreed to produce fertile offspring.
Speciation: formation of a new species. This can be caused after natural selection along with
isolations and mutations. For speciation to occur, there needs to be:
Geographical isolation (e.g. population of rabbits lived separately with no chance of
reproducing with each other. Then by natural selection, they will soon become so
different to each other that they can be counted as a subspecies).
Reproductive isolation: the two geographical spaced species can no longer mate with
each other, due to reasons such as difference in mating seasons or they dont
recognise each other, or sperm cant fertilise eggs as a result of their separation.
There are several types of evolution, including:
Divergent evolution: new forms can evolve from
a single ancestor, due to new environment. This
results in adaptive radiation.
Convergent evolution: similar structure in
organisms despite different origins. This is due to
similar habitat/lifestyle and same environment.
Analogous structures: look similar but are from
different ancestors. E.g.dolphin and shark.
Parallel evolution: related species evolve similar
features while separated from each other. This
means they live away from each other but
probably have common ancestry (E.g. monkeys).

Unit 7.3
Palaeontology: study of fossils. Life forms have
changed from over 3500 million years ago. Fossils
are preserved evidence of past life found in
sedimentary rocks. Fossils can be actual organisms,
hard parts (teeth/bones), impressions of organisms
(hollowed casts) and footprints. Age of rocks are
estimated using radioisotope-dating methods, to
form a geological time scale. Era (e.g. Mesozoic)
Periods (e.g. Jurassic) Epochs (e.g. Eocene).
Theory of appearance of life: methane or ammonia
or hydrogen or water + energy(lightning etc)=
complex organic molecule. These molecule gather
and the first cells appeared.
Climate change and altered sea levels account for the disappearance of 50% of water invertebrates.
Large asteroid and dust storms are believed to have caused the extinction of dinosaurs.
Some animals appeared, but now survives in small numbers only. (e.g. jawfish).
Fossilisation is rare, as it has to be in the right conditions with no damage to the sendimentary rocks.
Transitional forms: the evolution of an animal. E.g. from jawless fish bony fish amphibians
reptiles/birds mammals. There are links between them all.
Homologous structures: fundamentally similar structures (e.g. basic limb with 5 digits). The organisms that
share this structure most likely had a common ancestor but the differences are because of environmental
factors.
Biogeography: study of the distribution of plants and animals past
and present. There are two main mechansims, including:
Isolation followed by divergent evolution: Species evolved
only in the area, hence only dispersed in the area. E.g.
monotremes (platypus) and ratites (flightless birds, like emu
and ostrich). Monotremes are only in the southern
hemisphere meaning it was created when Pangea already
broke off, while ratites were created back when Pangea was
still intact (hence ostrich in africa and emu in australia).
Migration followed by divergent evolution: basically animal
moved and then adapted in that environment, causing
similar species in different areas. E.g. ilama in South
America and camel in North america.
Genes tell us exactly how related organisms are. E.g. chimpanzee is
98.5% identical to human.
Gene duplication: an organism have an extra gene for a particular
characteristic (e.g. milk production).

Unit 7.4: Human Evolution
Humans belong in the order of Primates. All primates have: forward facing eyes, five fingers/toes, and
basically just if in exam, look at your goddamn body and name every part you have (Y).
Homonoids: most recent evolved group of primates. Includes gibbons, gorillas, chimpanzees and humans.
Basically humans and apes are still quite distantly related, due to different evolutionary paths in the first
place.
If the homo line is tested, good luck leon and just use the textbook to cheat. But: Homo habilis (50%
larger brain, use tools, 2 mya) Homo erectus (1.5 mya, live in caves and used fire, 1000cm^3 brain).
Homo sapiens. Some other species in the homo line are neanderthal man (died due to change of climate,
100 000 years old), and Cro-Magnon man (40 000 years
old, hunters who used tools and developed art).
Homosapiens walk upright, developed small teeth, shorter
arms, flatter fee/face and larger brain size. Humans
developed, as now we use tools, developed speech, forms
of writing and know what is wrong/right.
Of all the animal species to have existed, only 1% survives
today.

















Chapter 3 Electricity

3.1 Electricity
A circuit is a path from one side of a power source to the other. It has the following 4 parts:
- Energy Source e.g. power pack
- Conducting path e.g. wires
- A Load e.g. globe
- Switch
The three important values that can be measured in circuits are:
- Currents, the rate of flow of the moving charge i.e. Electrons. Measured in Amperes (A)
or I. 1 ampere = 1 coulomb of charge passing through a point per second
- Voltage measured in Volts (V) is measuring how much energy is
o available to push current through the circuit
o used to push the current
- Resistance is a measure of how much a load restricts the flow of current and is measured
in ohms or shown as R.
The 2 types of circuits are series and parallel
- Series circuit is arranging two globes on after the other in a line with a battery. The
voltage is split between the 2 globes but the current is same. If one globe is removed the
circuit wont work.
- Parallel circuits are arranging globes next to each other but on spate branches. The
voltage is the same but the current is split. Each globe is equally bright. If one is
removed, the other globe remains lit.
Ohms law is measured as R = V/I = slope. Voltage is directly
proportional to the current and is always graphed as a straight line.
The difference between AC and DC is the way the electrons move in the wire.
- DC currents have electrons flowing in one direction from negative to positive or vice versa
- In AC currents the electrons travel back and forth. This is because the voltage at the
power point constantly changes from positive to negative. The back and forth movement
is measured in Hz. One cycle being 1 Hz. In Australia 240V are used and moves back and
forth at 50Hz
3.2 Electromagnetism
Electromagnetism is the connection between electricity and
magnets. The different types of magnetic fields that can be made
are shown. A solenoid is when a wire is coiled so that several
loops are placed together. An electromagnet is a solenoid with
an iron core that further concentrates with an iron that further
concentrates the field down the centre. These can be switched on and off.
The uses for electromagnets are:
- Industrial
o Used mainly in metal scrap yards
- Door Latch
o To open a door a button is pressed resulting in a current flowing to the coil. This
results in the magnetic field attract the latch to open the door.
- Electric Bell
o When the switch is pressed the electromagnet attracts the strikes causing it to
sound the bell and break the circuit by moving it apart. A repetition of this is a
bell ringing sound.
- Relays
o These are found in cars and machinery
- Speakers
o A speaker receives varying electrical current that flows through a coil causing it to
become an electro magnet. The speaker also has a permanent magnet. The
magnets attract when the current is fed producing vibrations in the cone creating
sound.
- Television
o Electromagnets control which pixels are illuminated on a TV screen
- Trains
o Japanese trains use electromagnets to lift the train 10 cm above the track and
propel it at speeds over 500 km/h. This is also assisted by the shape and lack of
friction.
An magnetic field causes an electric current. It always creates an AC current. This is how the
generator was produced.
- Generators can be used to power a city or bike.
- A vending machines uses this in the coin area. Coins of the right metal and size will slow
down due to attraction by an electromagnet or coins of wrong size and metal will hit an
upper plate and fall into the reject chute.
Transformers use solenoid to either increase or reduce voltage to the value required. A
transformer is used to get electricity to our homes.

3.3 Waves in Communication
Longitudinal waves vibrate back and forth and transverse waves travel vibrate up and down.
Frequency refers to the rate of waves per second measured in Hertz (Hz)
- The distance between successive crests or troughs in a wave is a wavelength and the
amplitude is the maximum distance from the normal for transverse waves.
- In longitudinal waves, the wavelength is distance between a rarefaction and compression
and the amplitude is the distance that particles vibrate from their middle position.
- Light consists of electromagnetic waves that travel at 300 000 km/s. Electromagnetic
waves are self-propagating waves that change from electric to magnetic and so on.
The electromagnetic spectrum in order of small to larger wavelength is gamma, x-rays, ultraviolet,
visible light, infra-red, microwave and radio waves. (GXUVIMR)
- Gamma Rays are high energy in the form of nuclear energy and are radioactive. They can
be used to destroy cancer cells and detected by photographic film
- X-rays are produced when fast fast-moving electrons lose energy suddenly. They do not
penetrate bone but can penetrate flesh which is how a photograph of the body is made.
- Ultra-violet (UV) radiation. A small amount of IV radiation is used to help produce Vitamin
D and is produced by the Sun. Too much causes cancer
- Visible Light are the colours of the rainbow (ROYGBIV) and various combos too.
- Infra-red Rays is Latin for below and have frequency below of red light. They are
associated with heat. All objects emit vibrating atoms and the hotter the object, the more
vibration. This is how heat can be detected.
- Microwaves are short radio-waves and are generated by vibrating electrons in electrical
devices and have wavelengths less than a few centimetres. It is used in satellite
communication and mobiles.
- Radio Waves used in TV and radio
o Long used for communication around Earth

3.4 Communications Network
A telegraph is send electrical pulses along a wire to communicate. A Morse code was used to send
messages in 1844
- The telephone invented By Alexander Bell used varying electrical impulses for tramsission
along a wire and then converting the impulse. A telephone requires:
o Transmitters
o Receivers
o Exchanges
o Network connecting users
- Today most homes use analogue signal. FDM is using several carrier waves of different
frequencies.





Chapter 6 Health and Disease
6.1 Health
What is needed for good health?
Good nutrition
o Nutrients - Any substance that is used by an organism either as a source of energy or
to build living tissue.
o Macronutrients - Nutrients that provide provide (e.g. fats, proteins, carbohydrates)
A balancing act
o Variety of foods - fruits & vegies, breads & cereals, dairy products, fish, lean meats
and water.
o
Adequate energy
o An average teenager requires 10000 - 12000 kJ.
A healthy mind
Adequate exercise

Aboriginal diet
Traditional diet
o Plants, seeds, nuts, fruits, hunting animals
o Low in fat and sugars
o High in carbs, fibre, protein, nutrients
New foods
o Flour, sugar, processed meat
o Less chance to gather traditional foods
o Aboriginal diet lacked nutrients e.g. protein, vitamins, minerals
Modern diet
o High in fats and sugar and kJ
o Low in nutritional values
o Less exercise
6.2 Disease
Disease
Disease - anything that makes you feel unwell, or makes you unable to function properly
Pathology - study of disease
o Pathologists
Organism - any plant or Animal
Micro-organism (microbe) - a very small organism that can
be seen only by using a microscope. Sometimes micro-organisms consist of
only one cell.
Agent/Pathogen - something that causes disease.
Host - the organism being affected by the agent.
Parasite - an agent that uses the host for food or shelter.
Infection - Invasion of the body by foreign organisms
Virulence - Measure of how much damage a disease does to the host
Endemic - Disease regularly affects a small number of people in the population
Epidemic - There are higher than normal numbers of people being affected by a particular
disease in a certain place.
Outbreak - Disease has suddenly gotten out of control
Causes of disease
Microbes e.g. bacteria, virus, protozoa, fungi
Parasites from other infected people
Malfunction of part of the body due to some fault
Environmental factors
Lifestyle factors
Genetic disorders
Civilisation arrives in Australia?
The Europeans brought new disease that the Aborigines had no resistance to and no
remedies e.g. flu & tuberculosis
The change of Aboriginal diet led to many liefestyle disease. e.g. obesity & diabetes
Infectious Diseases
Diseases caused by microbes
Pathogens - microbes which cause disease
o e.g. bacteria, viruses

Bacteria
o Shape-
o
o Consist of one cell, but can join in multiples.
o Can multiply under right conditions
Viruses
o Microscopic
o Not living things
o Hijacks a cells and multiplies
Protozoa
o Tropical and subtropical areas
o Single celled
Fungi
o Opportunistic pathogens
Not usually associated with infection, but can cause infection if conditions are
ideal or if person's immune system isn't working right.

Diseases caused by macroscopic parasites
Flukes
Tapeworm
Transmission and Control of Infectious Diseases
Pass it on
Direct transmission
o Direct contact with the infected person or contact with droplets of body fluid
o Contagious diseases
Indirect transmission
o Vectors - carriers of disease
o Occurs through an intermediary agent e.g. insect, air or contaminated water

Natural control
First line of defence
o Outer layer of skin
Second
o White blood cells (leucocytes)
Third
o Antibodies (disables pathogen)

Artificial control
Vaccinations
o A person can be immunised by being vaccinated a vaccine.
o Two types of immunity
Active immunity - body is stimulated to make its own antibodies
Passive immunity - body is injected with antibodies produced by another
organism
Antibiotics - drugs that are able to selectively kill off certain pathogens while leaving the
patient's own body cells intact
The problem with viruses is that there are so small that is it difficult to isolate in the lab.
They also multiply so quickly.
6.5 Non-infectious diseases
Genetic disorders
Caused by abnormalities in one or more genes
Mutagen - agent which caused genetic mutation
Diseases caused by diet
Malnutrition
o Not having the range of foods that you have, making them susceptible to
malnutrition.
Obesity
o Excessive weight causing high blood pressure, joint and blood vessel problems and
increased chance of developing diabetes.
Eating disorders
Diabetes
o Glucose is not used correctly due to lack of insulin.
o Two types
Juvenile onset (1)
Mature onset (2)
Diseases of the circulatory system
Thrombosis and embolism - Causes a large mass to form on inside wall of a blood vessel
o Embolism - blockage of a blood vessel
Varicose veins
o Irregularities in vein walls and weaknesses in valves, stopping blood flow back to the
heart.
High blood pressue
o Hypertension
o Can cause arteriosclerosis, - hardening of arteries and coronary heart disease
Heart disease
o Anything that reduces blood flow to the heart
Cancer
Cell division occurs uncontrollably and causes cancer.
Tumour - any abnormal growth in the body
o Two types
o Benign growth - Cells aren't rapidly dividing
o Malignant growth - Uncontrollable growth
Biopsy - Process to determine if the tumour is benign or malignant. Tissue is taken and
analysed under a microscope.
Factors that lead to cancer:
o Environmental e.g. cigarette smoking
o Genetic predisposition i.e. family history
Metastasis - result of malignant growth
o Cancerous cells go into circulatory or lymph system.
Abuse of psychoactive drugs
Drug - substance that can alter one's body chemistry
Psychoactive drug - drug that can alter mood.
Drug abuse - drug used for negative effects
Alcohol and Smoking
Alcohol
o Depressant drug
o Effects of excessive alcohol:
Initially sense of warmth and well-being
Muscle coordination becomes difficult
Speech slurred
Slower reactions & dull senses
If more alcohol ingested, intoxication occurs
Staggering, nauseated, vomiting, difficulty speaking.
o Alcoholism - disease from abuse of alcohol
Smoking
o Slower reflex actions
o Constriction of blood vessels
o Twice a middle-age death rate than non-smokers
o Increased risk of many diseases
o Increased risk of having abnormal babies
o Bad breath
o Stained teeth and fingers
Environment hazards
Radiation
o Comes from natural sources e.g. Sun or X-rays
o Causes mutations in cells, producing various cancers
Heavy metals
o Include mercury, thallium, lead, bismuth
o Cumulative poisons
Mental illness
e.g. schizophrenia, depression, biploar disorder
Caused by other factos e.g. drug abuse
























Chapter 8 Global Issues
8.1 Global Warming
The greenhouse effect
o Caused by CO
2
, as well as other trace gases in the atmosphere
o Known as greenhouse gases
o Keeps the Earth to sustain life
o Enhanced greenhouse effect - too much and won't support life
Enhanced greenhouse effect
o
o Leads to global warming
Origin of greenhouse gases
Carbon dioxide
o Naturally cycled through the environment during photosynthesis and respiration
o Also obtained from fossil fuels and Industrial machines.
o & clearing land releases stored CO
2

Methane
o Produced when vegetation breaks down in the absence of oxygen
Nitrous oxide
o Produced from burning forests, car exhausts, and artificial fertilisers
CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons)
Surface ozone
o Made from part of photochemical smog, produced by action of sunlight on motor
vehicle and industrial pollution.
Evidence in the ice

The future
Predicting temperature rise
o Predicted increase of 1-4 degrees Celsius by end of end of this century
o Raise sea levels by half a metre, causing flooding
Predicting local effects
o Melting of polar ice caps, causes higher sea levels and flooding
o Liquid water expands when heated and causes further flooding.
o Increase in wild storms and cyclones
o More droughts and heatwaves
o More bushfires
o Change in habitats
o Bacteria grow faster
o Plants may grow faster
o More heat stroke and illness
El Nio
Pacific Ocean warmer than other oceans.
Trade winds push warmer water west to east coast of Australia
o Evaporation causes normal amounts of rainfall
As a result, Australia experience drought and South America experiences rainfall.

8.2 The Ozone Layer
Ozone
Occurs naturally in the stratosphere 20-30 km above Earth's surface
O
3


CFCs
Non-poisonous
Odourless
Stable
Cheap to produce
The hole story

8.3 Nuclear Radiation: good or evil?
Nuclear force - The force between particles in a nucleus
Radioactive element - Atoms whose atoms emit nuclear radiation
e.g. uranium

Atoms and isotopes
Radioisotope
o Radioactive isotope
o When describing radioisotopes mass number only used, because giving atom number
does give information about its isotope-feature.
o e.g. Uranium-234 = uranium isotope with 234 mass number.

Three types of nuclear radiation
Radioactive decay - when a radioisotope emits radiation
Three types of radioactive decay
o Alpha radiation
Alpha particle ()
Simply just a helium nucleus -
4
2
He

Travel at up to a tenth of speed of light.
Alpha decay also known as nuclear fission
o Beta radiation
Beta particle ()

Negative atomic number - means has one electron
Mass number 0. Therefore No. Neutrons = 0-(-1) = 1
Travel at up to 9/10 of speed of light
Pass through materials better than alpha particles
o Gamma Radiation
Gamma ray ()
Burst of high frequency electromagnetic radiation that has no mass or charge.
More powerful than X-Rays

Travel at speed of light like electromagnetic radiation
Penetrate materials more than beta particles
o
Half life
Time required for half of atoms in any given quantity of radioisotope to decay

Sources of nuclear radiation
Artificially by bombarding atoms with neutrons of other subatomic particles
OR naturally e.g. solar, cosmic, terrestrial radiation

Effects of radiation
Destroy cells
Cause abnormal cell growth

Measuring radiation - Geiger Counter - measured in sievert (Sv)

Uses of nuclear radiation
Nuclear medicine
o Radiotherapy - directing high doses to cancer sites with a beam.
Industrial applications
Carbon dating
o Determine approximate age of once-living matter
Dirty bombs
o Causes contamination problems
Etc...
8.4 Energy Crisis
Generating nuclear energy
Fission
o The splitting of an atom into smaller atoms
o Different from radioactive decay, which emits nuclear radiation
o
o Releasing heat energy
Chain reaction
o Neutrons released from fission react with other atoms, causing more fission.
o
Nuclear bombs
o Uses fission and chain reactions.

Nuclear reactors
Like a controlled bomb, but uses uranium that is enriched.
Used to produce electricity.
Nuclear reactions - Heat - Steam - Electricity

Nuclear Dangers
Nuclear accidents (e.g. Chernobyl)
Nuclear waste disposal

Alternative energy sources
Nuclear fusion
Solar
Wind
Hydro-gravitational
Geothermal
Fuel cells
Bio-batteries