8

CHAPTER
NUMBER
1





9



INTRODUCTION OF POWER GENERATION
1.1 Electric Power Generation

Electricity generation is the process of converting non-electrical energy to
electricity. For electric utilities, it is the first process in the delivery of electricity to
consumers. The other processes, electric power transmission and electricity distribution,
are normally car Periodic changes of water levels, and associated tidal currents, are due to
the gravitational attired out by the electrical power industry .Electricity is most often
generated at a power station by electromechanical generators.
1.1.1 History:
Centralized power generation became possible when it was recognized that
alternating current power lines can transport electricity at very low costs across great
distances by taking advantage of the ability to raise and lower the voltage using power
transformers.
Electricity has been generated at central stations since 1881. The first power plants were run on water power
or coal, and today we rely mainly on coal, nuclear, natural gas, hydroelectric, and petroleum with a small amount from
solar energy, tidal harnesses, wind generators, and geothermal sources.
1.1.2 Electricity Generation:
A "generator" and "motor" is essentially the same thing: what you call it depends
on whether electricity is going into the unit or coming out of it.
A generator produces electricity. In a generator, something causes the shaft and
armature to spin. An electric current is generated, as shown in the picture (lightning bolt).

10



Lots of things can be used to make a shaft spin - a pinwheel, a crank, a bicycle, a
water wheel, a diesel engine, or even a jet engine. They're different sizes but it's the same
general idea. It doesn't matter what's used to spin the shaft - the electricity that's produced
is the same.
A motor uses electricity. In a motor, the electricity comes in through wires
attached to the positive (+) and negative (-) terminals. The electric current causes the
armature and shaft to spin. If there's just a little current and it's a small motor, it won't do
very much work (i.e. it can only spin a small fan). If it's a large motor and it's using a lot
of electricity, it can do a lot of work (i.e. spin a large fan very fast; lift a very heavy load;
or whatever the motor is being used for). Electric generators are essentially very large
quantities of copper wire spinning around inside very large magnets, at very high speeds.


A commercial utility electric generator -- for example, a 180-megawatt generator
at the Hawaiian Electric Company's Kahe power plant on Oahu -- can be quite large. It is
20 feet in diameter, 50 feet long, and weighs over 50 tons. The copper coils (called the

11



"armature") spin at 3600 revolutions per minute. Although the principle is simple (copper
wire and magnets), it's not necessarily easy!
Steam turbine generators, gas turbine generators, diesel engine generators,
alternate energy systems (except photovoltaic), even nuclear power plants all operate on
the same principle - magnets plus copper wire plus motion equals electric current. The
electricity produced is the same, regardless of source.
So where all the different do fuels come in? It's all a question of how to get (and
keep) the system moving (i.e. how to keep the copper wire spinning around).
In a steam power plant, fuels (such as petroleum, coal, or biomass) are burned to
heat water which turns into steam, which goes through a turbine, which spins...turning the
copper wire (armature) inside the generator and generating an electric current.
A geothermal power plant is pretty much a steam power plant, since what comes
out of the earth is steam. Rainwater soaks into the ground and goes down, down,
down...far enough until it reaches a region which is really hot (in Hawaii, that's about
6000 feet). A well is drilled, the steam comes out, goes through a heat exchanger, and
spins a turbine... turning the copper wire (armature) inside the generator and generating
an electric current. By the time the steam has gone through the heat exchanger, it has
cooled off and become warm water. It is then re-injected into the ground.
In a gas turbine power plant, fuels are burned to create hot gases which go
through a turbine, which spins...turning the copper armature inside the generator and
generating an electric current.

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In a nuclear power plant, nuclear reactions create heat to heat water, which turns
into steam, which goes through a turbine, which spins...turning the copper armature
inside the generator and generating an electric current.
In a wind turbine, the wind pushes against the turbine blades, causing the rotor to
spin...turning the copper armature inside the generator and generating an electric current.
In a hydroelectric turbine, flowing (or falling) water pushes against the turbine
blades, causing the rotor to spin...turning the copper armature inside the generator and
generating an electric current.
Consumers expect electricity to be available whenever they plug in an appliance,
turn a switch, or open a refrigerator. Satisfying these instantaneous demands requires an
uninterrupted flow of electricity. In order to meet this requirement, utilities and non
utility electricity power producers operate several types of electric generating units,
powered by a wide range of fuel sources. These include fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and
petroleum), uranium, and renewable fuels (water, geothermal, wind, and other renewable
energy sources).
Coal was the fuel used to generate the largest share (51.8 percent) of electricity in
2000 1,968 billion kilowatt hours (kWh). This is over one and a half times the annual
electricity consumption of all U.S. households (1,141 billion kWh). Natural gas was used
to generate 612 billion kWh (16.1 percent), and petroleum accounted for 109 billion kWh
(3 percent).
Steam-electric generating units burn fossil fuels, such as coal, natural gas, and petroleum.
The steam turns a turbine that produces electricity through an electrical generator.
Natural gas and petroleum are also burned in gas turbine generators where the hot gases

13



produced from combustion are used to turn the turbine, which, and in turn, spins the
generator to produce electricity. Additionally, petroleum is burned in generating units
with internal-combustion engines. The combustion occurs inside cylinders of the engine,
which is connected to the shaft of the generator. The mechanical energy provided from
the engine drives the generator to produce energy.

1.2 Methods of power generation:
1) Gas power.
2) Hydro power.
3) Diesel power.
4) Thermal power.
5) Nuclear power.
6) Solar energy.
7) Wind power.
8) Wave power.
9) Tidal power.
10) Biogas power.
11) Geo thermal power.
12) Coal gasification

1.2.1 Gas power generation:
Natural gas is a major source of electricity generation through the use of gas
turbines and steam turbines. Particularly high efficiencies can be achieved through

14



combining gas turbines with a steam turbine in combined cycle mode. Natural gas burns
cleaner than other fossil fuels, such as oil and coal, and produces less carbon dioxide per
unit energy released. For an equivalent amount of heat, burning natural gas produces
about 30% less carbon dioxide than burning petroleum and about 45% less than burning
coal. Combined cycle power generation using natural gas is thus the cleanest source of
power available using fossil fuels, and this technology is widely used wherever gas can
be obtained at a reasonable cost. Fuel cell technology may eventually provide cleaner
options for converting natural gas into electricity, but as yet it is not price-competitive.

Natural gas is a mixture of combustible gases formed underground by the
decomposition of organic materials in plant and animal. It is usually found in areas where
oil is present, although there are several large underground reservoirs of natural gas
where there is little or no oil. Natural gas is widely used for heating and cooking, as well
as for a variety of industrial applications.

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1.2.2 Hydro power:

Hydroelectricity is electricity generated by hydropower, i.e., the production of
power through use of the gravitational force of falling or flowing water. It is the most
widely used form of renewable energy. Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed, the
project produces no direct waste, and has a considerably different output level of the
greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO
2
) than fossil fuel powered energy plants. Worldwide,
hydroelectricity supplied an estimated 715,000 MWe in 2005. This was approximately

16



19% of the world's electricity (up from 16% in 2003), and accounted for over 63% of
electricity from renewable sources.
Some jurisdictions do not consider large hydro projects to be a sustainable energy
source, due to the human, economic and environmental impacts of dam construction and
maintenance.


Most hydroelectric power comes from the potential energy of dammed water
driving a water turbine and generator. In this case the energy extracted from the water
depends on the volume and on the difference in height between the source and the water's
outflow. This height difference is called the head. The amount of potential energy in
water is proportional to the head. To obtain very high head, water for a hydraulic turbine
may be run through a large pipe called a penstock.

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Pumped storage hydroelectricity produces electricity to supply high peak
demands by moving water between reservoirs at different elevations. At times of low
electrical demand, excess generation capacity is used to pump water into the higher
reservoir. When there is higher demand, water is released back into the lower reservoir
through a turbine. Pumped storage schemes currently provide the only commercially
important means of large-scale grid energy storage and improve the daily load factor of
the generation system. Hydroelectric plants with no reservoir capacity are called run-of-
the-river plants, since it is not then possible to store water. A tidal power plant makes use
of the daily rise and fall of water due to tides; such sources are highly predictable, and if
conditions permit construction of reservoirs, can also be dispatch able to generate power
during high demand periods.
1.2.2.1 Advantages:
Once the dam is built, the energy is virtually free.
No waste or pollution produced.
Much more reliable than wind, solar or wave power.
Water can be stored above the dam ready to cope with peaks in demand.
Hydro-electric power stations can increase to full power very quickly, unlike
other power stations.
Electricity can be generated constantly.

1.2.2.2 Disadvantages:

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The dams are very expensive to build.
However, many dams are also used for flood control or irrigation, so building
costs can be shared.
Building a large dam will flood a very large area upstream, causing problems
for animals that used to live there.
Finding a suitable site can be difficult - the impact on residents and the
environment may be unacceptable.
Water quality and quantity downstream can be affected, which can have an
impact on plant life.

1.2.3 Diesel power:
A Diesel power station (also known as Stand-by power station) uses a diesel
engine as prime mover for the generation of electrical energy.
This power station is generally compact and thus can be located where it is
actually required. This kind of power station can be used to produce limited amounts of
electrical energy. In most countries these power stations are used as emergency supply
stations.

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1.2.3.1 Operation:
The diesel burns inside the engine and the combustion process causes rotational
mechanical energy that turns the engine shaft and drives the alternator. The alternator in
turn, converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
This type of electricity generating power station will probably be used a long time
into the future, due to a need for reliable stand-by electrical source for emergency
situations.
1.2.3.2 Advantages:

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Simple design & layout of plant.
Occupies less space & is compact.
Can be started quickly and picks up load in a short time.
Requires less water for cooling.
Thermal efficiency better that of Steam Power plant of same size.
Overall cost is cheaper than that of Steam Power plant of same size.
Requires no Operating staff.
No stand-by losses.
1.2.3.3 Disadvantages:
High running charges due to costly price of Diesel.
Plant does not work efficiently under prolonged overload conditions.
Generates small amount of power.
Cost of lubrication very high.
Maintenance charges are generally high.
1.2.4 Thermal / Power Generation:
A thermal power station is a power plant in which the prime mover is steam
driven. Water is heated, turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which drives an
electrical generator. After it passes through the turbine, the steam is condensed in a
condenser; this is known as a Ranking cycle. The greatest variation in the design of
thermal power stations is due to the different fuel sources. Some prefer to use the term
energy center because such facilities convert forms of heat energy into electrical energy.

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Thermal power generation has a central role to play in supplying electric power,
and we are striving for the development of power generation technology that is even
more efficient.
1.2.4.1 Steam power generation (LNG-Fired Station):
Steam power plant facilities constitute a means of power generation that uses the
expansion power of steam. Fuel is burned inside a boiler to heat water and generate
steam. This steam is then used to drive turbines which in turn drive the power generators
to make electricity. This steam is suitable for the use of thermal energy of relative low
temperature (below 600C).






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1.2.4.1.1 Main parts of thermal power generation:

Fuel Tanks
Natural gas produced in such places as Malaysia, Brunei, Das Island, and Alaska
is converted onsite to liquefied natural gas (LNG) with a temperature of -162C and a
volume that is 1/600th of the original gas, and transported in specially designed vessels.
After the LNG has been stored in tanks with a double-walled construction like that used
for a thermos flask, it is turned back into gas by a vaporizer and transferred to the boiler.
One kilogram of LNG generates heat equivalent to some 13,000 kcal.

Boilers
Boilers burn the fuel transferred from the tank and use the resulting heat to
convert water into steam. Inside the boilers are tens of thousands of water-carrying tubes.
When combustion commences, the temperature inside the boilers rises to between 1,100
and 1,500C, the water inside the tubes is turned into high-temperature and high-pressure
steam, and the steam is transferred to the steam turbines.

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Turbines
The steam rotates the turbine blades at a high speed of 3,000 rpm. This turns the
power generator, which is directly connected to the turbines, and electricity is produced
as a result. This electric power is then delivered along power transmission lines and
through substations to the homes of customers. The steam is cooled by seawater in a
condenser, restored to water, and then returned to the boiler for reuse. This cycle of water
to steam to water is repeated over and over again.



1.2.4.2 Combined cycle (CC) Power Generation:
Combined cycle power generation is a method of generating electric power that
combines gas turbine power generation with steam turbine power generation. By

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employing a 1,100C class gas turbine in the high-temperature section and by effectively
recycling the exhaust energy of this section in the steam system, the thermal efficiency
can be boosted to 43%. Furthermore, several small-capacity individual units are
combined to configure a large-capacity power generation facility, and startup and
shutdown operations can be easily tailored to the fluctuation in demand.


For this reason, by adjusting the number of operating units under middle and low
outputs, the facility can be run at all times with the same high efficiency as with the rated
outputs. This, together with other features, makes combined cycle power generation an
excellent system in terms of mobility and thermal operating efficiency.
TEPCO turned its attention to the above-mentioned benefits of combined cycle power
generation at the early date of 1986 and introduced it to the Futtsu Thermal Power
Station, where a combined total of 2,000 MW are generated by Group1 and Group 2.
1.2.4.3 Class of Combined Cycle Power Generation ACC (Advanced
Combined Cycle):

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With advanced combined cycle (ACC) power generation, the inlet gas
temperature of the gas turbine is raised to 1,300C, higher temperature and pressure
levels are established as in the steam conditions in the steam turbines, and a reheating
cycle is also employed to improve the thermal efficiency. These enhancements increase
the thermal efficiency of ACC power generation to 50%.


Since TEPCO introduced this kind of ACC power generation facility to its Yokohama
Thermal Power Stations in 1996, it has brought these facilities on-line in its Chiba
Thermal Power Station, Futtsu Thermal Power Station Group 3, and Shinagawa Thermal
Power Station.
1.2.4.4 Class of Combined Cycle Power Generation MACC (More
Advanced Combined Cycle):
This system is based on the ACC power generation system and achieves even
higher efficiency and capacity by raising the inlet gas temperature of the gas turbine to
even higher levels. By raising the temperature to 1,450C through such technical
innovations as the development of heat-resistant materials for the gas turbines and gas
turbine steam cooling, the thermal efficiency has been improved to 53%.

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In the future, this technology is destined to become the keystone of thermal power
generation not only because of its ability to conserve fuel through the improvements in
the thermal efficiency and its effect of reducing the amount of carbon dioxide discharged
but also because the larger capacities take full advantage of the scale, which makes it
possible to lower construction costs.
Future plans call for TEPCO to introduce the 1,450C class of combined cycle
power generation to its Kawasaki Thermal Power Station and Futtsu Thermal Power
Station Group 4.




1.2.5 Nuclear power:
A nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear chain reactions are initiated,
controlled, and sustained at a steady rate, as opposed to a nuclear bomb, in which the
chain reaction occurs in a fraction of a second and is uncontrolled causing an explosion.

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The most significant use of nuclear reactors is as an energy source for the
generation of electrical power (see Nuclear power) and for the power in some ships (see
Nuclear marine propulsion). This is usually accomplished by methods that involve using
heat from the nuclear reaction to power steam turbines.


1.2.5.1 How it works:

In an induced nuclear fission event. A neutron is absorbed by the nucleus of a
uranium-235 atom, which in turn splits into fast-moving lighter elements (fission
products) and free neutrons.
The physics of operating a nuclear reactor are explained in Nuclear reactor physics.
1.2.5.2 Electrical power generation:
The energy released in the fission process generates heat, some of which can be
converted into usable energy. A common method of harnessing this thermal energy is to
use it to boil water to produce pressurized steam which will then drive a steam turbine
that generates electricity.

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1.2.5.3 Advantages:
Nuclear power costs about the same as coal, so it's not expensive to make.
Does not produce smoke or carbon dioxide, so it does not contribute to the
greenhouse effect.
Produces huge amounts of energy from small amounts of fuel.
Produces small amounts of waste.
Nuclear power is reliable.

1.2.5.4 Disadvantages:
Although not much waste is produced, it is very, very dangerous.
It must be sealed up and buried for many thousands of years to allow the
radioactivity to die away.

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For all that time it must be kept safe from earthquakes, flooding, terrorists and
everything else. This is difficult.
Nuclear power is reliable, but a lot of money has to be spent on safety - if it does
go wrong, a nuclear accident can be a major disaster.
People are increasingly concerned about this - in the 1990's nuclear power was the
fastest-growing source of power in much of the world. In 2005 it was the second
slowest-growing.

1.2.6 Solar energy:
Solar technology converts sunshine into useful thermal energy, and subsequently into
electricity, by way of parabolic mirrors that concentrate the solar energy onto solar
thermal receivers containing a heat transfer fluid. The heat transfer fluid is circulated and
heated through the receivers, and the heat is released to a series of heat exchangers to
generate super-heated steam. The steam powers a turbine/generator to produce electricity
delivered to a utilitys electric grid. A central computerized tracking facility enables
optimal absorption of the suns energy by automatically adjusting the alignment of the
parabolic mirrors. From the moment the sun rises until it dips over the horizon, all of its
rays are captured and converted into usable energy.
With a back-up of alternative fuels, a solar plant can operate beyond daylight hours.
1.2.6.1 How does Photovoltaic work?
1. al Connection can be net metering as illustrated, or gross metering.
2. Low voltage DC electricity is generated by the solar array

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3. The DC electricity is fed to the Inverter which changes it to 240V AC
4. Appliances in the house use solar electricity direct from the Inverter
5. Any excess electricity flows through a meter and is sold to the electricity grid at
the applicable 'Feed In' tariff
Electricity also flows back from the grid through the meter as per norm


Solar cells convert sunlight into electricity and are made of semi-conducting
materials such as silicone. When sunlight is absorbed, the solar energy knocks
electrons loose from their atoms, and the electrons flow through the material
producing low voltage electricity.

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This process of converting light (photons) to electricity (volts) is called the
PHOTOVOLTAIC effect.
When the thin silicone wafers, or cells, are wired together their combined
electrical output is increased. So different sized panels are produced depending
on the number of cells contained therein and they are commonly sized by their
output of Watts.
Because PV panels are modular and can be connected together easily, they are
often referred to as solar modules. Two types are commonly used, Mono-
crystalline and Poly-crystalline. Mono-crystalline cells perform better in low
light conditions.
A Photovoltaic system from All Solar Systems can provide some or all of your
homes electricity needs. We install 1 kilowatt 1.5 kilowatt up to 5 kilowatt systems.
Unlike the solar heat concentrators mentioned above, photovoltaic panels convert
sunlight directly to electricity. Although sunlight is free and abundant, solar electricity is
still usually more expensive to produce than large-scale mechanically generated power
due to the cost of the panels. Low-efficiency silicon solar cells have been decreasing in
cost and multifunction cells with close to 30% conversion efficiency are now
commercially available. Over 40% efficiency has been demonstrated in experimental
systems. Until recently, photovoltaics were most commonly used in remote sites where
there is no access to a commercial power grid or as a supplemental electricity source for
individual homes and businesses. Recent advances in manufacturing efficiency and
photovoltaic technology, combined with subsidies driven by environmental concerns,

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have dramatically accelerated the deployment of solar panels. Installed capacity is
growing by 40% per year led by increases in Germany, Japan, California and New Jersey.




1.2.6.2 Advantages:
Solar energy is free - it needs no fuel and produces no waste or pollution.
In sunny countries, solar power can be used where there is no easy way to get
electricity to a remote place.
Handy for low-power uses such as solar powered garden lights and
battery chargers, or for helping your home energy bills.
1.2.6.3 Disadvantages:
Doesn't work at night.
Very expensive to build solar power stations.
Solar cells cost a great deal compared to the amount of electricity they'll produce
in their lifetime.
Can be unreliable unless you're in a very sunny climate. In the United Kingdom,
solar power isn't much use for high-power applications, as you need a large area

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of solar panels to get a decent amount of power. However, technology has now
reached the point where it can make a big difference to your home fuel bills...

1.2.7 Wind power:
Wind-powered turbines usually provide electrical generation in conjunction with
other methods of producing power.
1.2.7.1 How it works:
The Sun heats our atmosphere unevenly, so some patches become warmer than
others.
These warm patches of air raise, other air blows in to replace them and we feel a
wind blowing.
We can use the energy in the wind by building a tall tower, with a large
propeller on the top.
The wind blows the propeller round, which turns a generator to produce electricity.
We tend to build many of these towers together, to make a "wind farm" and
produce more electricity.

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The more towers, the more wind, and the larger the propellers, the more
electricity we can make.
It's only worth building wind farms in places that have strong, steady winds,
although boats and caravans increasingly have small wind generators to help keep their
batteries charged.
The best places for wind farms are in coastal areas, at the tops of rounded hills,
open plains and gaps in mountains - places where the wind is strong and reliable. Some
are offshore.
To be worthwhile, you need an average wind speed of around 25 km/h.
Most wind farms in the UK are in Cornwall or Wales.

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1.2.7.2 Advantages:
Wind is free, wind farms need no fuel.
Produces no waste or greenhouse gases.
The land beneath can usually still be used for farming.
Wind farms can be tourist attractions.
A good method of supplying energy to remote areas.
1.2.7.3 Disadvantages:
The wind is not always predictable - some days have no wind.
Suitable areas for wind farms are often near the coast, where land is expensive.
Some people feel that covering the landscape with these towers is unsightly.
Can kill birds - migrating flocks tend to like strong winds. However, this is rare,
and we tend not to build wind farms on migratory routes anyway.

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Can affect television reception if you live nearby.
Can be noisy. Wind generators have a reputation for making a constant, low,
"swooshing" noise day and night, which can drive you nuts.
Having said that, as aerodynamic designs have improved modern wind farms are
much quieter. A lot quieter than, say, a fossil fuel power station; and wind farms
tend not to be close to residential areas anyway. The small modern wind
generators used on boats and caravans make hardly any sound at all.
1.2.8 Wave power:
Ocean waves are caused by the wind as it blows across the sea. Waves are a
powerful source of energy.
The problem is that it's not easy to harness this energy and convert it into
electricity in large amounts. Thus, wave power stations are rare.
1.2.8.1 How it works:
There are several methods of getting energy from waves. One of them
works like a swimming pool wave machine in reverse.
At a swimming pool, air is blown in and out of a chamber beside the pool, which
makes the water outside bob up and down, causing waves.
At a wave power station, the waves arriving cause the water in the chamber to rise
and fall, which means that air is forced in and out of the hole in the top of the chamber.

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We place a turbine in this hole, which is turned by the air rushing in and out. The turbine
turns a generator.
A problem with this design is that the rushing air can be very noisy, unless a
silencer is fitted to the turbine. The noise is not a huge problem anyway, as the waves
make quite a bit of noise themselves.

Example:
Another company is called Renewable Energy Holdings. Their idea for
generating wave power (called "CETO") uses underwater equipment on the sea bed near
the coast. Waves passing across the top of the unit make a piston move, which pumps
seawater to drive generators on land. They're also involved with wind power and bio fuel.

1.2.8.2 Advantages:
The energy is free - no fuel needed, no waste produced.
Not expensive to operate and maintain.

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Can produce a great deal of energy.
1.2.8.3 Disadvantages:
Depends on the viscous dissipation at the seabed and in turbulence. This loss of
energy has caused the rotation of the Earth to slow in the 4.5 billion years since
formation. During the last 620 million years the period of rotation has increased from
21.9 hours to the 24 hours
.
we see now; in this period the Earth has lost 17% of its
rotational energy. While tidal power may take additional energy from the system,
increasing the rate of slowdown, the effect would be noticeable over millions of years
only, thus being negligible.
12.9 Tidal Power:
1.2.9.1 Energy calculations:
Various turbine designs have varying efficiencies and therefore varying power
output. If the efficiency of the turbine "Cp" is known the equation below can be used to
determine the power output.
The energy available from these kinetic systems can be expressed as:
P = Cp x 0.5 x x A x V
Where:
Cp is the turbine coefficient of performance
P = the power generated (in watts)
= the density of the water (seawater is 1025 kg/m)

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A = the sweep area of the turbine (in m)
V = the velocity of the flow cubed (i.e. V x V x V

Tidal barrages have been built before, whereas this idea is untested so it'll be interesting
to see if it gets approved.
1.2.9.2 Advantages:
Once you've built it, tidal power is free.
It produces no greenhouse gases or other waste.
It needs no fuel.
It produces electricity reliably.
Not expensive to maintain.
Tides are totally predictable.
Offshore turbines and vertical-axis turbines are not ruinously expensive to build
and do not have a large environmental impact.
1.2.9.3 Disadvantages:
A barrage across an estuary is very expensive to build, and affects a very wide
area - the environment is changed for many miles upstream and downstream.
Many birds rely on the tide uncovering the mud flats so that they can feed. There
are few suitable sites for tidal barrages.

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Only provides power for around 10 hours each day, when the tide is actually moving in or
out.
1.2.10 Biogas power:

Methane gas produced during digestion (the decomposition of organic materials
by microorganisms in anaerobic condition) in the sludge treatment process is
used as fuel of power generation. This power is then used at water reclamation centers.
Through this, it is possible to use energy efficiently, reduce power costs, and reduce
greenhouse gas emissions.








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1.2.10.1 How it works:
For bio mass power station making electricity, it's pretty much like a fossil
fuel power station.




Sugar cane is harvested and taken to a mill, where it is crushed to extract the
juice. The juice is used to make sugar, whilst the left-over pulp, called "bag ace" can be
burned in a power station.

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The station usually provides power for the sugar mill, as well as selling electricity
to the surrounding area.
2008: plans have just been announced by tree energy company Eon for a biomass-
fuelled power station Port buries, near Bristol. The fuel would be wood, brought in by
boat, and the station would produce 150MW of electrical power.
It is claimed that bio fuels will help us to reduce our reliance on fossil-fuel
oil, and that this is a good thing.
On the other hand, it is also claimed that it takes a huge amount of land to grow
enough crops to make the amount of bio fuels we'd need, so much so that it makes a big
dent in the amount of land available for growing food.
Who is right? Should we be using more bio fuels and less fossil fuel? Think about
the carbon dioxide - there are similar CO
2
emissions from bio fuel-powered vehicles as
from petrol-powered ones.
It is claimed that growing plants to make bio fuels will take in that carbon dioxide
again. But biologists tell us that forests are not 'the lungs of the planet' after all - they give
out as much CO
2
as they absorb as the plants respire. It seems that its plant plankton in
the oceans that takes in most CO
2
and gives out most oxygen.

1.2.10.2 Advantages:
It makes sense to use waste materials where we can.

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The fuel tends to be cheap.
Less demand on the fossil fuels.
1.2.10.3 Disadvantages:
Collecting or growing the fuel in sufficient quantities can be difficult.
We burn the bio fuel, so it makes greenhouse gases just like fossil fuels do.
Some waste materials are not available all year round.

1.2.11 Geo thermal power:
Geothermal power generation is an environment-friendly power generation
system that capitalizes on geothermal resources that are domestically produced energy.
Geothermal energy is a top source of renewable energy, better than solar or wind. When the wind doesnt
blow and the sun doesnt shine, the heat from the volcano continues to produce a steady flow of power.

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Geothermal resources are found in three types of locations: in shallow ground; in
the hot water and rock located a few miles beneath the earths surface; and even deeper
into the earth where molten rock reaches extremely high temperatures.
Today we drill wells into the geothermal reservoirs to bring the hot water and
steam to the surface. Geologists and engineers do a lot of exploring and testing to locate
underground areas that contain this geothermal resource, so well know where to drill
production and injection wells. Once the hot water and/or steam travel up the wells to the
surface, they can be used to generate electricity or for other energy-saving purposes.
This heat, called geothermal energy, provides warmth and power without
polluting the environment.
The heat from Earths core continuously flows outward. When temperatures and
pressures become high enough, some of the surrounding rock melts, becoming magma.

45



Because it is lighter, the magma rises, moving slowly up toward Earths crust, carrying
with it the heat from below.
Sometimes the hot magma reaches the surface, where we know it as lava. Kilauea
Volcano on the Big Island of Hawaii, for example, has been actively spewing lava since
the 1980s. Most often the magma remains below Earths crust, heating nearby rock,
rainwater and seawater that have seeped deep into the earth. Some of this hot water
travels back up through faults and cracks and reaches Earths surface as hot springs or
geysers. Most of it stays deep underground, trapped in cracks and porous rock. This
natural collection of hot water is called a geothermal reservoir.

Once geothermal waters reach the surface, the steam is sent to the power plant
and used to drive generators to produce electricity, and the brine and gases are re-injected
back into the injection zone below the water table. Combined, Puma Geothermal

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Ventures five production wells normally produce an average of two million pounds of
geothermal fluid per hour. Like wells in other volcanic regions (Indonesia, Philippines
and Iceland), PGVs wells are considered prolific in comparison to other types of
geothermal wells in the industry.
There are three types of power-generating plants: dry steam, flash steam and
binary cycle. Dry steam plants, first used in Italy more than 100 years ago, route the
steam directly to a power plant to produce electricity. Dry steam plants are used in places
such as The Geysers in California, where steam is close to the surface. Flash steam power
plants cause the fluid to rapidly vaporize, driving turbines that in turn drive a generator.
Binary-cycle plants are similar and the most advanced. Their closed-loop circulation
system means that no excess gases or fluids reach the open air. PGVs power plant
utilizes the closed-loop binary system.
1.2.11.1 Advantages
Krafla Geothermal Station in northeast Iceland
Geothermal power requires no fuel, and is therefore virtually emissions free and
insusceptible to fluctuations in fuel cost. And because a geothermal power station doesn't
rely on transient sources of energy, unlike, for example, wind turbines or solar panels, its
capacity factor can be quite large; up to 90% in practice.
It is considered to be sustainable because the heat extraction is small compared to
the size of the heat reservoir. While individual wells may need to recover, geothermal
heat is inexhaustible and is replenished from greater depths. The long-term sustainability
of geothermal energy production has been demonstrated at the Lardarello field in Italy

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since 1913, at the Waunakee field in New Zealand since 1958, and at The Geysers field
in California since 1960.
Geothermal has minimal land use requirements; existing geothermal plants use 1-
8 acres per megawatt (MW) versus 5-10 acres per MW for nuclear operations and 19
acres per MW for coal power plants. It also offers a degree of scalability: a large
geothermal plant can power entire cities while smaller power plants can supply more
remote sites such as rural villages.
1.2.11.2 Disadvantages:
From an engineering perspective, the geothermal fluid is corrosive and, worse, is
at a low temperature compared to steam from boilers. By the laws of thermodynamics
this low temperature limits the efficiency of heat engines in extracting useful energy
during the generation of electricity. Much of the heat energy is lost, unless there is also a
local use for low-temperature heat such as greenhouses, timber mills, and district heating.
However, since this energy is almost free once the plant is established, the efficiency of
the system is not as significant as for a coal or other powered plant.
There are several environmental concerns behind geothermal energy.
Construction of the power plants can adversely affect land stability in the surrounding
region. This is mainly a concern with Enhanced Geothermal Systems, where water is
injected into hot dry rock where no water was before. Dry steam and flash steam power
plants also emit low levels of carbon dioxide, nitric oxide, and sculpture, although at
roughly 5% of the levels emitted by fossil fuel power plants. However, geothermal plants
can be built with emissions-controlling systems that can inject these substances back into

48



the earth, thereby reducing carbon emissions to less than 0.1% of those from fossil fuel
power plants. Hot water from geothermal sources will contain trace amounts of
dangerous elements such as mercury, arsenic, and antimony which, if disposed of into
rivers, can render their water unsafe to drink.
Although geothermal sites are capable of providing heat for many decades,
locations may eventually cool down. For example, the world's second-oldest geothermal
generator at Waunakee has reduced production. It is likely that locations like these were
designed too large for the site, since there is only so much energy that can be stored and
replenished in a given volume of earth. If left alone, however, these places should recover
their lost heat, as the Earth's mantle and core have vast heat reserves. Geothermal and
biomass are the only two renewable resources which must be carefully managed in order
to avoid local depletion. An assessment of the total potential for electricity production
from the high-temperature geothermal fields in Iceland gives a value of about 1500 TWh
(total) or 15 TWh per year over a 100 year period. The electricity production capacity
from geothermal fields is now only 1.3 TWh per year.
1.2.12 Coal Gasification:
Is this a new technology?
Coal gasification is a well-proven technology dating back to the 18th century,
although its uses have evolved significantly since then. Interest in coal gasification has
wavered in the U.S. during times when the price and availability of competing fuel
sources-oil and natural gas-were low. However, recent advancements in gasification

49



technology, increasing costs of oil and gas, growing concerns about energy security, and
a heightened awareness of climate change, have all led to a renewed interest in coal
gasification for electric power generation in the U.S. and many other countries.
Worldwide there are just four integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC)
plants running on coal today: one in Puerto llano, Spain, one in Belgium, Netherlands,
one near Terre Haute, Indiana, and one in Polk County, Florida. So while the technology
is not new, our experience with commercial-scale IGCC plants is limited. Fourteen will
also be advancing the technology. There is still much to learn, particularly about the
economics of operating a commercial-scale plant.
Future Gen will be an IGCC power plant. IGCC is an innovative technology that
combines modern coal gasification with a gas turbine and a steam turbine to produce
electric power. It is one of the most promising technologies available today for reducing
the environmental impacts associated with the use of coal for electricity production.
1.2.12.1 What are the advantages of I GCC technology?
Coal-fueled IGCC technology offers a number of potential benefits over conventional
pulverized coal plants. Depending on the final configuration of the IGCC plant, these can
include:
Higher efficiency - The use of two turbinesa gas turbine and a steam turbine
leads to higher system efficiencies
Lower emissions - The gasification process enables improved removal of
naturally-occurring pollutants in coal, such as sulfur and mercury, resulting in
lower emission than conventional coal based power plants.

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Carbon sequestration potential - The IGCC process makes it easier to capture
carbon dioxide for carbon sequestration.
Marketable byproducts - The byproducts associated with the gasification and
gas clean-up process may have commercial value in nearby industries.
Hydrogen as an alternative fuel source - Hydrogen is gaining popularity as a
potential clean-burning fuel source of the future for vehicles and other industries.
The ability to produce hydrogen from coal for such future applications could
prove to be an important benefit of IGCC technology.
1.2.12.2 How do coal based I GCC power plants work?
As illustrated in the figure below, IGCC power plants involve a complex chain of activities that start with a
carbon-based materialin the case of Future Gas, coaland result in electricity that power our homes and businesses.
1. The coal gasification process begins with a controlled mixture of coal, oxygen,
and steam in a gasified. An air separation unit separates air into its component
parts to supply the gasified with a stream of oxygen.
2. Using a combination of heat and high pressure, the gasified converts the
constituents of coal into a synthetic gas, or "singes". This singes is comprised of
mostly hydrogen (H
2
) and carbon monoxide (CO).
3. Byproducts captured in the gasified could have commercial value, depending on
local market conditions. For example, the Future Gen plant could produce an ash
material similar to what comes from a traditional coal plant. This ash may be used
as a filler material in construction projects and building products. Alternatively,

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Future Gen may produce a glass-like material, known as "slag", which falls to the
bottom of the gasified. This slag may be used in road gravel.
4. The singes is then passed through a water gas shift reactor and reacted over a
catalyst with added steam to convert the majority of the CO into carbon dioxide
(CO
2
) and additional H
2
.
5. The singes will also have small amounts of other impurities (e.g. hydrogen
sulfide) which are removed during the gas clean-up process.
6. Hydrogen sulfide will be separated from the singes and converted to elemental
sulfur or possibly sulfuric acid. The sulfur byproducts may also have commercial
value in a variety of products (e.g. fertilizer), depending on local market
opportunities.
7. Most of the CO
2
is removed from the singes leaving behind H
2
-rich singes.
8. One of the things that make IGCC plants more efficient is the combined use of a
gas turbine and steam turbine to produce electricity. The hydrogen-rich singes is
first fed into a gas turbine to generate electricity. The waste heat from the gas
turbine is used to power a steam turbine, which in turn creates more electricity.
Finally, much of the water used in this process will be recycled in the plant some
will be evaporated in a cooling tower