460200

Intro to Electric Motors 200
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Class Outline
Objectives
What Is an Electric Motor?
Motor Theory
Right-Hand Motor Rule
Speed and Torque
Horsepower
Motor Parts
Counter EMF
DC Motors
AC Motors
Motor Efficiency
Motor Control
Motor Safety and Maintenance
Summary
Lesson: 1/14
Objectives
Define electric motors.
Describe the operating principles of
electric motors.
Describe the right-hand motor rule.
Define speed.
Define torque.
Describe horsepower.
Identify the parts of an electric motor.
Describe counter emf.
Identify the main types of DC motors.
Identify the main types of AC motors.
Describe ways to evaluate speed
regulation.
Describe ways to control motor speed.
Describe common safety practices for
Figure 1. The squirrel cage is the most common AC motor rotor.
working with motors.
Figure 2. The methods of speed control vary for DC and AC motors.
Figure 3. Lockout/tagout is a common safety practice for working with
electric motors.
Lesson: 2/14
What Is an Electric Motor?
Consider the typical manufacturing shop. A wide range of machines
and tools are used that rely on motion. When industry needs motion
to turn or drive devices, it most often uses motors. A motor is any
device that converts one form of energy into mechanical energy.
An electric motor, seen in Figure 1, turns electrical energy into
mechanical motion. Because energy is easily and efficiently
transferred as electricity, electric motors are often used to put that
energy to effective use.
Electric motors operate using either direct current (DC) or
alternating current (AC). The majority of the worlds power supply
is AC. AC motors can generally be made with greater power.
However, there are many applications that use smaller DC motors.
The main benefit of using DC for a motor is the ability to easily
control the speed. Also, DC motors operate at full power
immediately when they are turned on.
Motors are used to turn mechanical devices, such as water pumps,
circular saws, and the drill press shown in Figure 2. DC motors are
used when high torque or variable speed control is needed, such as
for machine tools, cranes, and elevators. AC motors are much more
commonly used than DC motors and are best suited for high
horsepower and continuous use applications. Figure 1. An electric motor.
This class discusses various types of electric motors and how they
are applied throughout industry. It shows the principles behind
motor operation and the methods used to control motion.
Figure 2. This drill press is turned by an electric
motor.
Lesson: 3/14
Motor Theory
The function of a motor varies slightly depending
on the type and design, but all electric motors
work on the principle of magnetic induction.
Magnetic induction is the relationship between
electricity and magnetism. It is governed by
Faraday's Law, which summarizes how voltage is
generated by changes in the magnetic
environment.
Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can
be changed into different forms. In order to
understand how motors convert electrical energy
into mechanical energy, you must remember the
principle of magnetic flux. Increasing magnetic
flux increases motor speed. The difference in a
magnets polarity creates lines of flux that exit
the magnets north pole but are attracted back by
the south pole, as shown in Figure 1. Flux
measures the strength of the magnetic field
around a magnet.
Figure 1. Flux lines move from a magnets north pole to the south
The left-hand flux rule can help you remember
pole.
how flux lines behave. Hold a de-energized
conducting wire in your left hand. Make sure your
thumb points in the direction that current is
flowing. When your fingers curl around the wire,
they will point in the same direction that the
magnetic flux is running. Figure 2 shows how flux
behaves as current flows either out of or into the
screen. This helps you understand the concept of
polarity. The direction of the magnetic flux is
determined by the pole relationships in the motor.
Figure 2. The left-hand flux rule shows the way torque will be created
depending on the direction of current flow.
Lesson: 4/14
Right-Hand Motor Rule
The construction of an electric motor, such as the one in
Figure 1, is essentially the same as that of a generator. The
generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy,
and the motor converts the electrical energy back into
mechanical energy. They are so similar, in fact, that a
generator may be made to function as a motor by applying a
direct voltage across the normal output terminals.
Electricity is the movement of electrons. Magnetic induction
induces voltage because the magnets attract the electrons.
Voltage is called an electromotive force (emf) because it is
the force that causes current flow in a circuit. A common unit
of induction is the weber (Wb). The weber is a unit equal to
8
100 million (10 ) lines of flux. In order for a generator to
induce 1 volt (V), it must cause the conductor to cut or be cut
by 1Wb in 1 second. For motors, you can determine the
relationship between the motion of the conductor in a
magnetic field and the direction of the induced current using
the right-hand motor rule.
Figure 1 shows how you can use your right hand to remember
the relationship between the three factors. Your index finger
Figure 1. The construction of an electric motor is similar
points in the direction of the lines of flux. Your thumb is the
to a generator.
direction the conductor will move. Your middle finger shows
the direction the voltage is induced.
Figure 2. The right-hand motor rule.
Lesson: 5/14
Speed and Torque
While all electric motors convert electrical power into mechanical
motion, the performance characteristics of every design are
different. All motors have what are known as mechanical power
variables that depend on the motor size and the application they
are used for. These variables are also dependent on the load
placed on the motor. Different motors are required to operate at
different speeds or to produce varying amounts of torque.
The rate at which a motor rotates is known as speed. Speed is
Figure 1. Speed is equal to distance divided by
measured in revolutions per minute (rpm). Figure 1 shows the
time.
formula to determine speed. A motors speed varies depending on
the load attached to it and the motors construction. A motor will
run at a higher rpm with no load attached. Motors run best at full
load. A DC motors speed is easier to control than an AC motor.
Torque is a force that creates rotary motion. An example of torque
is tightening a bolt with a wrench, as shown in Figure 2. This
principle can be applied to industrial machinery, where torque is
exerted at a much greater force. The magnetism that powers
electric motors does so because of the torque that the polarity
applies to the motors rotor. Torque is most properly measured in
pound-feet (lb-ft.), though you may also see it expressed in
foot-pounds (ft-lbs.).
Figure 2. Turning this wrench applies torque to the
bolt.
Lesson: 6/14
Horsepower
When you use a motor, you use it to do work. A
motor drives a load that needs to be moved. A load
is the opposition to an applied force. Figure 1 shows
an example of a load. An electric motor runs at a
certain speed until it is attached to a load. When it
meets that resistance, the motor is forced to do
work. Without being connected to a load, the only
work the motor does is to overcome its own internal
resistance from friction and copper loss.
In electrical systems, the power to perform work is
typically measured in watts. However, for motors
that produce mechanical motion, power is most
commonly expressed in horsepower. One
horsepower is equal to 33,000 ft-lbs. of work per
minute, or 746 watts.
The horsepower of a motor is related to its speed
and torque characteristics. If speed or torque
increases and the other remains constant, the
motor will output more horsepower. Figure 2 shows
Figure 1. In the original application of horsepower, buckets of coal
the general relationship between the three main
were the load and horses did the work.
mechanical power variables as a motor starts up.
Figure 2. A motors horsepower is dependent on speed and torque.
Lesson: 7/14
Motor Parts
While there are many types of motors for different
applications, all motors share certain design features. To
create the necessary torque for the motor to rotate,
pole pieces are used to form electromagnets.
A pole piece is a block of metal around which conducting
wire is wrapped. The outside supply of electricity
energizes the pole pieces to create the magnetic field.
The pole can either be mounted on the motor housing,
as is the case in DC motors, or be used as the rotor in
AC motors.
All motors have an armature that is wound by
conductors in various patterns. In DC motors, voltage is
Figure 1. A three-phase AC motor has a stationary armature
applied to the rotating armature. In AC motors, the
and a rotating magnetic field.
armature is also known as the stator because the
armature windings are mounted on the outside, as
seen in Figure 1.
In order for DC motors to maintain proper polarity in a
rotating magnetic field, they use a commutator. The
commutator acts like a rotating switch to maintain the
correct direction of current flow to the armature
windings. For the magnetic field to develop constant
torque, armature polarity must stay constant with the
polarity of the pole pieces. The commutator contacts the
brushes at regular intervals to maintain polarity, as
seen in Figure 2.
Figure 2. The commutator contacts the brushes and maintains
proper DC polarity.
Lesson: 8/14
Counter EMF
One factor you must be aware of in DC motors is
counter emf. Counter emf is voltage that is induced
into the armature as it spins through the magnetic field.
While a DC motor is running, it also acts like a DC
generator. As it turns, the loop of conductor wire cuts
the magnetic field formed by the poles. A voltage is
induced in the wire very much like it would be in a DC
generator. For this reason, counter emf may also be
referred to as generator action.
Because a motor works opposite a generator, the
induced voltage flows in the opposite direction of the
current supplied by the motors DC power source, as
seen in Figure 1. The higher a motors speed, the
greater the counter emf it generates. Since this voltage
is counter to the useful current being supplied to power
the motor, it is known as counter emf. AC motors do
not suffer from this phenomenon because the current
Figure 1. As a motor rotates, voltage is generated in the
constantly reverses itself, so there is no competing
opposing direction to the supply.
directional current generated.
The counter emf can never become as large as the
applied voltage, but it effectively cancels part of the
armature voltage. The single current that flows is
armature current, but it is greatly reduced because of
the counter emf. This reduction in current prevents
overheating from copper loss. Without counter emf, the
amount of current flowing through the conductors
would be too much and would burn through them.
Lesson: 9/14
DC Motors
There are two ways that electricity can flow: DC or
AC. A motor like the one in Figure 1 can be
designed to run on either of the two current types.
Direct current motors are used throughout industry
in applications where variable speed is desirable.
There are three basic types of DC motors:
Shunt motors are commonly known as constant
speed motors. Because its field windings are
connected in parallel to the armature, an external
power source can provide current to the shunt
field. This keeps the magnetic field stable so that,
even at full load, shunt motors stay near full speed.
Figure 1. An electric motor.
Series motors require you to remember two very
important points. First, because counter emf
decreases as load is added and the motor speed
decreases, current increases in both the series
field and the armature. This current increase
provides excellent initial torque. Second, the speed
of a series motor has no real limit, so it must be
connected to a load. Running a series motor with
no load can cause it to develop such high rpm that
it destroys itself.
Compound motors are the most commonly used
DC motor for industrial use. They use both a shunt
and a series field. Doing this allows compound
motors to combine the favorable operating Figure 2. Shunt motors remain relatively constant, while series
characteristics of the other two types. They have motors drop off significantly as load is added.
the relatively high torque of a series motor and
regulate speed almost as well as a shunt motor.
Figure 2 shows the relationship between the speed
curves of all three DC motor types.
Lesson: 10/14
AC Motors
For large industrial jobs requiring higher horsepower, AC
motors, particularly three-phase motors, are the prime
mover. These motors are smaller, lighter, and are more
efficient per horsepower than DC motors. They are
extremely rugged and require little maintenance. Many of
these motors operate continuously for years without
breaking down. There are three main types of AC motors.
The squirrel cage induction motor is by far the most
common motor type used for industry. The name comes
from the shape of the rotor, as seen in Figure 1. The
squirrel cage is a constant speed motor and suffers almost
no mechanical wear, except at two bearings. Induction
motors use a three phase electrically rotating magnetic
field.
Figure 1. The squirrel cage rotor is the most commonly used
throughout industry.
A wound rotor induction motor has the same stator
windings as a squirrel cage motor, but its rotor has slots in
which wire is wound. The wound rotor can produce a
higher start-up torque per amp of current supplied.
A synchronous motor, seen in Figure 2, is different from
other types of AC motors because it does not use
induction to produce torque. Instead, an external DC
current is used to excite the magnetic field. Synchronous
motors can be desirable because they run at constant
speed from no load to full load.
Figure 2. Synchronous motors are externally excited.
Lesson: 11/14
Motor Efficiency
Motor efficiency is a ratio of work output of a
system versus the total work supplied to it. With any
operating system, it is important not to waste
energy. With electric motors, it is wasteful to input
numerous watts of power in return for low
horsepower output. The efficiency of motors can
vary greatly with the type. Figure 1 shows a formula
to calculate the efficiency of an electric motor.
Speed regulation is the ability of a motor to
Figure 1. For electric motors, subtract losses from input, then maintain its speed when a load is applied. It is an
divide by total input and multiply by 100. unchanging characteristic of a motor and remains
the same as long as the applied voltage does not
vary. In other words, the motor's speed regulation
will always stay the same unless a physical or
mechanical change is made in the motor. The speed
regulation of a motor is a comparison of its no-load
speed to its full-load speed and is expressed as a
percentage of full load speed. The lower the
percentage, the more constant the speed will be
under varying load conditions. The speed regulation
of a DC motor is proportional to the resistance of
the armature.
For AC induction motors, speed performance is
Figure 2. Formula for DC motor speed regulation, and an example measured in percent slip. Percent slip is found by
calculation. subtracting the synchronous speed from the
speed of the rotor, as Figure 2 shows.
Figure 3. Percent slip formula for AC motors, and an example
calculation.
Lesson: 12/14
Motor Control
One of the most important aspects of operating an electric
motor, or any motor, is the ability to control its mechanical
variables. There are many ways to control a motors speed,
depending on the type of motor used. Speed control is the
external means of varying the speed of a motor under any
type of load. Figure 1 shows the ways speed can be
controlled in DC and AC motors.
For DC motors, speed can be regulated by adjusting the
voltage supplied to the field or the armature. Controlling
field voltage yields constant horsepower, and controlling
the armature voltage provides constant torque. DC motors
are used for applications that require smooth acceleration
and deceleration because the speed of DC motors can
easily be controlled from zero to full speed.
AC motor speed cannot be regulated by adjusting the
voltage. A variation of more than 10% can damage the
motor because of the large effect voltage has on torque in
AC motors. To control speed on AC motors, you must either
change the frequency or change the number of poles.
Figure 1. Adjusting voltage is not a means of speed control
Frequency can be changed using an adjustable frequency
for an AC motor.
drive. A multispeed motor is one designed so that the
windings can be connected in different combinations to
form different numbers of poles.
Lesson: 13/14
Motor Safety and Maintenance
As with all power systems, working with electric motors
poses some safety hazards. Electric motors drive rotating
machine parts, like shafts or pulleys that can become
caught on clothing, hair, or body parts. These moving
parts can pull you toward the machinery, and cause
serious injury. To prevent injury, avoid wearing
loose-fitting clothing when working with rotating parts. If
you have long hair, tie it back or wear a hat.
If you need to inspect, install, or maintain an electric
motor, make sure that all rotation has stopped and that
power to the machine has been shut off. Motors may have
secondary safety features like control stops and computer
controls, but you should never rely on them. Always
disconnect the main power supply before working on a
motor.
Depending on your shops policies, you may need to
perform lockout/tagout before working on motors. You
should never attempt to operate a machine that is under
lockout/tagout. Figure 1 shows equipment for
lockout/tagout. Unauthorized personnel should never
remove a lock. Even if you are authorized, make sure you Figure 1. Make sure you know and always follow proper
are positive the main power is off and the motor is fully lockout/tagout procedures.
repaired before you remove a lock.
Some motors are equipped with machine guards to
prevent injury during operation. If you have to remove a
machine guard to perform maintenance, make sure that
you replace it properly before restoring power to the
machine. Always wear the personal protective
equipment (PPE) required by your employer, and follow
all safety precautions outlined by the original equipment
manufacturer of the motor.
Lesson: 14/14
Summary
An electric motor is a device that converts electrical energy
into mechanical motion. Motors use a rotating magnetic
field to provide the torque used to turn devices. The
right-hand motor rule shows the relationship between
induced voltage to the lines of flux and the direction of
conductor movement.
The three most common mechanical power variables are
speed, torque, and horsepower. Speed is the rate of motor
rotation, torque is the turning force, and horsepower
measures a motor's ability to do work. All motors share
common design features, such as an armature and pole
pieces, but DC motors use a commutator to maintain their
polarity. DC motors also experience counter emf, which is a
voltage induced into the armature as it spins.
The most common DC motor types are series, shunt, and
compound. The compound motor combines the positive
characteristics of the shunt and series motors. The most
common DC motor types are squirrel cage, wound rotor,
and synchronous. Speed regulation is a ratio of a motor's
speed betwen no load and full load. In AC motors, this is
known as percent slip. Figure 1. Motors use magnetic induction to create torque.
The best way to control the speed of a DC motor is to
adjust the voltage that is applied to the armature. For AC
motors, you must change the frequency or the number of
poles. Adjusting the applied voltage to an AC motor could
damage it.
Always observe all rules for lockout/tagout procedures. If
you are authorized to maintain or repair motors, always
make sure all rotation has stopped completely and that the
main power supply has been disconnected before servicing.
Figure 2. The right-hand motor rule.
Figure 3. To use DC power, a motor needs a commutator to
maintain polarity.
Class Vocabulary
Term Definition
A device that converts incoming 60Hz AC power into other desired frequencies to allow for motor adjustable frequency
speed control. drive
Current that regularly reverses the direction of its flow. In the U.S., AC alternates 60 times per alternating current
second, or 60 hertz.
The part of a motor in which a current is induced by a magnetic field. The armature usually consists armature
of a series of coils or groups of insulated conductors surrounding a core of iron.
The conducting coils that are wound around the armature in which voltage is induced, causing it to armature winding
rotate within a magnetic field. If the wires are damaged or broken, the armature will not rotate
properly.
Sliding electrical contacts used to provide a connection between the armature and the external brushes
circuit.
The rotating switch that contacts the brushes of a DC motor. The commutator maintains DC when commutator
the rotation of the armature switches the polarity of the conductor.
A DC motor that uses both series and shunt field windings. Compound motors provide most of the compound motor
positives of both types.
A type of motor that maintains a steady rate of rpm from no load to full load. DC shunt motors are constant speed motor
often referred to as constant speed motors because they have this characteristic.
A power loss due to current flowing through wire. The lost power is converted into heat. copper loss
The voltage induced in the armature of a DC motor that opposes the applied voltage and limits counter emf
armature current.
Current that travels in one direction. It does not reverse the direction of flow. direct current
A measure of the work output of a system versus the total work supplied to it. An efficient system efficiency
converts a greater percentage of input energy into useful work.
A powerful magnet that gains an attractive force only when current passes through it. electromagnet
The force that pushes electrons through a conductor. Electromotive force is abbreviated "emf" and is electromotive force
measured in volts.
The ability to do work. Energy is measured in watt hours and is expressed as the product of power energy
and time.
A law that states an electric field is induced in any system in which a magnetic field is changing with Faraday's Law
time.
In the English system, the unit used to measure power. Some sources use foot-pounds foot-pound
interchangeably with pound-feet to express torque.
A measurement of the number of complete AC cycles that occurs in one second. Frequency is frequency
measured in Hertz (Hz).
A force that resists motion between two objects that are in contact with each other. friction
A device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy by magnetic induction. generator
A unit of power used to describe machine strength. One horsepower equals 33,000 ft-lbs of work per horsepower
minute, or 746 watts.
A method used to determine the relationship of the motion of the conductor in a magnetic field to left-hand flux rule
the direction of the induced current. Flux rotates around the conductor as shown by the left hand.
The opposition to applied force, such as a weight, to be carried or moved. load
A method of protecting employees from accidental machine startup through proper locking and lockout/tagout
labeling of machines that are undergoing maintenance.
A shield or cover over hazardous areas on a machine to prevent accidental contact with body parts or machine guard
to prevent debris, such as chips, from exiting the machine.
A measure of the strength of the field formed around a magnet. Flux is expressed in webers (Wb). magnetic flux
The use of magnets to cause voltage in a conductor. Magnetic induction occurs whenever a magnetic induction
conductor passes through magnetic lines of flux.
The properties of mechanical energy that vary for specific machines and applications. Speed, torque, mechanical power
and horsepower are the three main mechanical power variables for motors. variables
A machine that converts one form of energy, such as electricity, into mechanical energy or motion. motor
A type of AC motor designed with windings that may be reconnected to form different numbers of multispeed motor
poles. This is done as a method of speed control.
The difference between a motor's synchronous speed and its speed at full load. Percent slip is a way percent slip
to measure the speed performance of an induction motor.
Any example of various safety equipment that workers wear or use to prevent injury in the personal protective
workplace. Safety glasses are common personal protective equipment (PPE). equipment
Having two oppositely charged poles, one positive and one negative. Polarity determines the polarity
direction in which current tends to flow.
Devices mounted on the inside of a motor armature. When connected to field windings, the pole pole piece
pieces form the electromagnets that create lines of flux.
In the English system, the unit used to measure torque. pound-feet
The device that introduces motion into a system. In electric motors, electricity is the prime mover prime mover
that provides the turning force converted into mechanical energy.
A unit of measurement, abbreviated as rpm, that indicates the number of revolutions a machine revolutions per
component makes in one minute. Revolutions per minute is a measurement of speed. minute
The relationship between the factors involved in determining the movement of a conductor in a right-hand motor rule
magnetic field. This rule helps us understand how motors use magnetic flux to create motor torque.
The rotating part of a motor. rotor
A winding of large wire and few turns designed to be connected in series with the armature of a DC series field
motor or generator.
A method of connecting field windings in series with the armature. A DC series motor provides very series motor
high start-up torque but must never be run without a load.
A winding of small wire and many turns designed to be connected in parallel with the armature of a shunt field
DC motor or generator.
A method of connecting field windings in parallel with the armature. The shunt DC motor is shunt motor
commonly used because of its excellent speed regulation.
The amount of distance an object travels in a given period of time. Speed is used to measure both speed
linear and rotational movement.
The external means of varying the speed of a motor under any type of load. speed control
The ability of a motor to maintain its speed when a load is applied. A motor's speed regulation is speed regulation
fixed based on its design.
A type of three phase AC motor whose rotor is constructed by connecting metal bars together at squirrel cage
each end. It is the most common AC motor type. induction motor
The stationary windings of a motor, usually inside an AC motor. stator
A constant speed AC motor that does not use induction to operate. A synchronous motor needs DC synchronous motor
excitation to operate.
The speed of the rotating magnetic field of an AC induction motor. synchronous speed
A motor with a continuous series of three overlapping AC cycles offset by 120 degrees. Three-phase three-phase motor
power is used for all large AC motors and is the standard power supply that enters homes and
factories.
A force that produces rotation. Torque is measured in pound-feet in the English system and torque
Newton-meters in the metric system.
A unit used to measure power. One horsepower is equal to 746 watts. watt
A unit used to express flux density. One weber (Wb) is equal to 100 million lines of flux. weber
The result of a force applied to an object and the distance through which the force is applied. In an work
electrical sense, work is the result of electricity flowing through some type of resistance.
A three phase motor containing a rotor with windings and slip rings. This motor type permits control wound rotor
of rotor current by connecting external resistance in series with the rotor windings. induction motor

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Intro to Electric Motors 200

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