The TCP/IP model is a description framework for computer network protocols created in

the 1970s by DARPA, an aency of the !nited "tates Department of Defense# $t e%ol%ed
from ARPA&'T, which was the world(s first wide area network and a predecessor of the
$nternet# The T)P*$P +odel is sometimes called the Internet Model or the DoD Model#
The T)P*$P model, or $nternet Protocol "uite, describes a set of eneral desin uidelines
and implementations of specific networkin protocols to enable computers to
communicate o%er a network# T)P*$P pro%ides end,to,end connecti%ity specifyin how
data should be formatted, addressed, transmitted, routed and recei%ed at the destination#
Protocols e-ist for a %ariety of different types of communication ser%ices between
computers#
T)P*$P is enerally described as ha%in four abstraction layers .R/) 11001# This layer
architecture is often compared with the se%en,layer 2"$ Reference +odel3 usin terms
such as Internet Reference Model in analoy is howe%er incorrect as the $nternet +odel is
descripti%e while the 2"$ Reference +odel was intended to be prescripti%e, hence
Reference Model#
The T)P*$P model and related protocols are maintained by the $nternet 'nineerin Task
/orce .$'T/1#
Contents
4hide5
1 6ey architectural principles
0 7ayers in the T)P*$P model
o 0#1 7ink 7ayer
o 0#0 $nternet 7ayer
o 0#8 Transport 7ayer
o 0#9 Application 7ayer
8 :ardware and software implementation
9 2"$ and T)P*$P layerin differences
; 7ayer names and number of layers in the literature
< References
7 '-ternal links
[edit] Key architectural principles
An early architectural document, R/) 1100, emphasi=es architectural principles o%er
layerin
415
#
'nd,to,'nd Principle> This principle has e%ol%ed o%er time# $ts oriinal
e-pression put the maintenance of state and o%erall intellience at the edes, and
assumed the $nternet that connected the edes retained no state and concentrated
on speed and simplicity# Real,world needs for firewalls, network address
translators, web content caches and the like ha%e forced chanes in this principle#
405

Robustness Principle> ?$n eneral, an implementation must be conser%ati%e in its
sendin beha%ior, and liberal in its recei%in beha%ior# That is, it must be careful
to send well,formed datarams, but must accept any dataram that it can interpret
.e##, not ob@ect to technical errors where the meanin is still clear1 R/) 791#?
485

?The second part of the principle is almost as important> software on other hosts
may contain deficiencies that make it unwise to e-ploit leal but obscure protocol
features# R/) 1100?
495

'%en when the layers are e-amined, the assorted architectural documentsAthere is no
sinle architectural model such as $"2 799B, the 2"$ reference modelAha%e fewer and
less riidly,defined layers than the 2"$ model, and thus pro%ide an easier fit for real,
world protocols# $n point of fact, one freCuently referenced document, R/) 19;B
4;5
, does
not contain a stack of layers# The lack of emphasis on layerin is a stron difference
between the $'T/ and 2"$ approaches# $t only refers to the e-istence of the
?internetworkin layer? and enerally to ?upper layers?3 this document was intended as a
199< ?snapshot? of the architecture> ?The $nternet and its architecture ha%e rown in
e%olutionary fashion from modest beinnins, rather than from a Drand Plan# Ehile this
process of e%olution is one of the main reasons for the technoloy(s success, it
ne%ertheless seems useful to record a snapshot of the current principles of the $nternet
architecture#?
R/) 1100 on :ost ReCuirements is structured in pararaphs referrin to layers, but refers
to many other architectural principles not emphasi=in layerin# $t loosely defines a four,
layer model, with the layers ha%in names, not numbers, as follows>
Application .process,to,process1 7ayer> This is the scope within which
applications create user data and communicate this data to other processes or
applications on another or the same host# The communications partners are often
called peers# This is where the ?hiher le%el? protocols such as "+TP, /TP, "":,
:TTP, etc# operate#
Transport .host,to,host1 7ayer> The Transport 7ayer constitutes the networkin
reime between two network hosts, either on the local network or on remote
networks separated by routers# The Transport 7ayer pro%ides a uniform
networkin interface that hides the actual topoloy .layout1 of the underlyin
network connections# This is where flow,control, error,correction, and connection
protocols e-ist, such as T)P# This layer deals with openin and maintainin
connections between $nternet hosts#
$nternet .internetworkin1 7ayer> The $nternet 7ayer has the task of e-chanin
datarams across network boundaries# $t is therefore also referred to as the layer
that establishes internetworkin, indeed, it defines and establishes the $nternet#
This layer defines the addressin and routin structures used for the T)P*$P
protocol suite# The primary protocol in this scope is the $nternet Protocol, which
defines $P addresses# $ts function in routin is to transport datarams to the ne-t
$P router that has the connecti%ity to a network closer to the final data destination#
7ink 7ayer> This layer defines the networkin methods with the scope of the local
network link on which hosts communicate without inter%enin routers# This layer
describes the protocols used to describe the local network topoloy and the
interfaces needed to affect transmission of $nternet 7ayer datarams to ne-t,
neihbor hosts# .cf# the 2"$ Data 7ink 7ayer1#
The $nternet Protocol "uite and the layered protocol stack desin were in use before the
2"$ model was established# "ince then, the T)P*$P model has been compared with the
2"$ model in books and classrooms, which often results in confusion because the two
models use different assumptions, includin about the relati%e importance of strict
layerin#
[edit] Layers in the TCP/IP model
Two $nternet hosts connected %ia two routers and the correspondin layers used at each
hop#
'ncapsulation of application data descendin throuh the T)P*$P layers
The layers near the top are loically closer to the user application, while those near the
bottom are loically closer to the physical transmission of the data# Fiewin layers as
pro%idin or consumin a ser%ice is a method of abstraction to isolate upper layer
protocols from the nitty,ritty detail of transmittin bits o%er, for e-ample, 'thernet and
collision detection, while the lower layers a%oid ha%in to know the details of each and
e%ery application and its protocol#
This abstraction also allows upper layers to pro%ide ser%ices that the lower layers cannot,
or choose not to, pro%ide# Aain, the oriinal 2"$ Reference +odel was e-tended to
include connectionless ser%ices .2"$R+ )71#
4<5
/or e-ample, $P is not desined to be
reliable and is a best effort deli%ery protocol# This means that all transport layer
implementations must choose whether or not to pro%ide reliability and to what deree#
!DP pro%ides data interity .%ia a checksum1 but does not uarantee deli%ery3 T)P
pro%ides both data interity and deli%ery uarantee .by retransmittin until the recei%er
acknowledes the reception of the packet1#
This model lacks the formalism of the 2"$ reference model and associated documents,
but the $'T/ does not use a formal model and does not consider this a limitation, as in the
comment by Da%id D# )lark, ?Ee re@ect> kins, presidents and %otin# Ee belie%e in>
rouh consensus and runnin code#? )riticisms of this model, which ha%e been made
with respect to the 2"$ Reference +odel, often do not consider $"2(s later e-tensions to
that model#
1# /or multiaccess links with their own addressin systems .e## 'thernet1 an address
mappin protocol is needed# "uch protocols can be considered to be below $P but
abo%e the e-istin link system# Ehile the $'T/ does not use the terminoloy, this
is a subnetwork dependent con%erence facility accordin to an e-tension to the
2"$ model, the $nternal 2rani=ation of the &etwork 7ayer .$2&71
475
#
0# $)+P G $D+P operate on top of $P but do not transport data like !DP or T)P#
Aain, this functionality e-ists as layer manaement e-tensions to the 2"$ model,
in its Management Framework .2"$R+ +/1
4B5

8# The ""7*T7" library operates abo%e the transport layer .utili=es T)P1 but below
application protocols# Aain, there was no intention, on the part of the desiners
of these protocols, to comply with 2"$ architecture#
9# The link is treated like a black bo- here# This is fine for discussin $P .since the
whole point of $P is it will run o%er %irtually anythin1# The $'T/ e-plicitly does
not intend to discuss transmission systems, which is a less academic but practical
alternati%e to the 2"$ Reference +odel#
The followin is a description of each layer in the T)P*$P networkin model startin
from the lowest le%el#
[edit] Link Layer
The 7ink 7ayer is the networkin scope of the local network connection to which a host
is attached# This reime is called the link in $nternet literature# This is the lowest
component layer of the $nternet protocols, as T)P*$P is desined to be hardware
independent# As a result T)P*$P has been implemented on top of %irtually any hardware
networkin technoloy in e-istence#
The 7ink 7ayer is used to mo%e packets between the $nternet 7ayer interfaces of two
different hosts on the same link# The processes of transmittin and recei%in packets on a
i%en link can be controlled both in the software de%ice dri%er for the network card, as
well as on firmware or speciali=ed chipsets# These will perform data link functions such
as addin a packet header to prepare it for transmission, then actually transmit the frame
o%er a physical medium# The T)P*$P model includes specifications of translatin the
network addressin methods used in the $nternet Protocol to data link addressin, such as
+edia Access )ontrol .+A)1, howe%er all other aspects below that le%el are implicitly
assumed to e-ist in the 7ink 7ayer, but are not e-plicitly defined#
The 7ink 7ayer is also the layer where packets may be selected to be sent o%er a %irtual
pri%ate network or other networkin tunnel# $n this scenario, the 7ink 7ayer data may be
considered application data which tra%erses another instantiation of the $P stack for
transmission or reception o%er another $P connection# "uch a connection, or %irtual link,
may be established with a transport protocol or e%en an application scope protocol that
ser%es as a tunnel in the 7ink 7ayer of the protocol stack# Thus, the T)P*$P model does
not dictate a strict hierarchical encapsulation seCuence#
[edit] Internet Layer
The $nternet 7ayer sol%es the problem of sendin packets across one or more networks#
$nternetworkin reCuires sendin data from the source network to the destination
network# This process is called routin#
495
$n the $nternet Protocol "uite, the $nternet Protocol performs two basic functions>
Host addressing and identification> This is accomplished with a hierarchical
addressin system .see $P address1#
Packet routing> This is the basic task of ettin packets of data .datarams1 from
source to destination by sendin them to the ne-t network node .router1 closer to
the final destination#
$P can carry data for a number of different upper layer protocols# These protocols are
each identified by a uniCue protocol number> for e-ample, $nternet )ontrol +essae
Protocol .$)+P1 and $nternet Droup +anaement Protocol .$D+P1 are protocols 1 and
0, respecti%ely#
"ome of the protocols carried by $P, such as $)+P .used to transmit dianostic
information about $P transmission1 and $D+P .used to manae $P +ulticast data1 are
layered on top of $P but perform internetworkin functions# This illustrates the
differences in the architecture of the T)P*$P stack of the $nternet and the 2"$ model#
[edit] Transport Layer
The Transport 7ayer(s responsibilities include end,to,end messae transfer capabilities
independent of the underlyin network, alon with error control, sementation, flow
control, conestion control, and application addressin .port numbers1# 'nd to end
messae transmission or connectin applications at the transport layer can be cateori=ed
as either connection,oriented, implemented in Transmission )ontrol Protocol .T)P1, or
connectionless, implemented in !ser Dataram Protocol .!DP1#
The Transport 7ayer can be thouht of as a transport mechanism, e##, a %ehicle with the
responsibility to make sure that its contents .passeners*oods1 reach their destination
safely and soundly, unless a another protocol layer is responsible for safe deli%ery#
The Transport 7ayer pro%ides this ser%ice of connectin applications throuh the use of
ser%ice ports# "ince $P pro%ides only a best effort deli%ery, the Transport 7ayer is the first
layer of the T)P*$P stack to offer reliability# $P can run o%er a reliable data link protocol
such as the :ih,7e%el Data 7ink )ontrol .:D7)1# Protocols abo%e transport, such as
RP), also can pro%ide reliability#
/or e-ample, the Transmission )ontrol Protocol .T)P1 is a connection,oriented protocol
that addresses numerous reliability issues to pro%ide a reliable byte stream>
data arri%es in,order
data has minimal error .i#e# correctness1
duplicate data is discarded
lost*discarded packets are resent
includes traffic conestion control
The newer "tream )ontrol Transmission Protocol .")TP1 is also a reliable, connection,
oriented transport mechanism# $t is +essae,stream,oriented A not byte,stream,oriented
like T)P A and pro%ides multiple streams multiple-ed o%er a sinle connection# $t also
pro%ides multi,homin support, in which a connection end can be represented by multiple
$P addresses .representin multiple physical interfaces1, such that if one fails, the
connection is not interrupted# $t was de%eloped initially for telephony applications .to
transport ""7 o%er $P1, but can also be used for other applications#
!ser Dataram Protocol is a connectionless dataram protocol# 7ike $P, it is a best effort,
?unreliable? protocol# Reliability is addressed throuh error detection usin a weak
checksum alorithm# !DP is typically used for applications such as streamin media
.audio, %ideo, Foice o%er $P etc1 where on,time arri%al is more important than reliability,
or for simple Cuery*response applications like D&" lookups, where the o%erhead of
settin up a reliable connection is disproportionately lare# Real,time Transport Protocol
.RTP1 is a dataram protocol that is desined for real,time data such as streamin audio
and %ideo#
T)P and !DP are used to carry an assortment of hiher,le%el applications# The
appropriate transport protocol is chosen based on the hiher,layer protocol application#
/or e-ample, the /ile Transfer Protocol e-pects a reliable connection, but the &etwork
/ile "ystem .&/"1 assumes that the subordinate Remote Procedure )all protocol, not
transport, will uarantee reliable transfer# 2ther applications, such as Fo$P, can tolerate
some loss of packets, but not the reorderin or delay that could be caused by
retransmission#
The applications at any i%en network address are distinuished by their T)P or !DP
port# Hy con%ention certain well known ports are associated with specific applications#
.See List of TCP and UDP port numers!1
[edit] Application Layer
The Application 7ayer refers to the hiher,le%el protocols used by most applications for
network communication# '-amples of application layer protocols include the /ile
Transfer Protocol ./TP1 and the "imple +ail Transfer Protocol ."+TP1
4105
# Data coded
accordin to application layer protocols are then encapsulated into one or .occasionally1
more transport layer protocols .such as the Transmission )ontrol Protocol .T)P1 or !ser
Dataram Protocol .!DP11, which in turn use lower layer protocols to effect actual data
transfer#
"ince the $P stack defines no layers between the application and transport layers, the
application layer must include any protocols that act like the 2"$(s presentation and
session layer protocols# This is usually done throuh libraries#
Application 7ayer protocols enerally treat the transport layer .and lower1 protocols as
?black bo-es? which pro%ide a stable network connection across which to communicate,
althouh the applications are usually aware of key Cualities of the transport layer
connection such as the end point $P addresses and port numbers# As noted abo%e, layers
are not necessarily clearly defined in the $nternet protocol suite# Application layer
protocols are most often associated with client,ser%er applications, and the commoner
ser%ers ha%e specific ports assined to them by the $A&A> :TTP has port B03 Telnet has
port 083 etc# )lients, on the other hand, tend to use ephemeral ports, i#e# port numbers
assined at random from a rane set aside for the purpose#
Transport and lower le%el layers are larely unconcerned with the specifics of application
layer protocols# Routers and switches do not typically ?look inside? the encapsulated
traffic to see what kind of application protocol it represents, rather they @ust pro%ide a
conduit for it# :owe%er, some firewall and bandwidth throttlin applications do try to
determine what(s inside, as with the Resource Reser%ation Protocol .R"FP1# $t(s also
sometimes necessary for &etwork Address Translation .&AT1 facilities to take account of
the needs of particular application layer protocols# .&AT allows hosts on pri%ate networks
to communicate with the outside world %ia a sinle %isible $P address usin port
forwardin, and is an almost ubiCuitous feature of modern domestic broadband routers1#
[edit] Hardware and software implementation
&ormally, application prorammers are concerned only with interfaces in the Application
7ayer and often also in the Transport 7ayer, while the layers below are ser%ices pro%ided
by the T)P*$P stack in the operatin system# +icrocontroller firmware in the network
adapter typically handles link issues, supported by dri%er software in the operational
system# &on,prorammable analo and diital electronics are normally in chare of the
physical components in the 7ink 7ayer, typically usin an application,specific interated
circuit .A"$)1 chipset for each network interface or other physical standard#
:owe%er, hardware or software implementation is not stated in the protocols or the
layered reference model# :ih,performance routers are to a lare e-tent based on fast
non,prorammable diital electronics, carryin out link le%el switchin#
[edit] !I and TCP/IP layerin" differences
The three top layers in the 2"$ modelAthe Application 7ayer, the Presentation 7ayer
and the "ession 7ayerAare not distinuished separately in the T)P*$P model where it is
@ust the Application 7ayer# Ehile some pure 2"$ protocol applications, such as I#900,
also combined them, there is no re"uirement that a T)P*$P protocol stack needs to impose
monolithic architecture abo%e the Transport 7ayer# /or e-ample, the &etwork /ile
"ystem .&/"1 application protocol runs o%er the eIternal Data Representation .IDR1
presentation protocol, which, in turn, runs o%er a protocol with "ession 7ayer
functionality, Remote Procedure )all .RP)1# RP) pro%ides reliable record transmission,
so it can run safely o%er the best,effort !ser Dataram Protocol .!DP1 transport#
The "ession 7ayer rouhly corresponds to the Telnet %irtual terminal functionality
4citation
needed5
, which is part of te-t based protocols such as the :TTP and "+TP T)P*$P model
Application 7ayer protocols# $t also corresponds to T)P and !DP port numberin, which
is considered as part of the transport layer in the T)P*$P model# "ome functions that
would ha%e been performed by an 2"$ presentation layer are reali=ed at the $nternet
application layer usin the +$+' standard, which is used in application layer protocols
such as :TTP and "+TP#
"ince the $'T/ protocol de%elopment effort is not concerned with strict layerin, some of
its protocols may not appear to fit cleanly into the 2"$ model# These conflicts, howe%er,
are more freCuent when one only looks at the oriinal 2"$ model, $"2 799B, without
lookin at the anne-es to this model .e##, $"2 799B*9 +anaement /ramework1, or the
$"2 B<9B $nternal 2rani=ation of the &etwork 7ayer .$2&71# Ehen the $2&7 and
+anaement /ramework documents are considered, the $)+P and $D+P are neatly
defined as layer manaement protocols for the network layer# $n like manner, the $2&7
pro%ides a structure for ?subnetwork dependent con%erence facilities? such as ARP and
RARP#
$'T/ protocols can be encapsulated recursi%ely, as demonstrated by tunnelin protocols
such as Deneric Routin 'ncapsulation .DR'1# Ehile basic 2"$ documents do not
consider tunnelin, there is some concept of tunnelin in yet another e-tension to the 2"$
architecture, specifically the transport layer ateways within the $nternational
"tandardi=ed Profile framework
4115
# The associated 2"$ de%elopment effort, howe%er, has
been abandoned i%en the o%erwhelmin adoption of T)P*$P protocols#