Capacitance p

Q
A
C
0

Parallel-plate capacitor
V
Q
C

=
d
C =
p p
The charge on the capacitor plates is
c
V
directly proportional to the potential
difference between the plates.
1 farad = 1 F = 1 C/V
Capacitance of a Spherical
Capacitor
The potential difference The potential difference
will be
1 1
V k Q

=

The capacitance will be
e
V k Q
b a
=


Q ab
C = =
( )
e
C
V k b a
= =

Circuit Symbols Circuit Symbols
A circuit diagram is a simplified
t ti f t l representation of an actual
circuit
Circuit symbols are used to
represent the various elements
Lines are used to represent
wires
The batterys positive terminal
is indicated by the longer line
Combinations of Capacitors
Capacitors in Parallel Capacitors in Parallel
The capacitors can be The capacitors can be
replaced with one
capacitor with a
i f C capacitance of C
eq
The equivalent capacitor
must have exactly the same y
external effect on the
circuit as the original
capacitors capacitors
Parallel Capacitors
...
3 2 1
+ + + = C C C C
eq
2 1
2 1 2 1
C C
V
Q
V
Q
V
Q Q
V
Q
C
eq
+ =

+
=

=
V V V V
C C C C
q

Capacitors in Parallel
C
eq
= C
1
+ C
2
+
The equivalent capacitance of a parallel The equivalent capacitance of a parallel
combination of capacitors is greater than
any of the individual capacitors any of the individual capacitors
Essentially, the areas are combined
Capacitors in Series
As this negative charge
accumulates on the right accumulates on the right
plate of C
2
, an equivalent
amount of negative charge
is removed from the left
plate of C
2
, leaving it with
an excess positive charge an excess positive charge
All of the right plates gain
charges of Q and all the charges of Q and all the
left plates have charges of
+Q
Series Capacitors
1 1 1 1
...
1 1 1 1
3 2 1
+ + + =
C C C C
eq
2 1 2 1
1 1 1
C C Q
V
Q
V
Q
V V
Q
V
C
C
+ =

=
+
=

=
2 1
C C Q Q Q Q C
eq
When two or more capacitors are connected
in series, they carry the same charge, but , y y g ,
the potential differences across them are not
the same
The capacitances add as reciprocals and the
equivalent capacitance is always less than the q p y
smallest individual capacitor
Equivalent Capacitance Example Equivalent Capacitance, Example
The 1.0-F and 3.0-F capacitors are in parallel as are the 6.0-F and
2.0-F capacitors
These parallel combinations are in series with the capacitors next to p p
them
The series combinations are in parallel and the final equivalent
capacitance can be found
Energy Stored in a Capacitor
Assume the capacitor is being charged and,
at some point has a charge q on it at some point, has a charge q on it
The work needed to transfer a charge from
l t t th th i one plate to the other is
q
dW Vdq dq = =
The total work required is
q q
C
The total work required is
2
0
2
Q
q Q
W dq
C C
= =

0
2 C C

Energy Energy
The energy can be considered to be stored
in the electric field in the electric field
For a parallel-plate capacitor, the energy
can be expressed in terms of the field as can be expressed in terms of the field as
U = C(V
c
)
2
=(
o
A/d)*(Ed)
2
U=( Ad)(E)
2
U=(
o
Ad)(E)
It can also be expressed in terms of the
energy density (energy per unit volume) energy density (energy per unit volume)
u
E
=
o
E
2
This is correct expression for energy density for any electric This is correct expression for energy density for any electric
field
Energy
The work done in charging the capacitor appears as
electric potential energy U:
2
1 1 Q
This applies to a capacitor of any geometry
2
2
1 1
( )
2 2 2
Q
U Q V C V
C
= = =
This applies to a capacitor of any geometry
The energy stored increases as the charge increases
and as the potential difference increases
In practice, there is a maximum voltage before
discharge occurs between the plates
Capacitors with Dielectrics Capacitors with Dielectrics
A dielectric is a nonconducting material
h h l d b h l f that, when placed between the plates of a
capacitor, increases the capacitance
Di l t i i l d bb l ti d d Dielectrics include rubber, plastic, and waxed
paper
For a parallel plate capacitor For a parallel-plate capacitor,
C = C
o
=
o
(A/d)
The capacitance is multiplied by the factor The capacitance is multiplied by the factor
when the dielectric completely fills the region
between the plates p
Dielectrics
In theory, d could be made very small to create a very
large capacitance
I ti th i li it t d In practice, there is a limit to d
d is limited by the electric discharge that could occur though
the dielectric medium separating the plates
For a given d, the maximum voltage that can be
applied to a capacitor without causing a discharge
depends on the dielectric strength of the material depends on the dielectric strength of the material
Dielectrics
Dielectrics provide the following
advantages:
Increase in capacitance
Increase the maximum operating voltage
Possible mechanical support between the plates
This allows the plates to be close together without
touching touching
This decreases d and increases C
Types of Capacitors Oil Filled Types of Capacitors Oil Filled
Common for high- Common for high
voltage capacitors
A number of interwoven
metallic plates are
immersed in silicon oil
Dielectrics An Atomic View Dielectrics An Atomic View
An external field can polarize
the dielectric whether the
molecules are polar or
nonpolar
The charged edges of the
dielectric act as a second pair
of plates producing an induced of plates producing an induced
electric field in the direction
opposite the original electric
field field
Induced Charge and Field Induced Charge and Field
The electric field due to the
plates is directed to the right and
it polarizes the dielectric it polarizes the dielectric
The net effect on the dielectric is
an induced surface charge that
results in an induced electric results in an induced electric
field
If the dielectric were replaced
with a conductor the net field with a conductor, the net field
between the plates would be
zero
Average Electric Current Average Electric Current
Electric current is the
rate of flow of charge
h h i f through some region of
space
The SI unit of current is The SI unit of current is
the ampere (A)
1 A = 1 C / s
Th b l f l i The symbol for electric
current is I
I
dQ
dt
=
dt
Conductivity and Ohms law y
A current density J and an electric field E are established in a conductor
whenever a potential difference is maintained across the conductor
J = E J E
The constant of proportionality, , is called the conductivity of the
conductor
Ohms law states that for man materials the Ohms law states that for many materials, the
ratio of the current density to the electric field is
a constant that is independent of the electric a constant that is independent of the electric
field producing the current
Most metals obey Ohms law
Mathematically, J = E
Materials that obey Ohms law are said to be ohmic
Ohms Law
Ohms law states that for many materials,
the ratio of the current density to the electric
field is a constant that is independent of
the electric field producing the current
Most metals obey Ohms law
Mathematically, J = E
M i l h b Oh l id b Materials that obey Ohms law are said to be
ohmic
Resistance
In a conductor, the voltage applied across the
ends of the conductor is proportional to the ends of the conductor is proportional to the
current through the conductor
Th t t f ti lit i ll d th The constant of proportionality is called the
resistance of the conductor
V
I
V
R

=
SI units of resistance are ohms ()
1 = 1 V / A
Ohmic Material Graph Ohmic Material, Graph
An ohmic device
The resistance is constant
over a wide range of
voltages voltages
The relationship between
current and voltage is g
linear
The slope is related to the
resistance resistance
Electrical Power Electrical Power
Assume a circuit as
shown shown
As a charge moves from
a to b, the electric ,
potential energy of the
system increases by QV
Th h i l i The chemical energy in
the battery must decrease
by this same amount
Electric Powerl
The power is given by the equation:
I V =
Applying Ohms Law, alternative expressions can be
found:
2
V
i i i A i i i i d
2
I I
V
V R
R
= = =
Units: I is in A, R is in , V is in V, and
is in W

Internal Battery Resistance Internal Battery Resistance

If the internal resistance is If the internal resistance is
zero, the terminal voltage
equals the emf
In a real battery, there is
internal resistance, r
Th t i l lt V The terminal voltage, V
= - Ir
EMF
The emf is equivalent to the open-circuit
voltage g
This is the terminal voltage when no current is
in the circuit
This is the voltage labeled on the battery
The actual potential difference between the The actual potential difference between the
terminals of the battery depends on the
current in the circuit current in the circuit
Load Resistance
The terminal voltage = the voltage across
the external resistance
This external resistor - the load resistance
The load resistance - any electrical device The load resistance any electrical device
Power
The total power output of the battery is
P = IV = I P IV I
P = I = I
2
R + I
2
r
Resistors in Series Resistors in Series
Potentials add
V = IR
1
+ IR
2
V IR
1
+ IR
2
= I (R
1
+R
2
)
Conservation of Energy
Resistors in series:
1) the currents are the same in all the resistors - conservation of charge 1) the currents are the same in all the resistors conservation of charge
2) the sum of the potential differences across the resistors = the total potential
difference across the combination
Equivalent Resistance Series
R
eq
= R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3
+
eq 1 2 3
The equivalent resistance is always greater
than any individual resistance than any individual resistance
If one device in the series circuit creates an
open circuit all devices are inoperative open circuit, all devices are inoperative
Equivalent Resistance Series
An Example
Two resistors are replaced with their equivalent
resistance resistance
Resistors in Parallel
The potential difference across each resistor
is the same
The current, I, that enters a point must be
equal to the total current leaving that point equal to the total current leaving that point
I = I
1
+ I
2
Consequence of Conservation of Charge Consequence of Conservation of Charge
Equivalent Resistance Parallel Equivalent Resistance Parallel
Equivalent resistance replaces the two original resistances
Household circuits are wired so that electrical devices are Household circuits are wired so that electrical devices are
connected in parallel
Circuit breakers may be used in series with other circuit
elements for safety purposes elements for safety purposes
Equivalent Resistance Parallel Equivalent Resistance Parallel
Equivalent Resistance
1 1 1 1
The inverse of the equivalent
resistance of two or more
1 2 3
1 1 1 1
eq
R R R R
= + + +K
resistance of two or more
resistors connected in
parallel is the algebraic sum
of the inverses of the of the inverses of the
individual resistance
The equivalent is always
less than the smallest
resistor in the group
Resistors in Parallel
In parallel, each device operates independently of the
others so that if one is switched off, the others remain
on
In parallel, all of the devices operate on the same
voltage voltage
The current takes all the paths
The lower resistance will have higher currents The lower resistance will have higher currents
Even very high resistances will have some currents
Combinations of
Resistors
The 8.0- and 4.0- resistors are in
series and can be replaced with their
equivalent, 12.0 equivalent, 12.0
The 6.0- and 3.0- resistors are in
parallel and can be replaced with their
equivalent 2 0 equivalent, 2.0
These equivalent resistances are in
series and can be replaced with their
equivalent resistance 14 0 equivalent resistance, 14.0