CHAPTER 6

NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
Learning Objectives:
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
Understand the importance of network architecture in data communication.
Understand different types of network implementation.
Understand different types of communication medium and their applications.
Differentiate Internet, Intranet and Extranet.
amiliar with different network terminologies.
1
A !etwork is a group of systems that are connected to allow sharing of resources such as files or
printers, or sharing of ser"ices such as internet. #he physical connection between the
systems$de"ices in a network is established using either cable media or wireless media. !etwork
de"ices that originate, route and terminate the data are called network nodes. A client is a de"ice
that sends re%uest to the ser"er of the network and a ser"er is a computer system$de"ice that
recei"es the re%uest, processes it, and returns the re%uested information back to the client.
!etwork architecture is a framework of the network&s physical components and their functional
organi'ation and configuration, its operational principles and procedures, as well as data
formats used in its operation. (ased on the framework there are two types of network
architectures:
Centralize Arc!itect"re
#istrib"te Arc!itect"re
6$% Centralize Arc!itect"re
#he first computers were large, expensi"e, and difficult to manage. #he computer executed one
)ob at a time. #erminals, which came later, pro"ided the user with a new mechanism to interact
with the centrali'ed computer. #hese terminals, howe"er, were merely input$output de"ices that
had no independent processing power. All processing took place on the central computer* hence
it is named as the centrali'ed computing. !etworks, therefore, ser"ed little purpose other than to
deli"er commands to and get results from the powerful centrali'ed system. #o this day, large
mainframe systems are still being operated around the world, most often by go"ernments and
large corporations. #hese early computing models worked well in large organi'ations that could
)ustify the need for these expensi"e computing de"ices. +owe"er, one of the drawbacks was that
the mainframes were not flexible in their placement ,some were the si'e of a large room- and did
not scale down to meet the needs of smaller organi'ations. !ew ways of sharing information
were necessary to allow computing power to be shared efficiently on smaller networks.
A centralize net&'r( is a network in which most communications are routed from one ma)or
central hub$system. In the centrali'ed network computing model, the clients with low or no
processing capabilities use the resources of a high.capacity ser"er to process information. #he
clients only connect to the ser"er and not to each other. igure /.0 shows a centrali'ed network
computing model. A client in need of ser"ices sends the re%uest for the same to the ser"er which
processes the re%uest and responds back to the client with the re%uired ser"ice. It offers
greater security because all information processing is controlled in a central location. In addition,
if one terminal breaks down, a user can go to another terminal and all of the files will still be
accessible. Depending on the system, they may e"en be able to resume their session from the
point they left. Another benefit of centrali'ed networks is the ease of maintaining accurately
updated lists of data that can be easily accessed from all points.
2
)ig"re 6$%: an e*a+,le '- centralize net&'r( arc!itect"re
#raditionally, this type of networking was only found in Enterprise 1e"el (usinesses. In recent
time, due to reduced ser"er and network costs of centrali'ed network architecture, this type of
computing deployed in many smaller and medium si'ed businesses.
C!aracteristics '- a Centralize Net&'r(
A centrali'ed system consists of a large data center that hosts all ser"er resources.
2oftware upgrades can be done from a centrali'ed location.
#he data center incorporates power.insulating de"ices such as Uninterruptible 3ower
2upply ,U32- and 4hot.sites5 or 4cold.sites5 contingencies.
(usiness re%uirements associated with reducing cost and security re%uirements are usually the
dri"ing forces behind centrali'ed networks. #here are mainly two ways of centrali'ing network
implementation i.e. 6lient ser"er model and +osted client model.
Client./erver 0'el
1et us consider figure. /.0 which is a client.ser"er model. #he clients need different
ser"ices for which they send re%uests to the central hub or ser"er. #he ser"er upon
recei"ing the re%uest processes the re%uest and responds accordingly to the client. 2o we
may say that a 4client5 is a computer system that initiates communication with the ser"er
to a"ail some resources. A 1ser"er5 is the one that shares its resources with client
3
Workstation
computer. #his sharing of resources is also known as time.sharing because multiple
applications are allowed to share the same resources at the same time. #his
communication between the clients and the ser"er always follows a re%uest.response
networking pattern thus making it compulsory for the computers to ha"e a common
language and common rules of communication, defining as 4communications protocol5.
)ig"re 6$2: Re3"est.Res,'nse net&'r(ing bet&een a client an t!e server
Client /erver Envir'n+ent
#his en"ironment is comprised of a ser"er which pro"ides system resources
,processing power, storage, software, applications, ser"ices etc- to se"eral connected
clients.
#he ser"er controls what a user has access to. (oth software and data can be
accessed by any of the clients. #he ser"er contains all software. e.g.. If one wants to
upgrade the most recent "ersion of 7ord, he has to do it once on the ser"er and then
e"eryone can use it. 1ikewise with operating system or internet software etc can also
be shared.
#he ser"er can hold and protect all data.
H'ste.Client 0'el
Another method of centrali'ed computing is hosted.client model. In this model,
processing and storage on powerful ser"er hardware located in a data center, rather than
in a local office. 8rgani'ations are relie"ed of many responsibilities in owning and
maintaining an information technology system.
A,,licati'ns '- Centralize Net&'r(s
AT0s: A#9 machine is an example of centrali'ed networking with which e"eryone is
familiar in using. A#9s function as terminals. All processing is done on the mainframe
computer to which the A#9s are connected.
P"blic Instant.0essengers: 9ost of the 3ublic Instant.9essenger platforms use the
centrali'ed network architecture to pro"ide ser"ices to the users.
4''gle Cl'" C'+,"ting: :oogle 6loud computing is also used for employees5
centrali'ed networks.
Avantages
Ad"antages of centrali'ed network architecture are:
4
CLIENT SERVER
NETWO
RK
Centralize ata +anage+ent: In a centrali'ed network, data is stored on the ser"er for
increasing the reliability of data because all data modifications are stored at a central
location.
Hig! level '- sec"rit5: #he centrali'ed network computing model is a highly secured
network model because network security can be implemented and monitored centrally
from the ser"er.
C'st e--ectiveness: #he o"erall cost of setting up a centrali'ed architecture is "ery low.
Li+itati'ns
6entrali'ed network architecture has the following limitations:
L'& ,er-'r+ance an net&'r( s,ee: A single ser"er manages numerous re%uests
simultaneously for increasing network traffic and conse%uently reducing the speed for the
performance of the network.
Central ,'int '- -ail"re: #he ser"er is the central and only place for storing data and
processing all client re%uests. If the ser"er fails, the whole network collapses.
I+,'rtant C'nsierati'ns
A centrali'ed system is considered only if prere%uisites are the following:

#ata center !ar&are c'sts #he cost of installing high.end ser"ers and clusters in the
data center against the administrati"e cost sa"ings of centrali'ing the ser"ers must be
weighed. It is recommended that the back.end ser"ers are clustered to build high
a"ailability and redundancy into the system, but this in"ol"es greater costs up front.
+owe"er, these costs may be more than offset by reductions in operational costs,
infrastructure costs, reduced downtime, and greater scalability.

C'ntingenc5 ,lanning 7hen you ser"er and data resources across the organi'ation are
centrali'ed, the possible single points of failure are increased. 6ontingency plans must be
formulated.

O,erati'nal an a+inistrative c'st re"cti'ns 6entrali'ing ser"er resources reduce

operational costs because ser"ice capacity and growth are achie"ed with better use of
resources. It also reduces infrastructure costs associated with storage and backup
re%uirements.

#ata st'rage 7ith larger centrali'ed data "olumes, more reliable storage systems must
be used to impro"e the integrity of data. In addition, by reducing the complexity of ser"er
infrastructure, one can more readily restore ser"ices and data when a failure occurs.
/ec"rit5 A centrali'ed model gi"es easier security management, thus it gi"es a greater
degree of control. #his control makes it easier for security staff to maintain up.to.date
"irus signatures and take timely action in response to security incidents. Another
ad"antage of a centrali'ed design is that it locates your ser"ers in a data center which you
can physically secure.
6$2 #istrib"te Arc!itect"re
5
Distributed 6omputing is a trend in modern day business en"ironments. #his is the opposite of
centrali'ed computing, which was pre"alent during the early days of computing. Distributed
computing is the allocation of resources both in hardware and software to each indi"idual
workstation or office location. In contrast, centrali'ed computing exists when the ma)ority of
functions are carried out or obtained from a remote centrali'ed location. #he distributed network
computing model allows all network computers to take part in processing but at their respecti"e
ends separately. #his model allows sharing data and ser"ices but does not help the other network
computers in processing. In this network model, a processing.intensi"e task is broken into a
subset of tasks and distributed among multiple nodes. #he nodes work on their indi"idual subsets
of tasks. #he following figure ,figure /.;- shows the distributed network computing model:

)ig"re 6$6: A istrib"te net&'r( arc!itect"re
A distributed computer system has many benefits o"er a con"entional centrali'ed network.
Desktop computers ha"e ad"anced so rapidly that their potential performance far exceeds the
re%uirements of most business applications. #his results in most desktop computers remaining
idle ,in relation to their full potential-. A distributed system can utili'e the potential of these
systems to maximi'e efficiency. +owe"er, it is debatable whether these networks increase o"erall
effecti"eness. All computers ha"e to be updated indi"idually with new software, unlike a
centrali'ed computer system. Distributed systems still enable file sharing and all computers can
share peripherals such as printers and scanners as well as modems, allowing all the computers in
the network to connect to the internet.
A collection of distributed computers systems are components of a larger computer network, held
together by local stations of e%ual importance and capability. #hese systems are capable of
running independently each other.
C!aracteristics '- a #istrib"te Net&'r(ing /5ste+:
6
CENTRAL
LOCATION
INTERNET
A branch office or distributed networking deployment is one where numerous branch offices or
smaller distributed sites ha"e slow connections to a corporate hub or data center. #he branches
contain their own exchange ser"ers, domain controllers, and global catalog ser"ers. A distributed
networking system is usually adopted when the network cannot handle traffic to a central hub for
the ser"ices. 2o the operating system and networking ser"ers are placed locally. User
re%uirements may be another factor. If the re%uirements for user experience and a"ailability
cannot meet by connecting to a data center, you may ha"e no choice but to place ser"ers in the
remote sites. A distributed computing system deployment has the following characteristics:

#he networking system consists of a large number of locations ,branches-, each

containing an exchange ser"er, domain controllers, and at least one global catalog ser"er.

#he branch office locations usually contain a small or "arying number of users.

#he network is usually structured as a hub.and.spoke topology.

#he network connections between the branch office locations and the central hub or data
center are typically low.bandwidth, high.latency, or unreliable.
#he main reasons behind deploying a distributed networking system include the following:

#he company&s users are dispersed across sites.

#he company&s network infrastructure cannot handle traffic to a central hub for ser"ices.
#he user re%uirements dictate that a ser"er be placed locally to pro"ide optimal user
experience and a"ailability.
A,,licati'ns '- #istrib"te net&'r(s
Telec'++"nicati'n net&'r(s
#elephone networks and cellular networks
6omputer networks such as the Internet
7ireless sensor networks
Net&'r( a,,licati'ns
7orld wide web and peer.to.peer networks
9assi"ely multiplayer online games and "irtual reality communities
Distributed databases and distributed database management systems
!etwork file systems
Distributed information processing systems such as banking systems and airline
reser"ation systems
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Real.ti+e ,r'cess c'ntr'l
Aircraft control systems
Industrial control systems
Avantages '- #istrib"te Net&'r( Arc!itect"re
/calabilit5: Enterprise solutions that rely on a single enterprise ser"er ine"itably suffer
from performance issues as the enterprise grows and the ser"er is o"erwhelmed.
9oreo"er, single ser"er solutions are highly susceptible to network failures.
E--icienc5: 2ecurity managers control the flow of data and decision.making. 1ocal data
and decisions can be transmitted to each indi"idual site, minimi'ing network bandwidth,
and allowing global managers to focus on truly global issues. At the same time, centrally
located global managers can easily run reports, make changes, and "iew the status of
local sites without needing to login to multiple separate systems.
C'st: 2er"ers and software at each local site can be appropriately si'ed to meet the
specific needs of each site, without re%uiring installing an expensi"e ser"er at e"en the
smallest sites.
Reliabilit5: Distributed !etwork Architecture is much more tolerant of network and
hardware failures than a single ser"er approach.
I+,'rtant C'nsierati'ns

O,erati'nal an a+inistrative c'sts: Distributed networking systems re%uire more

ser"ers and so result in higher operational and administrati"e costs.

#ata st'rage: 7ith distributed ser"ers, the ser"ice infrastructure is more complex,
which makes it more difficult to restore ser"ices and data when a failure occurs.

Net&'r( c'nnecti'ns: or remote offices, it is recommended that the network

connection to the hub site or data center be no less than </ =bps. (etween a hub and an
office* howe"er a higher connection speed is recommended.
/ec"rit5: #he physical security of ser"ers in branch offices is a ma)or consideration. In
a branch office design, you must take precautions to ensure that ser"ers are not located in
open areas and they are physically secured.
6$6 C'++"nicati'n 0eia
6ommunication means to trade information between two or more constituents and it can be
traded in a "ariety of ways that might be in "arious forms, like word, letters, messages drawing
8
and body mo"ement. Data communication entails exchanging data or information "ia the
electronic media. It is the tra"elling of computer information or data from one point to another
by means of electrical or optical transmission system. #his system often is known to us as the
data communication networks. In today&s computing world, data can mean facts, statistics, "oice
and other information that is digitally coded and also intelligible to a "ariety of electronic
machines.
#he key technology of the information age is computer communication through networks. #he
"alue of high.speed data communication network is that it brings the message sender and
recei"er closer together in matter of seconds. Data communication and networking is a truly
global area of study. It makes possible more efficient use of computers and impro"es the day to
day control of your )ob by pro"iding faster and more secured information flow. #he information
society ,where information and intelligence are the key dri"ers of personal, business and national
success- has played a ma)or role in digital organi'ation. Data communication is the principle
enabler of the rapid information exchange and will become more important than the use of the
computer in future.
!ow once we ha"e understood what communication and communication system means, we will
ha"e to study and understand what this system is made of, how it works and gets its ad"antages.
It is necessary to ha"e a pathway or media to transmit the data from one point to the other. #he
term media means the de"ice or the group of de"ices that transmits the "oice or the data form
one point to another. 9any different types of transmission media are in use today for example:
wired transmission ,e.g. copper wire, glass or plastic cables, which is called fiber optic cables- or
wireless transmission ,e.g. radio, infrared, microwa"e, or satellite-. #here are two types of media,
one is known as guided media and another is known as radiated media. In guided media the
messages flow through the physical media like twisted pair.wire, coaxial cable fiber optic cables,
and the media guided is the signal. In radiated media messages are broadcasted through the air
with the help of different wa"es > e%uipments at "arious le"els of data transmission, such as
infrared, microwa"e, or satellite.
7asis '- /electi'n '- C'++"nicati'n 0ei"+
Digital data can be transmitted o"er many different types of media. 2electing a transmission
medium is helped by comparing transmission needs against the medium5s features. our
important criteria for selecting the type of transmission medium are:
0. 7an&it!: (andwidth is the maximum fre%uency range that can be practically
supported by a medium. #his is usually expressed in k+' or 9+'. or example, analog
transmission of human speech typically re%uires a bandwidth of ? kilo +'. Data rate is
another network feature, which is related to bandwidth. #he data rate specifies the
maximum number of bits per second ,bps- that can be transmitted. or example, a data
rate of 0@ mbps means that 0@ million bits of data can be transmitted in each second.
9
(ecause of their ob"ious relationship, the terms data rate and bandwidth are sometimes
used alternati"ely. (ecause of distortion factors, bandwidth and data rate are usually
in"ersely related to the distance of communication.
A. C'st$ #wo types of cost are rele"ant: ,i- the cost of installing the medium, including the
specific e%uipment that may be needed for the medium to work, and ,ii- the cost of
running and maintenance of the medium and its e%uipment. #here is usually a need for
trade.off between bandwidth, distance > cost.
;. Reliabilit5$ 2ome media, by their physical nature broadcast data more consistently than
others. 1ow reliability generally means to a higher number of errors in transmission of
data, which needs to be balanced against the potential cost of reco"ering from the errors
,e.g., retransmission, more complex hardware and software-.
?. C'verage$ #he physical characteristics of a medium dictate how long a signal can tra"el
in it before it is distorted beyond detection. #o co"er greater areas, repeaters are needed to
restore the signal, and this increases the costs of maintenance > setting up of the
medium.
6$6$% Wire C'++"nicati'n 0ei"+
7ired communication medium is also known as the guided communication media, in which we
guide the electromagnetic wa"es through a solid medium of "arious kinds a"ailable with us.
7ith the ad"ancement in technology, the wired medium has used newer kinds of wires to
transmit the data such as copper twisted pair, copper coaxial cable, and optical fibre. #he
characteristics and %uality of a data transmission are determined both by the characteristics of the
medium and the characteristics of the signal. In the case of guided media, the medium is of more
importance in determining the characteristics of transmission of the medium.
T5,es '- Wire 0ei"+
T&iste.Pair Cable
A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a standard spiral pattern.
A wire pair acts as a single link of communication. #ypically, a number of these pairs are
wrapped under a shielding sheet after bundling them together. 8"er longer distances,
cables may contain hundreds of pairs. #he twisting tends to lessen the crosstalk nosiness
between two ad)acent pairs in a cable. !eighboring pairs "ary in their twist lengths to
reduce the crosstalk interference. 8n long.distance links, the twist length generally "aries
between < > 0<cm. In general, the wires in a pair are @.? to @.B mm thick.
A,,licati'ns
10
#wisted pair wires are the most common medium used for transmission of analog
and digital signals. It is the most commonly used medium in the telephone system
and is the workhorse for inter.communications in buildings.
In the telephone system, each and e"ery residential telephone sets are linked to the
local telephone exchange, or 4end office,5 by twisted.pair wire. #hese are called as
subscriber loops. 7ithin an office building, generally each and e"ery telephone is
connected to a twisted pair wire, which tra"els to the in.house pri"ate branch
exchange ,3(C- system or to a 6entrex facility at the end office. #hese twisted.pair
installations are intended to use analog signaling to support "oice tra"elling from one
place to another. +owe"er, by means of a modem, the digital signals can be handled
by these facilities at modest rates.
#wisted pair is also used for digital signaling and is the most common medium for
the same. A data rate of /? kbps is used for transmission of data to a digital data
switch or digital 3(C within a building. #wisted pair is also commonly used within a
building for local area networks supporting personal computers. Data rates for such
local area networks are typically in the region of 0@ 9bps. +owe"er, twisted.pair
networks with data rates of up to 0 :bps ha"e been de"eloped. (ut there are certain
constraints in use of such a network because of the limited number of de"ices and
restricted geographic scope of the network. or greater distance applications, twisted
pair may be used at data rates of ? 9bps or more. #wisted pair is cheap when
compared to other commonly used guided transmission media ,such as optical fiber,
coaxial cable- and is easier to work with.
Trans+issi'n C!aracteristics
#wisted pair may be used to transmit both analog and digital transmission. or analog
signals transmission, amplifiers are re%uired in each < to / km. or digital transmission
,using either analog or digital signals-, repeaters are installed e"ery A or ; km. 6ompared
to other commonly used guided transmission media ,coaxial cable, optical fiber-, twisted
pair is restricted to distance, bandwidth, and data rate. #he figure /.? below shows the
built up of a twisted pair wire.
11
)ig"re 6$ 8: A t&iste ,air &ire
9arieties '- T&ister.Pair Cable
#wisted pair comes in two "arieties: unshielded and shielded. Unshielded twisted pair
,U#3- is the general wire commonly used as the telephone wire. #his is the most
inexpensi"e of all the transmission media commonly used for local area networks and is
easy to work with and also it is easy to install. Unshielded twisted pair is affected by
external electromagnetic interference, including electromagnetic interference from a
nearby twisted pair or from the disturbance generated in the neighboring en"ironment.
2o, a metallic shield )acket is used to impro"e the characteristics of this medium and thus
to protect it from interference. #his shielded twisted pair ,2#3- pro"ides better
performance at much higher data rates. +owe"er, it is more costly and more difficult to
work with than the unshielded twisted pair.
Table 6$%: C!aracteristics '- i--erent t5,e '- t&iste ,air &ires
T&iste ,air T5,e /!ieling Trans+issi'n Rate
#ype 0 2hielded ? 9bps
#ype A 6ombination ? 9bps
#ype ; Unshielded 0@ 9bps
#ype ? Unshielded 0/ 9bps
#ype < Unshielded 0@@ 9bps
C'a*ial Cable
6oaxial cable, like twisted pair consists of two conductors, but is constructed in a different
way. It allows operation o"er a wider range of fre%uencies and distances. It consists of a
hollow outer cylindrical conductor that surrounds a single inner wire conductor. #he inner
conductor is held by solid dielectric material or by regularly spaced insulating rings. #he
outer conductor is co"ered with a shield. A single coaxial cable has a width from 0 to A.<
cm. 6oaxial cable can be used o"er much longer distances and support more stations on a
shared network in comparison to a twisted pair wire.
A,,licati'ns
6oaxial cable is perhaps the most flexible transmission medium and is used in a wide range
of applications due to its "ersatility. #he most important of these are
D #ele"ision distribution
D 1ong.distance telephone transmission
D 2hort.run computer system links
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D 1ocal area networks ,1A!s-
6oaxial cable is widely used as a means of distributing #E signals to indi"idual homes
,cable #E-. rom its modest beginnings as 6ommunity Antenna #ele"ision ,6A#E-, it is
designed to pro"ide ser"ice to rural and farfetched areas. 6able #E reaches almost as many
homes and offices as the telephone. A cable #E system can carry a "ariety and number of
#E channels and ranges up to a few tens of kilometers. 6oaxial cable has traditionally been
an important part of the long.distance telephone distribution network. #oday, it faces
increasing competitions from satellite, optical fiber > microwa"e. (y using fre%uency
di"ision multiplexing, a coaxial cable can carry o"er 0@,@@@ "oice channels at a particular
point of time.
Trans+issi'n C!aracteristics
6oaxial cable is used to transmit both analog and digital signals. As it can be seen from
figure /.<, coaxial cable has fre%uency characteristics that are better than that of a twisted
pair. +ence, it can be used effecti"ely at higher fre%uency ranges and data rates. (ecause of
its construction, coaxial cable is much less "ulnerable to interference and crosstalk than
twisted pair. #he ma)or constraints on performance of a coaxial cable are inter.modulation
noise, thermal noise and attenuation. #he former is present only when se"eral channels or
fre%uency bands are in use on the cable. or long.distance transmission of analog signals,
amplifiers are needed in e"ery few kilometers with closer spacing. #he usable spectrum for
analog signaling can extend to about <@@ 9+'. or digital signaling, repeaters are needed
for e"ery kilometer or so, with closer spacing needed for higher data rates. igure /.< shows
the cut section of a coaxial cable.
)igure 6.5:: Cut Section of a Co-axial Cable
)iber O,tics
13
An optical fiber is a lean ,A . 0A<Fm-, flexible medium able to guide the data as an optical
ray. A "ariety of glasses and plastics can be used to make optical fibers. #he lowest amount
of losses has been obtained using fibers made of ultrapure fused silica. Ultrapure fiber is
%uite difficult to manufacture. 2o higher.loss multi component glass fibers are
comparati"ely inexpensi"e and still pro"ide good performance. 3lastic fiber is e"en less
expensi"e and can be used for short.haul links, for which moderately high losses are
accepted.
An optical fiber cable has a cylindrical shape and consists of three concentric sections: the
)acket, the cladding > the core. #he 4core5 is the deepest section and consists of one or more
"ery thin strands, or fibers, made of plastic or glass. #he core has a diameter in the range of
G. Each fiber is surrounded by its own 4cladding5, a plastic or glass coating that has optical
properties different from those of the core. #he interface between the core and cladding
plays the role of a reflector to confine light that would otherwise get away from the core.
#he outermost layer surrounding the cladding fibers is known as the 4)acket5. #he )acket is
composed of plastic and other material layer to protect against crushing, abrasion, moisture
and other en"ironmental dangers.
A,,licati'ns
8ne of the most considerable technological breakthroughs in the field of data transmission
has been the de"elopment of practical fiber optic communications networks. 8ptical fiber
already has a tremendous use in long.distance telecommunications, and its use in defence
related applications is on a rise. #he continuous impro"ements in performance and fall in
prices, together with the innate ad"antages of optical fiber ha"e made it much more suitable
for local area networking. #he following characteristics distinguish optical fiber from
coaxial cable or twisted pair wire.
o 4reater ca,acit5: #he potential bandwidth, and thus the data rate of optical fiber is
immense. Data rates of hundreds of :bps o"er tens of kilometers ha"e been easily
attained. #his when compared to the practical maximum of hundreds of 9bps o"er about
0 km for coaxial cable and )ust a few 9bps o"er 0 km or up to 0@@ 9bps to 0 :bps o"er
a few tens of meters for twisted pair, shows us how an optical fiber is gaining importance
in modern day networking.
o /+aller size an lig!ter &eig!t: 8ptical fibers are considerably thinner than bundled
twisted pair cable or coaxial cable at least an order of magnitude thinner for almost same
amount of information transmission capacity. or cramped spaces in buildings and
underground along public rights.of.way, the ad"antage of small si'e is substantial. At
the same time the reduction in weight reduces structural support re%uirements for
installation of optical fiber network.
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o L'&er atten"ati'n: Attenuation is significantly lower for optical fiber than for twisted
pair or for coaxial cable and is constant o"er a wide range.
o Electr'+agnetic is'lati'n: 8ptical fiber systems are not affected by external
electromagnetic fields. #hus the system is not susceptible to cross talk, impulse noise >
interference. (y the same way, fibers do not radiate energy, so there is little or no
interference with other e%uipment. #here is also a high degree of protection from
ea"esdropping. In addition, fiber is inherently difficult to tap from another source.
o 4reater re,eater s,acing: ewer repeaters mean lower cost and fewer sources of error.
#he performance of optical fiber systems from this point of "iew has been steadily
impro"ing. Hepeater spacing in the tens of kilometers for optical fiber is common, and
repeater spacing of hundreds of kilometers ha"e been demonstrated. 6oaxial and twisted.
pair systems generally ha"e repeaters in e"ery few kilometers.
Trans+issi'n C!aracteristics
8ptical fiber transmits a signal.encoded beam of light by means of total internal reflection.
#otal internal reflection can occur in any transparent medium that has a higher index of
refraction than the surrounding medium. In effect, the optical fiber acts as a wa"eguide for
fre%uencies in the range of the infrared and "isible spectra.
)ig"re 6$6: #e,icting 6 +'es '- trans+issi'n t!r'"g! )iber O,tic Net&'r(
15
igure /./ shows the principle of optical fiber transmission. 1ight from a source enters the
cylindrical glass or plastic core. Hays at shallow angles are reflected and propagated along
the fiber and other rays are absorbed by the surrounding material. #his form of propagation
is called &step.index multimode5, referring to the "ariety of angles that will reflect. 7ith
multimode transmission multiple propagation paths exist, each with a different path length
and time to tra"erse the fiber. #his causes signal elements ,light pulses- to spread out in
time, which limits the rate at which data can be accurately recei"ed. 3ut another way, the
need to lea"e spacing between the pulses limits data rate. #his type of fiber is best suited for
transmission o"er "ery short distances. 7hen the fiber core radius is reduced, fewer angles
will reflect. (y reducing the radius of the core to the order of a wa"elength, only a single
angle or mode can pass. #his 4single.mode5 propagation pro"ides superior performance for
the following reasons: ,i- (ecause of a single transmission path with single.mode
transmission, the distortion found in multimode cannot occur* ,ii- 2ingle.mode is typically
used for long.distance applications, including telephone and cable tele"ision* ,iii- inally, by
"arying the index of refraction of the core, a third type of transmission, known as 4graded.
index multimode5 is possible. #he higher refracti"e index ,discussed subse%uently- at the
center makes the light rays mo"ing down the axis ad"ance more slowly than those near the
cladding. Hather than 'ig'agging off the cladding, light in the core cur"es helically to reduce
its tra"el distance. #he shortened path and higher speed allows light at the periphery to
arri"e at a recei"er at about the same time as the straight rays in the core axis. :raded.index
fibers are often used in local area networks. #wo different types of light source are used in
fiber optic systems: the light emitting diode ,1ED- and the in)ection laser diode ,I1D-. (oth
are semiconductor de"ices that emit a beam of light when a "oltage is applied. #he 1ED is
less costly, operates o"er a greater temperature range and has a longer operational life. #he
I1D, which operates on the laser principle is more efficient and can sustain greater data
rates.
6$6$2 Wireless C'++"nicati'n 0eia
#hree general ranges of fre%uencies are of interest in our discussion of wireless transmission.
re%uencies in the range of about 0 :+' to ?@ :+' are referred to as microwave frequencies. At
these fre%uencies, highly directional beams are possible, and microwa"e is %uite suitable for
point.to.point transmission. 9icrowa"e is also used for satellite communications. re%uencies in
the range of ;@ 9+' to 0 :+' are suitable for bidirectional applications. 7e refer to this range
as the radio range.
Another important fre%uency range, for local applications, is the infrared portion of the spectrum.
#his co"ers, roughly, from to Infrared is useful to local point.to.point and multipoint applications
within confined areas, such as a single room. or unguided media, transmission and reception are
achie"ed by means of an antenna.
Wireless 0eia T5,es
16
#he main types of wireless media are: radio wa"e, microwa"e and infrared.
Rai' Wave Trans+issi'n /5ste+s
#he fre%uency range of Hadio wa"es is between 0@ =+' and 0 :+'. In electromagnetic
spectrum range between 0@ =+' and 0 :+' is also called radio fre%uency. Hadio wa"es
are of following types:
2hort wa"e
Eery high fre%uency ,E+- and 9 radio
Ultra high fre%uency ,U+- radio and #ele"ision
9ost radio fre%uencies are regulated. Hegulated fre%uencies ensure clear radio
transmission. Hadio wa"es can broadcast 8mni directionally or directionally. Earious
types of antennas can be used for broadcasting. 2ome of most commonly used antennas
are:
8mni directional towers
+alf wa"e dipole
Handom length wire
(eam
or computer network applications, radio wa"es fall into three categories:
0. 1ow power, single fre%uency
A. +igh power, single fre%uency
;. 2pread I spectrum
0icr'&ave Trans+issi'n /5ste+
9icrowa"e system uses lower gigahert' fre%uencies of the electromagnetic spectrum. #hese
fre%uencies are higher than radio fre%uencies. #hey produce better performance and
throughput. 9icrowa"e data communication systems are of the following types:
#errestrial
2atellite
#errestrial microwa"e uses directional parabolic antennas to send and recei"e signals.
9icrowa"e links connect separate buildings where cabling is difficult or expensi"e. 2atellite
systems transmit signals between directional parabolic antennas. 9ain difference between
satellite system and terrestrial system is that in a satellite system one antenna is on a satellite
i.e in geosynchronous orbit about <@,@@@ kilometers abo"e the earth. (ecause of this, satellite
17
microwa"e systems can reach the most remote places on earth and communicate with mobile
de"ices. 1A! sends a signal through cable media to antenna, which beams the signal to the
satellite in orbit abo"e the earth. #he orbiting antenna then transmits the signal to another
location on the earth or to another satellite ,if the destination is on the opposite side of the
earth- which then transmits to a location on the earth. #here are some propagation delays
which may range from .< to < seconds. #he table shows some features of the two microwa"e
data communication systems.
Table 6$ 2: 7asic )eat"res '- T&' &ave 0icr'&ave /5ste+s
Heference: Bulletin of Information Technology; Wireless: A new paradigm by Ashwani ush ! ".. #hauhan
In-rare /5ste+s
Infrared media uses infrared light to transmit signals. 1ight emitting diodes ,1ED- transmit
the signals and photodiodes recei"e the signals. rom electromagnetic spectrum infrared uses
terahert' range ,high fre%uency range-. #he remote controls of different electronic de"ices
can be used in this technology. #hough infrared signals ha"e a good throughput, but problem
is that they cannot pass solid materials and they are also diluted by strong light sources.
Infrared allows both point to point and broadcast transmission. 3oint to point allows better
transmission rate, but de"ices must be within its location and on the other side, broadcasting
gi"es more flexibility but rate of data transfer is slow. #he table gi"en below represents basic
features of two types of infrared transmission.
P'int t' P'int: Infrared beams can be tightly focused and directed at a specific target.
6areful alignment of transmitter and recei"er is re%uired.
7r'acast: (roadcast infrared systems spread the signal to co"er a wider area and allow
reception of the signal by se"eral recei"ers. 8ne of the many ad"antages is mobility.
Table 6$6: 7asic )eat"res '- T&' t5,es '- In-rare Trans+issi'n
18
"eference: Bulletin of Information Technology; Wireless: A new paradigm by Ashwani ush ! ".. #hauhan
6$8 Internet: Intranet an E*tranet
#he three terms that describe 4Internet #ype5 applications in organi'ations are Internet, Intranet
and Extranet. Although they rely on the same #63$I3 technologies, they differ in terms of the
le"els of access they allow to the "arious users both inside and outside the organi'ation.
Internet
An internet type application is built if you wish to expose information to e"ery internet user
around the world. It is built in using protocols such as +##3, 29#3 and #3. 2uch applications
are made to be customer friendly, e.g. bank transactions can now be made by a customer from
home. All he needs to do is simple access the application of the bank and carry out the
transaction that he wishes to perform.
Avantages '- t!e internet are:
6ommunication
Information
Entertainment
2er"ices
E.commerce
#isavantages '- t!e internet are:
#heft of personal information
2pamming
Eirus threat
3ornography
Intranet
If an application is built using 4Internet #ype5 protocols such as +##3, #3 and 29#3, but is
only accessible to employees working in a particular company, it is an Intranet application. #his
information is for internal use only and cannot be accessed by the public on the internet. Eg.
9o"ement of account information of all customers of a particular bank from paper to a web
19
browser does not mean that the customers can access this information. #he 7eb (rowser can
only be accessed by the employees of that particular bank.
Avantages '- Intranet are:
7orkspace producti"ity in terms of %uick information exchange
2haring information to employees according to their need and re%uirement.
Impro"ed teamwork as certified users of a team can access information
6ross platform capability for U!IC, 9ac, 7indows, etc
#isavantages '- Intranet are:
2ecurity issues
Information has to be prearranged
6ost is high
E*tranet
#here are times when applications are made for the company5s intranet but need to be extended
to certain business partners or customers by the employees. 7hen you do this, you ha"e created
an extranet. It cannot be used by anyone else from outside the company except for those selected
people.
Avantages '- E*tranet:
1arge "olumes of data can be exchanged
3roduct catalogs can be exchanged with business partners
6ollaborations with other companies
3ro"ide ser"ices of one company to the employees of another company
#isavantages '- E*tranet:
#oo expensi"e
Difficult to maintain
2ecurity concerns
6$; Net&'r( Ter+in'l'g5
6$;$% R'"ters
A de"ice that transfers date between networks, thus creating an internetwork is called a router.
#he data lines of A different networks are connected to one particular router. 7hen a particular
data packet arri"es at one of the lines, the router checks its address information to know its
ultimate destination. According to this information and the information a"ailable in the routing
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tables, the router directs the packet to its next destination in order to reach its ultimate
destination. #his packet is thus transferred from one router to another through the "arious
networks till it reaches its destination.
T5,es '- R'"ters
#he most commonly used routers are the ones used in homes or offices to access the web. 1arge
enterprises and businesses which need to high speed access use enterprise routers that are
connected by optical fibers. 6ommercial core routers which are used in the market these days
are:
,i- Juniper !etworks5 #/?@ #C.9atrix
,ii- 6isco 2ystems 6arrier Houting 2ystems
)ig"re 6$<: A R'"ter
Access R'"ters an #istrib"ti'n R'"ters
#he access routers do not need a hierarchy of their own. 2o they are located at the customers
home or customer5s offices. #hey are optimi'ed for low costs. 8n the other hand, traffic from
many such access routers is aggregated to a ma)or enterprise location by a distributed router.
#hey ha"e a "ery big memory and are responsible for connections in a 7A!.
/ec"rit5
#he passage of data through routers is exposed to many threats and should be carefully secured.
If this is not done the data can be tampered with or damaged. +ence, appropriate irewalls are
used. +owe"er, companies like Juniper and 6isco ha"e routers which ha"e preinstalled security
features and can effecti"ely transfer data packets safely.
6$;$2 H"bs
Ethernet was concei"ed to use in bus topology. #he wiring in most of the buildings and
commercial complexes led to a lot of faults. 2ometimes, these faults would let down the whole
network. 2tar topology is a more con"enient way of making these connections. #he center of this
star topology was called the hub. #hus, an Ethernet hub is used to connect a number of Ethernet
de"ices and make them act as a single network segment. +ence, due to star topology, a signal
21
introduced at one input port arri"es at all output ports. It is a non intelligent de"ice and it uses
symbols. It helps a lot to detect collisions.
/t're an )'r&ar
In this type of hub the information is stored before forwarding to the next hub. #here are some
ad"antages of store and forward hub as follows:
Intelligent decisions with respect to forwarding of packets can be made. #he packet can
be transferred only to that particular node where it is re%uired instead of all the nodes.
6ollisions will no longer take place.
#he band width limitation does not arise.
In the 82I layer, hubs are classified in the physical layer. 7ithout store and forwarding, the hubs
are unaware of the data that passes through them and of their source and destination addresses. It
simply recei"es the frames, regenerates the electric signals on bit le"el and broadcasts these
frames to all the nodes
.
)ig"re 6$=: #istrib"ti'n -r'+ a Parent H"b.
As seen in the figure, the parent is the hub while the entire children are the "arious nodes.
6$;$6 4ate&a5
During transferring of packets from one node to another, the networks may use different
protocols. A gateway is a de"ice which acts as protocol translators, signal translators or
impedance matching de"ices. #his protocol translator is basically used to interconnect with
different network protocols by performing the necessary protocol con"ersions.
A,,licati'n
#he gateway, in networking has plenty of applications. 8ne of them is its use in the
telecommunication industry. Due to telephone company mergers, the need to interconnect
networks based on different signaling standard arises. :29 based networks are interconnected
with I2.?0. #hus, protocol con"ersion gateways are "ery useful and re%uired in such cases. Also,
22
3arent
Ci!"
Ci!"
Ci!"
as discussed earlier, a computer ser"er acting as a gateway node may also act as a firewall or a
proxy ser"er.
)ig"re 6$>: /tr"ct"ral re,resentati'n '- a 4ate&a5$
Internet t' Orbit ?IO2@ 4ate&a5
An I8A gateway is a machine or a de"ice which acts as a connector between computers
connected with the internet and systems that are orbiting the earth such as satellites and
spacecrafts. #his is done when the I8A establishes a stable ling between the network of
computers on the internet and the satellites. #his kind of technology was first introduced in
pro)ect +ermes.
%%$;$8 Re,eaters
Hepeaters are mostly used in the telecommunication industry. It is a de"ice which recei"es a
signal and retransmits at a higher power to co"er long distances. It is mainly used to increase the
range of the signal transmitted. #his is re%uired as the signal, that is transmitted, which suffers a
lot of losses. A drop in potential energy across the ends of the conductor that is proportional to
the current times in"erse of conductors conductance occurs due to losses in the form of heat
energy. #he light containing photons is also lost due to scattering and absorption. +ence,
repeaters are necessary.
T5,es '- Re,eaters
O,tical Re,eater: It recei"es light as input and also outputs light.
23
Rai' Re,eaters: 6ontains a recei"er and a transmitter. #he signal is recei"ed, amplified
and retransmitted usually on a different fre%uency.
#igi,eater: It means digital repeater. It can be of 2tore and orward type, that recei"es a
packet radio transmission and also retransmits on the same fre%uency.
Avantages
0. +elps to extended network co"erage o"er a large area.
A. 6onnections can be made between different media types.
#isavantages
0. A ma)or problem is that of congestion.
A. 6annot work across different network architectures.
)ig"re 6$%A: A 7asic Re,eater 7l'c( #iagra+
7rige
It works on physical layer and data link layer. It generates the signal containing the recei"ed
frame. At data link layer it checks source and destination address and accordingly filter it. It
decides whether the frame should be forwarded to the gi"en destination or whether it should be
discarded. igure /. 00 show the bridge connecting to two 1A!.
24
.
LAN % LAN 2
)ig"re 6$%%: A brige c'nnecti'n t&' LAN
C!a,ter Hig!lig!ts:
Network architecture is a $ra%&'ork o$ t& n&t'ork(s )*si+a!
+o%)on&nts an" t&ir $,n+tiona! or-ani.ation an" +on/-,ration0 its
o)&rationa! )rin+i)!&s an" )ro+&",r&s0 as '&!! as "ata $or%ats ,s&" in its
o)&ration1
A centralize net&'r( is a network in which most communications are routed from one
ma)or central hub$system.
Distributed network is a tr&n" in %o"&rn "a* 2,sin&ss &n3iron%&nts1 Tis
is t& o))osit& o$ +&ntra!i.&" +o%),tin-0 'i+ 'as )r&3a!&nt ",rin- t&
&ar!* "a*s o$ +o%),tin-1 4istri2,t&" +o%),tin- is t& a!!o+ation o$ r&so,r+&s
2ot ar"'ar& an" so$t'ar& to &a+ in"i3i",a! 'orkstation or o5+& !o+ation1
#ata c'++"nicati'n +ei"+ can be classified into wired and wireless and both ha"e
their own ad"antages and disad"antages.
Revie& B"esti'ns:
0. Discuss the importance of network architecture for business data communication.
A. Discuss the benefits of studying network architecture as a management student.
;. Discuss different types of network architectures with their pros and cons.
?. 7hat is the impact of communication medium on data communicationK
<. Discuss the ad"antages and disad"antages of fiber optics.
25
/. 7rite shot notes on:
a. +ub
b. :ateway
c. Houter
d. Hepeater
Objective B"esti'ns:
L.0. W!ic! ,r't'c'l is "se -'r sening e+ail 'n t!e internetC
a. 29#3
b. 2933
c. 2!93
d. #3
B$2 All '- t!e -'ll'&ing c'"l be liste as bene-its t' sellers s!'"l t!e5 c!''se t' sell via
t!e Internet EDCEPT:
a. the Internet is a powerful tool for customer relationship building.
b. the Internet is a more secure place to conduct transactions than in a retail
en"ironment.
c. the Internet reduces costs and increases speed and efficiency.
d. the Internet offers truly global commerce.
L.;$ &!ic! 'ne '- t!e -'ll'&ing is "se t' c'++"nicate bet&een i--erent net&'r(s
a. AD21
b. +D21
c. :ateway
d. 9odem
B$8$ W!ic! '- t!e -'ll'&ing evice c',ies electrical signals -r'+ 'ne Et!ernet t' an't!erC
a. bridge
b. repeater
c. hub
d. passi"e hub
B$; W!at ',erates in t!e #ata Lin( an t!e Net&'r( la5erC
a. !I6
b. (ridge
c. (router
d. Houter
26
B$6 W!ic! '- t!e -'ll'&ing is t!e l'gical t','l'g5C
a. (us
b. #ree
c. 2tar
d. (oth A and (
B$< T!e stanar s"it '- ,r't'c'ls "se b5 t!e Internet: Intranet: e*tranet an s'+e 't!er
net&'r(s$
a. #63$I3
b. 3rotocol
c. 8pen system
d. Internet work processor
B$= EEEEEEEEEEEE are net&'r(s t!at c'nnect ,e',le &it!in a c'+,an5 t' eac! 't!er an
t' t!e c'+,an5 net&'r($
a. Internets
b. Intranets
c. Extranets
d. 6ompunets
B$>$ #he F'!ns'n C'+,an5 is see(ing t' e*,an its b"siness 'nt' t!e Gin-'r+ati'n
!ig!&a5H +ae ,'ssible b5 recent avances in tec!n'l'g5$ T' ' t!is: t!e F'!ns'n
C'+,an5 &'"l +'st li(el5 c!''se t!e:
a. Internet.
b. Intranet.
c. Extranet.
d. 6ompunet.
L.0@. All of the following would be considered to be specific forces that underlie the new
Internet age EC6E3#:
a. digitali'ation and connecti"ity.
b. the explosion of the Internet.
c. customi'ation and customeri'ation.
d. increasing affluence and income in the United 2tates.
Answer Keys:
%$ ?a@: 2$ ?b@: 6$ ?c@: 8$ ?b@: ;$ ?c@: 6$ ?c@: <$ ?a@: =$ ?b@: >$ ?a@ : %A$ ?@
27