Auld 2001-2013 www.aerodynamics4students.

com
Where does Lift come from?
What is
Circulation
lift?
(Standard
aerofoil lift)
For a low speed aerofoil section, lift is generated y t!e pressure difference induced on t!e upper and lower
surfaces. "!is can e created in two ways, eit!er y cur#ing or camering t!e section or secondly y putting
t!e section at an angle to t!e flow.
A symmetric section w!en lined up wit! t!e flow produces a low pressure region on ot! sides ut due to
symmetry t!ese are e$ual so t!ere is no net lift force. %ressure #ariation can e seen w!ere flow lines eit!er
accelerate or decelerate. "!e faster t!e flow, t!e narrower t!e streamline spacing ecomes.
Angle of Attack
&!en t!e section is set at an angle, flow will slow and stop underneat! ut t!en accelerate rapidly around
t!e nose o#er t!e top. As t!e flow is nearly incompressile t!ese pressure field disturances transmit t!eir
influence upstream and start mo#ing t!e air stream efore it gets to t!e section. Flow is pulled up and o#er
t!e section t!en returned ac' down as it flows past t!e trailing edge. (o acceleration occurs near t!e s!arp
trailing edge as #iscous effects cause t!e fluid to separate uniformly from t!is s!arp corner. "!e o#erall result
is a region of #ery low pressure at t!e front and top of t!e aerofoil and a moderately !ig! pressure region
underneat! leading to a resultant lift force. "!e effect adds a rotation to t!e air mass as it passes across t!e
aerofoil !ence t!e name )circulation) lift. Flow is cur#ed up and t!en down again on its pat!s around t!e
aerofoil.

Camber
(Curved Section)
*f t!e aerofoil is cur#ed
+camered, t!en t!e circulation effect will e produced y its s!ape e#en t!oug! t!e stream angle is -ero. *n
t!is case, unli'e t!e effect of c!ange of flow angle t!e pressure differences will occur furt!er ac' toward t!e
centre of t!e section and not rig!t up near t!e leading edge. "!e location of t!e centre of pressure will
depend on t!e aerofoil s!ape. "!ere will again e lift due to t!is pressure difference etween upper and
lower surface caused y forcing t!e air around a cur#ed surface.
*f t!e camered section is set at an angle of attac' t!en t!e lift due to angle will e added to t!e lift due to
camer and t!ere will e a furt!er increase.
Is there a
limit to the
lift of a
section?
.ift will increase in proportion to t!e angle of attac'. /owe#er, once t!e angle ecomes too !ig!, #iscous
effects come into play and cause t!e air flow to separate from t!e upper section surface rat!er t!an following
t!e tig!t cur#es around t!e nose.
"!e flow is t!en stalled. "!e lower surface pressure is similar to t!e unstalled case ut t!e upper surface
re#erts to t!e constant low pressure of t!e separated flow region. "!is is not as low a pressure as was
produced y attac!ed flow so a reduction in lift of 200 to 300 occurs. "!e point 1ust efore stall occurs will
produce t!e ma2imum lift at low angle for t!e section. "!e main prolem associated wit! stall is not t!e loss
of lift ut t!e associated large increase in drag t!at occurs due to t!is new pressure alance.
&!at !appens at t!e edges of a real t!ree dimensional wing3
4eal wings are t!ree dimensional. 5#en t!oug! two dimensional section flow predominates o#er most of a
wing, especially if it is a straig!t wing wit! !ig! aspect ratio, t!e tip effects will cause some spanwise +t!ree-
dimensional, flow. (ear t!e tip t!e !ig! pressure region will pus! air around to t!e low pressure upper
surface. "!is effect comined wit! t!e freestream airflow creates a rotating flow called a tip #orte2. "!e
#orte2 is s!ed downstream wit! a strengt! t!at is large and proportional to t!e lift produced y t!e wing.
Alt!oug! t!e #orte2 is created y a localised tip effect, its lengt! e2tending downstream produces significant
effects on t!e w!ole flow. "!e #orte2 rotation induces a downwas! in t!e wa'e and t!is e2tends ac' to t!e
wing. "!is downwas! flow induced y t!e #orte2 results in a reduction in o#erall lift on t!e wing. "!e si-e of
t!e reduction is a function of t!e aspect ratio of t!e wing. /ig! aspect ratio wings !a#e only a small reduction
in lift, ut w!en t!e aspect ratio is reduced to less t!an 2 t!en t!e #orte2 positions start to s!ift and t!e flow
ecomes completely t!ree-dimensional and #orte2 dominated.

What is
compression
lift?
As t!e #elocity of t!e airstream
increases, air starts to e compressed as it flows around t!e aerofoil. "!is !as a noticeale influence once
t!e flow 6ac! numer reac!es 0.3 or ao#e. "!e compressile flow e!a#iour ecomes t!e dominant
influence on lift for supersonic flow. *n supersonic flow no pressure disturances can propogate upstream so
airflow direction c!anges can only e rapid as t!e stream runs into t!e s!oc' wa#es created y t!e aerofoil.
7nderneat! t!e section, s!oc's produce a !ig! pressure region of compressed air w!ile on top e2pansions
produce a region of lower pressure. "!e differences in pressure caused y s!oc'wa#e compression and
e2pansion systems produce t!e lift on t!e section.
An alternate met!od of producing compression lift is to use wings in ground effect wit! surrounding s'irts to
create a !ig! pressure region trapped eneat! t!e #e!icle. /owe#er in t!is case, an e2tra energy source is
re$uired to maintain t!e !ig!er pressure in t!e region etween ground and underside of #e!icle. 8ut at least
lift can e generated wit!out forward speed of t!e #e!icle.
What is vortex lift?
9n low aspect ratio wings, in particular delta planform wings, t!e tip #ortices form from t!e leading edge
rat!er t!an at t!e wing tip li'e con#entional wings. :ue to mutual interference, t!ey are positioned ao#e t!e
wing rat!er 1ust at t!e tip and downstream. "!is #orte2 pair forms a low pressure downward mo#ing flow
ao#e t!e wing and allows lift to e maintained at muc! !ig!er angles of attac' t!an for con#entional wings.
4eturn to "ale of ;ontents.