Work energy and power

In general work is said to done when a body moves in a certain distance when force is applied to that
body.
Work:

The work done by a force acting on the body is defined as the product of the force and the displacement
of the body in the direction of the force.
Constant Force :
If the force is constant and it displaces the body through a distance (s) in the same direction, then work
done.
W = F a
But if the displacement makes an angle with
the direction of force; then

Constant force
component of displacement along the direction of force =
so,
work done by the force ,
W = F s
i.e. the work done by a force is the scalar product of the force vector and displacement vector.
2. Variable Force :
If the force is variable, then for infinitely small displacement, the force is assumed constant, so the work
done during small displacement
d W = F dx (one dimensional form)
Then total work is joined by adding such small amounts of work

This is found in two ways :
(i) By integration :
Let body be displaced from
And


Graph of integration

(ii) By graphical method :
If a graph is plotted between force F and displacement x, then work done by the force from
= Area enclosed by F x curve and x-axis from = area of shaded portion.
Unit of work in M.K.S. and S.I. system is joule.
Dimensions of work
= [ F ] [s] = [ ] [L] = [ ]
In C.G.S system the unit of work is erg

Sometimes the unit of work is written as kilogram-metre
1 kilogram-metre
= g joule = 9.8 joule
Remark : Work done by a force acting on a body may be zero in the following cases
The force is constant in direction and the displacement is zero.
Potential energy by the relation


Non-conservative forces.

If the work done by a force acting on a particle depends on path followed between two given points or is
not equal to zero in a complete round trip is called non-conservative force. The frictional force, the
viscous force are examples of non-conservative forces.
Work-Energy Theorem :
This theorem states that the work done by the net force acting on a body is equal to change is kinetic
energy of the body.
i.e. Work = gain in Kinetic Energy


Minimum distance in stopping a car for a given velocity.

If a car of of mass M stops due to retardation of frictional force , after
traversing a minimum distance then work energy theorem gives


Conservation of energy :
If a system is acted on by conservative forces, the total mechanical
theory of the system is conserved i.e. Mechanical energy E = KE + PE constant
i.e E = T + U = constant
(under conservative forces).
Other forms of energy :
In addition to mechanical energy, there are other forms of energy e.g. thermal energy, light energy,
sound energy, electrical energy, chemical energy, nuclear energy etc.
If the system is under the action of non-conservative forces, the conservation law for mechanical energy
does not hold and a more general law stated as The total energy of the universe remains constant
holds. This simply means that energy may be transformed from one form to another. For example in
loudspeakers, electric bells the electrical energy is converted into sound energy while in electromagnet
electrical energy is converted into magnetic energy and for a ball falling on earth, the mechanical energy
is converted into heat energy etc.
Einsteins Mass Energy Equivalence :
According to Einstein neither mass nor energy of the universe is conserved separately: but mass and
energy are interconvertible according to relation


This relation is called Einsteins mass energy equivalence. Accordingly,
Total (mass + energy) of universe is conserved. This is the most general law of conservation of
energy.
According to mass energy equivalence the body of mass at rest has rest energy therefore
the kinetic energy of the body


Where m is the mass of the body moving with speed v given by


Collisions

Coefficient of Restitution :
When the two bodies collide directly, then the ratio of relative velocity after collision to the relative
velocity before collision is a fixed quantity. The quantity


is called the coefficient of restitution. Here u1, U2 are initial velocities and are final velocities of
two bodies. The value of e lies between O and l. For a perfectly elastic collision e = 1 and for a perfectly
inelastic collision e = 0.
If a body falls freely from a height H on a floor and bounces back to a height h. Then initial velocity u is
given by,


and the final velocity v is given by

or



Elastic and Inelastic Collisions :

Elastic collisions :
A collision is said to be elastic if the total kinetic energy before and collision remains the same. Thus if
two bodies of masses moving with velocities collide in the absence of external
forces and the collision is elastic and are their velocities after collision, then the principle of
conservation of linear momentum gives
(1)
and the principle of conservation of kinetic energy gives
(2)
Solving (1) and (2), we get the following important results
..(3)

This equation tells that in an one-dimensional elastic collision, the relative velocity of approach before
collision is equal to the relative velocity of separation after collision.
Also the velocities after collision are
(4)

(5)

Special cases: :
(i)When the colliding particles have equal masses.
i.e. , then (4) and (5) give
(6)
Thus in one-dimensional elastic collision, the particles simply exchange velocities during collision.
(ii)If the particle is initially at rest, i.e , then equations (4) and (5) give
and
(7)
(a) Again if , then and i.e. in one dimensional elastic collision between
two particles of equal masses, if second particle is at rest; the first particle is stopped and the second
particle takes of the original velocity of the first particle.
(b) If (i.e. If second particle is too heavy). then equations (7) give

And

That is when a light particle collides with a much heavier particle at rest, the velocity of light particle is
nearly reversed and the heavier particle remains nearly at rest.
For example if a ball strikes with a wall elastically, the ball rebounds with a reversed velocity, the wall
still remaining at rest.
(c) If (i.e. incident particle is too heavy), then we get
That is in the collision of a heavy particle with a light particle at rest, the velocity of heavy particle
remains unchanged; while light particle runs with nearly twice the velocity of the incident particle.
2. Inelastic collisions :
In an inelastic collision the total kinetic energy does not remain constant, but may be less than or
greater than as the case may be. For example, in the presence frictional forces, the final kinetic energy
is less than initial kinetic energy; the difference being convened to heat; while in the explosion of a
bomb the final kinetic energy is greater than initial kinetic energy, the difference of kinetic energy being
released from internal (atomic) energy.
In an inelastic collision, the momentum remains conserved and we have
(10)
And
or
..(11)
where e is called the coefficient of restitution.
(For an elastic collision e = 1)
Solving (10) and (11), we get
.(12)
(13)
In a completely inelastic collision, the two colliding particles stick together after collision, so that they
will have a final common velocity v. Then the conservation of linear momentum only, gives
..(14)
Remarks :
(1) If the collision is two dimensional, then we apply the principle of conservation of linear momentum
along the two dimensions separately and get the equations
For X-axis
For Y-axis ..15
(2) In two-body collision problems it is convenient to use two equations.
(i) Conservation of momentum



(iii) Newtons experimental formula


Equilibrium and Potential Energy:
In translational equilibrium

There are three types of equilibrium :
1.Stable Equilibrium :
If on displacing a body a little from its equilibrium position, the restoring forces are developed in such a
way so as to bring the body back to its equilibrium position, then the equilibrium of the body is said to
be the stable equilibrium.
In stable equilibrium position the potential energy of the body is minimum . A particle at the lowest
position of a well is in stable equilibrium.
2.Unstable equilibrium :
If on displacing a body from its equilibrium position, the restoring forces are developed in such a way so
as to take the body away from equilibrium position, then the equilibrium of the body is said to be
unstable equilibrium.
In unstable equilibrium position, the potential energy of the body is maximum.
A particle at the highest position of a mountain is-in unstable equilibrium.
3. Neutral Equilibrium :
If on displacing a body from its equilibrium position, no restoring forces are developed, then the
equilibrium is said to be neutral equilibrium.
In neutral equilibrium position, the potential energy is stationary.
A particle (e.g. pen, book) placed on a table is in neutral equilibrium.
Magnetism





A bar magnet consists of two equal and opposite magnetic poles, separated by a distance; hence a
magnet is also called a magnetic dipole.

If m is the pole strength and 2l is the separation between the poles, then magnetic moment of the bar
magnet, . The magnet moment is a vector. Its direction is from m to +m.


Bar Magnet

Non-existence of free magnetic poles

If a magnet is cut in two halves from the middle then m and +m poles cannot be separated; but each
half becomes magnet with its magnetic moment M/2.

Non-existence of free magnetic poles

If a magnet of magnetic moment M is divided into n equal parts, the n each part is a magnet with
magnetic moment . Accordingly smallest part of a magnet is complete magnetic dipole. According to
molecular theory of magnetism, each molecule of a magnetic material is a tiny bar magnet or a
magnetic dipole.

Equivalence of a magnetic dipole with a current loop

A small current carrying conductor of area A and carrying current I is equivalent to a magnet of
magnetic moment:
M=N I A
Where N=number of turns in the loop. Obviously the unit of magnetic moment is .
The direction of magnetic moment is along the normal to the plane of the loop.

Remark: The unit of pole strength is Ampere X meter (A m). The pole strength depends on the
number of molecules in the cross sectional area.

Comparison of a Bar magnet with a solenoid

A current carrying solenoid is equivalent to a bar magnet. When a bar magnet is suspended freely from
its mid-point, it say along north-south direction. Similarly when a current carrying solenoid is suspended
freely, it also stays along north-south direction.

North and South-poles of a solenoid: When a current is passed in a solenoid it acts as a bar magnet.
If the current in the coil of nearer face of solenoid is anticlockwise, the end is North Pole; but if it is
clockwise, the nearer face is South-Pole.


North and south poles of solenoid


Magnetic lines of Force

The magnetic lines of force are the imaginary lines which continuously represent the direction of
magnetic field.
Hypothetically a magnetic line of force is the line/curve in which an isolated north pole initially lying on it
at rest would travel. But isolated magnetic poles do not exist; therefore magnetic lines of force are
described by a small compass needle. A compass needle sets itself with its magnetic axis in the direction
of magnetic field at that point.

Magnetic field in term of magnetic lines of force: The number of magnetic lines of force passing per
unit area normally around a given point is a measure of magnitude of the magnetic field. Accordingly if
the lines of force are crowded, the magnetic field is stronger and if they are farther, the magnetic field is
weaker.
The tangent drawn on a line of force at any point gives the direction of magnetic field at that point.

A few properties of magnetic lines of force:

(i) The magnetic lines of force are always closed curves. For a bar magnet they start from north pole
and following a curved path enter the south pole and inside the magnet they continue to run from south
pole to north pole.


Magnetic lines

(ii) Magnetic lines of force never intersect; because if they would intersect, there will be two tangents
at the point of intersection which means two directions of magnetic field at the same point, which is
impossible.

(iii) If magnetic field is uniform, the magnetic lines of force are equidistant.

Torque on a Bar Magnet in a magnetic field

If a bar magnet is placed in a uniform magnetic field B, its poles +m and m experience force mB and
mB along and opposite to the direction of magnetic field B; so net force on the bar magnet is zero.


Torque on a bar magnet


i.e.
F = mB mB =0
But the force being equal and opposite and having separation between their lines of action form a
couple. The moment of forces or couple is given by:

i.e.
is magnetic moment of magnet.
In vector form
If , the torque is maximum given by :


Potential energy of a magnetic dipole in a uniform magnetic field

: If a magnetic dipole if moment M is placed in a uniform magnetic field B making an angle with the
magnetic field, then,

In vector form U =

Work done in rotating the dipole from equilibrium position through an angle :


Magnetic field due to a bar magnet

(i) at axial position (p):


(ii) at equatorial position (Q)





Force between two short bat magnets (at distance r apart):

(i) When magnets are co-axial:



Force between two short magnet

(ii) When magnets are perpendicular:



Earths Magnetic Field

The earth behaves as a magnet. When a magnet is suspended freely, it says along north-south
direction. The north and south poles of magnet stay along north and south poles of earth respectively.
The magnetic poles are at some distance from geographical poles.
The latest theories of earths magnetism are:
(i) The earth rotates about its axis and has the surrounding ionized region due to interaction of cosmic
rays. Due to rotation of earth the surrounding ionized region gives to strong a electric current which
causes magnetism.
(ii)There exist molten iron and nickel within the core of earth. When earth rotates it behaves as a
dynamo and causes magnetism.
Accordingly to both theories given above, the earths magnetism with the destroyed if it stops rotating.

Components of Earths magnetic Field:

(a) Angle of declination : The magnetic field of earth varies in magnitude and direction.
The angle of dip is the angle made by resultant earths magnetic field with the horizontal.
The angle of dip is measured by dip circle.
At poles of dip is measured by dip circle.
At poles and at equator .


Angle of declination

(c) Horizontal components of Earths Magnetic field: The earths field strength be Be may be
resolved in two components
(i) Horizontal components (H)
(ii) Vertical components V
From fig these equation give:





Element of magnetic maps:

(i) Isogonic lines: There are the lines joining the place of same declination.
(ii) Agonic lines: These are the lines joining the places of zero declination.
(iii) Isoclinic lines: These are the lines joining the points of equal dip.
(iv) Actinic lines or magnetic Equator: These are the lines joining the points of zero dip.
(v)Isodynamic lines: these are the lines joining the places of equal H

Tangent law

If two horizontal magnetic fields and act perpendicular to each other, then their resultant makes
an angle with such that:



Tangent Law

This is called tangent law. If a compass needle is placed at any point in such a field, it stays pointing
along the resultant.

Tangent Galvanometer

Tangent galvanometer is a device to measure the current based on tangent law. In this galvanometer
the two perpendicular magnetic fields are:
(i) Horizontal components of earths magnetic field H pointing from south to north.
(ii) A horizontal magnetic field B, pointing in east-west direction, produced by passing a current in a
circular coil mounted in vertical plane in north south direction. The compass needle is placed at the
center of the coil and stays along the resultant magnetic field .
According to tangent law,



Tangent law

If r is the radius of coil, n number of turns in the coil and I the current flowing in coil, then magnetic
field at center of coil.

Therefore,

Or,

For given coil r, N are constant and at a particular place horizontal components of earths magnetic field
is constant.

Where , called the reduction factor of tangent galvanometer.
Obiviously
i.e. the current flowing is proportional to the tangent of the deflection of the compass needle.
The quality is a measure of sensitivity of galvanometer.

For greater sensitivity:
(i) The radius r should be small
(ii) Number of turns N should be large
(iii) Earths magnetic field should be low
(iv) With small variation of I, should vary rapidly.
As varies rapidly near 45 degree; therefore sensitivity of galvanometer is maximum when
deflection is near 45 degree.

Vibration magnetometer

The vibration magnetometer is used to compare magnetic moments of two magnets. Suppose a bar
magnet of magnetic moment M oscillates in a horizontal magnetic field (H) of earth. Let be the
instantaneous deflection. The torque acting on the magnet . This torque tends to bring
the magnet in mean position. Therefore it is restoring torque i.e.

Vibration magnetometer

If I is the moment of inertia of rotating system and the acceleration, ie

If deflection of magnet is small,
Therefore,

I.e.

i.e.
motion of magnet is angular SHM
Standard equation of angular SHM is
Time period of motion,


Case (I) : If magnet oscillates in horizontal plane in magnetic meridian (N S direction), it oscillates
under horizontal magnetic field.
i.e


Case (II): If magnet oscillates in vertical plane perpendicular to magnetic meridian; it oscillates under
vertical magnetic field:
I.e.


Case (III): If magnet oscillates in a vertical plane parallel to the magnetic meridian, if oscillates under
total magnetic field of earth.
i.e


Comparison of magnetic moments: Let two magnets have magnetic moments and . if
is the time period with two combined magnets with their poles concluding and the time period
when their unlike poles concluding; then


Comparison of magnetic fields: If and are the magnetic fields produced by two magnets
when put with the magnets of magnetometer successively and T is the time period of magnetometer
magnet under the earths magnetic field alone, then:


Some definitions

When a substance is placed in magnetic field H, it gets magnetized and attains magnetic moment M.

Intensity of magnetization: The magnetic moment per unit volume of the substance is called the
intensity of magnetization.
I.e.

In the case of a bar magnet M= m.2l
V = A. 2l
Therefore,

I.e. intensity of magnetization is also equal to pole strength per unit area.

Magnetic Permeability: The magnetic permeability is defined as the ratio of magnetic
induction in material to the magnetizing field.
I.e.


Magnetic Susceptibility: for most of materials the magnetization induced is linearly
related to magnetizing field.
The ratio of intensity of magnetizing field is called the magnetic susceptibility.
i.e.


Relation between B, H and I: The magnetic induction within the substance is the
vector sum of the magnetizing field applied and magnetization induced in proper units.
i.e.








As = relative permeability of material = and
Therefore,


Dia, para and ferromagnetic substance

According to behavior of the substance in the magnetic field, they are classified into
three categories:

(1) Diamagnetic substance: The substances which when placed in a strong magnetic
field acquire feeble magnetization opposite to the direction of the magnetic field are
called diamagnetic substance. The examples are copper, gold, antimony, bismuth,
alchol, water, quartz, hydrogen Nacl etc

Characterstics:
(i) They are repelled by a strong magnet
(ii) The magnetic properties such as magnetic moment, susceptibility, intensity of
magnetization are negative and small.
(iii) The relative permeability is less than unity.
(iv) In a non-uniform magnetic field they experience attraction towards weaker parts of
the magnetic field.


Diamagnetic substance

(v) A rod of a diamagnetic substance when suspended between poles pieces of a magnet
stays with its axis perpendicular to the magnetic field produces by poles.

Diamagnetic substance beetwen two poles

(vi) When a strong magnetic field is applied across one limb of U-tube with a
diamagnetic liquid; the liquid in that limb is dispersed.


(viii) The magnetic susceptibility of diamagnetic substances is independent of the
magnetizing field and the temperature.

Origin: The diamagnetism is usually found in those substances whose atoms /
molecules have even number of electrons which form pairs of opposite spin. So magnetic
moment of electron is neutralized by the other; so in the absence of any magnetic field,
the magnetic moment of diamagnetic substances is zero. As electrons of all substances
have tendency to form pairs of opposite spins. The diamagnetism is the universal
property of all substances.
When a diamagnetic substance is placed in an external strong magnetic field, then one
electron of pair is accelerated and the other is retarded; so that magnetism is included in
opposite direction.

Paramagnetic substances

The substances which when placed in a strong magnetic field acquire feeble
magnetization in the direction of the applied magnetic field, are called paramagnetic
substances. The examples are platinum, aluminum, chromium, sodium, etc.
Characteristics:
(i) They are attracted by a strong magnet
(ii) The magnetic properties such as magnetic moment, magnetic susceptibility, intensity
of magnetism are positive but small.
(iii) The relative permeability is slightly greater than unity.
(iv) In a non-uniform magnetic field, the paramagnetic substance is attracted towards
stronger part of the field.
(v) When a rod of paramagnetic substance is suspended freely between the strong poles
of a magnet, then its axis becomes parallel to the magnetic field.
(vi) When a strong magnetic field is applied across one limb of U-tube filled with a
paramagnetic liquid, the level of liquid in that limb rises.
(vii)The susceptibility and permeability do not change with the variation of magnetizing
field.
(viii) The susceptibility of a paramagnetic substance is inversely proportional to the
absolute temperature.
I.e.

This is called curie law.
Origin: Para magnetism result due to excess electrons spinning in the same direction.

Ferromagnetic substance

The substances which when placed in an external magnetic field acquire strong
magnetization in the direction of applied magnetic field, are called ferromagnetic
substance. The examples are cobalt, nickel, iron, gadolinium and their alloys.

Characteristics:
(i) They are even attracted by a weak magnet
(ii) The susceptibility in very large and positive
(iii) The relative permeability is very high
(iv) The intensity of magnetization is proportional to the magnetizing field H for smaller
values, varies rapidly for moderate values and attains a constant value for larger values
of H.

Origin: Ferromagnetism results due to strong forces of interaction arising due to
exchange coupling among neighboring atoms and is usually explained by domain theory.

Hysteresis

The graph representing the variation of intensity of magnetization I of a ferromagnetic
material versus magnetizing field H is shown in the figure. The graph is called
hysteresis curve because the intensity of magnetization lags behind the magnetizing field
throughout.
The graphs shows:


Hysteresis

(i) When magnetizing field is increased. The intensity of magnetization increases and
becomes maximum. The maximum value is called the saturation value.
(ii) When magnetizing field is decreased, the intensity of magnetizing decrease and when
magnetizing field H = 0, the intensity of magnetization is not zero, but it is equal to Ob;
this is called residual magnetism or retentively.
(iii) When magnetizing field is reversed in direction, the intensity of magnetizing
decreased and at a particular value of reverse magnetic field, it becomes zero. The
reverse field (Oc) is a measure if tolerance to retain the magnetizing with it and is called
coercivity.
(iv) When reverse field is further increased, the substance attains saturation in reverse
direction. When magnetic field is again changed in direction, we get symmetrical lower
curve. The complete curve abcdea is called the hysteresis cycle or hysteresis loop.
The area of hysteresis loop gives a measure of energy loss in magnetizing and
demagnetizing the ferromagnetic material.

Characteristics of soft iron and steel:

1. Soft iron: For soft iron the susceptibility, permeability and retentively are greater
while coercitivity is low. So hysteresis cycle for soft iron is long and narrow. Hysteresis
loss per cycle is small and hence soft iron is used for making electromagnets, cores of
transformers, telephone diaphragms and armatures of generators, motors.
2. Steel: For steel the susceptibility and permeability are relatively lower than soft iron.
The retentively of steel is also relatively smaller than soft iron, but coercitivity of steel is
very high.

The hysteresis loop foe steel is long and wide therefore energy loss per cycle of
magnetization and demagnetization is high.

Methods to destroy magnetism:

The magnetization of a magnet may be destroyed by:
(i) Heating it above critical temperature.
(ii)Passing alternating current
(iii) Applying reverse magnetic field of strength more than coercivity.
(iv) By rough handling i.e. dropping and hammering.

Neutral point

Neutral point is a point where net magnetic field is zero. At neutral point the horizontal
components of earths magnetic field is balanced by the magnetic field produced by the
external magnet.
When the north pole of a bar magnet points along the north direction, the neutral point
is obtained at equatorial position of magnet, so at neutral point:

When the North pole of the bar magnet points along the south-direction, the neutral
point is obtained at the axis of magnet; so at neutral point:

If magnet is short l << r; then:


Newtonion Gravitation





Gravitation is defined as the force that is produce between two bodies by virtue of their masses.
Acceleration due to gravity :
Earth attracts all bodies towards its centre. The acceleration produced in the body due to attraction force
of earth on it is called the acceleration due to gravity. It is denoted by g.
Newtons Law of Gravitation :
According to this law any two particles in the universe attract each other, of attraction (F) between two
point two masses ( ) being directly proportional to the product of two masses and inversely
proportional to the square of distance (r) between them i.e.
(1)
where G is a constant of proportionality and is called universal gravitational constant and its value is
G = everywhere in the universe.
Remark :
The gravitational force between two particles is independent of the presence of other bodies or the
properties of the intervening medium.
Relation between g and G :
The force of attraction exerted by earth on a body is called the force of gravity. If M is mass of earth and
r the distance of body of mass m from the centre-of the earth, then force of gravity
(1)
According to Newtons law of motion the effect of force on a body is to produce an acceleration in it.
Accordingly the force of gravity produces acceleration in a freely falling body called the acceleration due
to gravity, denoted by g.
According to Newtons II law, the force of gravity
F = mg ..(2)
Comparing (1) and (2), we get
..(3)
If a body is at or near the surface of earth; then r = R, the radius of earth, therefore
.(4)
This is the relation between g and G.
Inertial and Gravitational Mass:
The inertia is the inherent property of the body which opposes any change in its state of rest or uniform
motion. The inertia is related to mass. Greater is the mass, greater is said to be the inertia. When we
apply external force, the body is accelerated; the acceleration produced in a body is directly proportional
to the applied force. This constant of proportionality appearing in the relation ; is called the
inertial mass. In brief the inertial mass is the inertia offered by body against the inertial (applied) force.
Every freely falling body, irrespective of inertial mass has the same acceleration, called acceleration due
to gravity. This acceleration is due to gravitational force of earth on the body. The inertia offered by the
body against the gravitational force is called the gravitational mass i.e. where
is gravitational mass.
The inertial and gravitational masses, are although defined in different ways ; but they are proportional
to each other and for convenience this constant of proportionality is taken to be 1 and hence the
gravitational and inertial masses are considered to be equivalent.
Variation of g :
The value of g varies from place to place due to following factors:
(i) Shape of earth :
The earth is not perfectly spherical but is slightly ellipsoidal. It is bulging at the equator and flattened at
the poles. Its equatorial radius is about 21 km more than the polar radius.
As g the value of g increases from equator to poles i.e. it is maximum at the poles and
minimum at the equator.
(ii) Effect of earths rotation :
The earth rotates about its axis with angular velocity

Effect's of earth rotation on g
The necessary centripetal force is provided by a component of gravitational attraction force between
the body and the earth, so that the effective weight of body is reduced and hence effective g is reduced
and at latitude it is given by

But

i.e
.(1)
This equation shows that the value of g decreases due to earths rotation.
At equator
At poles
Therefore we note that the decrease in g is maximum at equator and zero at poles.
(iii) Effect of Altitude (Height)
The acceleration due to gravity g at the surface of the earth is
.(2)
The acceleration due to gravity at height h from earths surface is
..(3)
( since r = R + h )
Dividing (3) by (2) we get

i.e
..(4)
This relation holds for any height.
If h<<R , then using bionomial theorem

Or
.(5)
From equation (4) and (5) it is obvious that the value of g decreases with increase of height from the
surface of the earth.
(iv) Effect of Depth (i.e. below earths surface ):
Assuming earth to be a sphere of uniform density ,we have mass of earth , . The
acceleration due to gravity at earths surface
..(6)
If body is taken to a depth x below earths surface ( e.g. in a mine ), the body
will be attracted only by the mass ( M) of earth which is enclosed in a sphere of radius ( R h) given by

Effect of depth on g

The value of acceleration due to gravity at depth x is given by
..(7)
Dividing (7) by (6) , we get
(8)
Thus the value of g decreases with increase of depth below earths surface.
This decrease is due to reduction in mass of attracting sphere of earth.
Gravitational field strength, Potential and Potential energy :
The gravitational field strength at any point in a gravitational force experienced by a unit mass placed at
that point provided the unit mass itself does not cause any change in the field. Thus the gravitational
field due to a particle of mass M at point distant r from mass M is

The gravitational potential at any point in a gravitational field is defined as the work done is bringing a
unit mass from infinity to that point. The gravitational potential due to a point mass M at a point distant
r from it is given by

The relation between gravitational field strength and potential is

In one dimension
The gravitational potential energy of a system of masses is defined as the work done in assembling the
system of masses from infinity to its present configuration.

Gravitational potentiall energy
The gravitational potential energy or self energy of the system of two masses m1 and m2 is given by

where r is the distance between the masses.
Gravitational potential energy has two familiar expressions -
U = mgh (at height h from earth s surface near surface of earth, assuming zero P.E at earths
surface)
And
(assuming zero P.E. at infinity where r = distance of body of mass m from centre of
earth usually r = R + h )
Planets and Satellites :
A planet is a celestial body revolving around the sun. The nine planets are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto.
The motion of planets is described by well known Keplers laws which are :
1. Each planet revolves around the sun in elliptical orbits, with the sun at one focus of the ellipse.
2. The speed of the planet in its orbit varies in such a way that the radius vector joining the planet to
sun sweeps equal areas in equal times. Alternatively this law may be stated as
The areal velocity of radius vector joining the planet to sun is constant.
3. The square of period of revolution of planet around the sun is proportional to the cube of average
distance of planet round the sun.
More correctly we may say that the square of period of revolution of a planet around the sun is
proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit.
A satellite is secondary heavenly body which revolves round a planet in its definite orbit. The
satellites may be natural and artificial. Moon is a natural satellite of earth, while Aryabhatta, Rohini,
Insat 2-A, 2-D are artificial satellites of earth. The artificial satellites are put in orbits round the earth by
multi-stage rocket which carries the satellite to required vertical height and then gives it appropriate
horizontal velocity required for a stable orbit around the earth.
Motion of Satellites:
Let a satellite of mass m revolve around the earth in circular orbit of radius.The gravitational pull
between the satellite and earth
=
provides the necessary centripetal force i.e.

This gives orbital speed

If h is the height of satellite from earths surface and R is the radius of earth, then r = R + h.
.(2a)
Since acceleration due to gravity at earths surface
..(2b)
Equation (2) shows that the orbital velocity satellite depends only on the height for a given plane If T is
the period of revolution, then
..(3b)
From (3a), we have , which is Kepler III law.
Remark :
If a satellite is close to earths surface such that h << R, then orbital speed

and periodic time,


For earth ,
R = 6400 km = m
g =
orbital speed ,

and period of revolution,


Energy of a satellite :
The kinetic energy,

The potential energy,

So,
Total mechanical energy


This is negative, indicating that the satellite is bound.
Binding energy :
The minimum energy required to free a satellite from its gravitational attraction is called binding energy
i.e.
Binding energy ,
Geostationary or Communication Satellite:
A communication satellite is an artificial satellite of earth and appears stationary to any observer on the
surface of earth. Such a satellite is called a geostatic satellite or a geo-synchronous satellite. Insat 2-A,
2-D are satellites of India. For such a satellite:
(1) The orbit of the satellite must be circular and in the equatorial plane of the earth.
(2) The angular velocity of the satellite must be in the same direction as the angular velocity of rotation
of earth.
(3) The period of revolution of the satellite must be equal to the period of rotation of earth about its
axis.
i.e. 24 hours = 24 X 60 X 60 = 86400 sec.
If calculations are made from the relation

the radius of circular orbit for such a satellite is 42000 km.
Escape velocity:
The minimum velocity required to just free a body from the binding of the gravitational attraction is
called the escape velocity
.(1)
The escape velocity is independent of mass of body projected and the direction of projection.
For earth

Relation between orbitial velocity and escape velocity near earth surface is

Weightlessness in Artificial Satellites:
A astronaut in a satellite experiences weightlessness. The reason is that there act two forces on the
astronaut.
(i) Gravitational pull
Where
= mass of earth, m = mass of astronaut, r= distance between satellite from earths centre
(ii) Centrifugal force :
As astronaut is in rotating frame; the astronaut experiences a centrifuge force whose direction is away
from the centre of earth and magnitude given by,

where v0 is orbital speed of satellite.
Net force on astronaut:

Also the condition of circular motion of satellite is

Using this equation, equation (1) gives
F = 0
i.e. the net force on astronaut is zero the astronaut experiences weightlessness in artificial satellite.
Remark:
The weight of a person/body is zero in artificial satellite, but it is not zero in natural satellite, because
natural satellite has its own g. The value of g on moon is one -sixth that on earth.
Absence of atmosphere on moon:
For the presence of atmosphere on a planet/moon the condition is that the root mean square speed of
molecule: on planet/moon should be less than the escape velocity i.e. vrms < vescape. This condition is
satisfied on earth but not on moon. Since on earth
vrms = 2.5 km/s, ve = 11.2 km/h
Therefore earth has atmosphere.
For moon vrms = 2.5 km/s, ve = 2.35 km/h
i.e. at moon vrms > ve hence, moon has no atmosphere.
hence moon has no atmosphere.
Thus a planet will have no atmosphere if root moon square of molecules on its surface is larger than
escape velocity on the planets surface.
Cosmic velocities:
There are three cosmic velocities :
(i) First cosmic velocity
The minimum horizontal velocity required to launch a satellite in an orbit near earths surface is called
the first cosmic velocity. Its value is

(ii) Second cosmic velocity:
The minimum velocity required to project a body from earths surface to escape from earths
gravitational field is called the second cosmic velocity. Its value is

(iii) Third cosmic velocity:
The minimum velocity required to project a body so as to escape from the solar system is called the
third cosmic velocity. Its value from earths surface is nearly 17 km/s.
A planet in elliptical orbit:
If a planet is in an elliptical orbit, the following two equations are used. Let a planet of mass m revolve
around the sun of mass M in elliptical orbit, with sun at one focus of orbit.
(i) Conservation of energy : Total energy at farthest point A = Total energy at nearest point B
.(1)

conservation of energy
(ii) Conservation of angular momentum gives
Angular momentum at A = angular momentum at B
.(2)
Geometry of elliptical orbits :
If a and b are semi-major and semi-minor axis of orbit, then eccentricity of orbit is given by
as b<a , e<1
Also maximum distance of planet from sun = perihelion, r1 = a (l+ e)
Minimum distance of planet from sun
= aphelion , r2 = a (1 e)
Semi-latus rectum of L =
Magnetic Effect on Currents





Oersteds Observation: Oersted in I820 observed that a magnetic field is always associated with a
current carrying conductor.

Biot Savart Law: Two French Physicists: Biot and Savart, on the basis of experimental observationa,
gave a law to find the magnetic field strength due to a current carrying element.
Accordingly the magnetic field strength due to a current carrying element at any point P near it is
(i) Directly proportional to current (i) flowing through it
(ii) Directly proportional to the length of element

Biot Savart Law

(iii) Inversely proportional to the distance of point (P) from the element
(iv) Directly proportional to the , where is the angle between current clement and the position
vector of point relative to current element
(v) It also depends on medium between the current element and point P.
If we combine all these points, we get magnetic field ( ) at point P is:


Or
Where is constant of proportionality.
is called absolute permeability of medium.
For free space = = absolute permeability of free space = weber .
The ratio is called the realative permeability of medium and is denoted by .
I.e.

In free space the magnetic field induction is :


The direction of magnetic field induction is perpendicular to the plane containing and and is
given by right hand rule which states If a conductor carrying current is grasped in the right hand with
the thumb pointing in the direction of current, then curling of fingers round the conductor represents the
direction of magnetic field.
In vector form (1) may be expressed as:


For the whole current carrying conductor carrying the resultant magnetic induction:
Where summation extends for the whole length of conductor.

Unit of Magnetic field

In S.I. system the unit of magnetic field is Tesla or or Newton .
The dimensional formula for the magnetic field induction is
C.G.S unit of magnetic field is Oersted or Gauss:
1 Tesla = Gauss
Sometimes unit of magnetic is used Ampere
1 Tesla = Amp/metre

Magnetic Field Induction in some Special Cases



Magnetic Field Induction

(i) Current carrying straight wire: The magnetic field due to straight wire of finite length carrying
current I is given by:


Where are angles made by upper and lower ends of rod with NP (=R), perpendicular dropped
from P on the wire.
If wire is infinitely large
I.e.


The direction of magnetic field is given by right hand rule, according to which. If we spread our right
hand in such a way that thumb points along the direction of current and fingers along the point (P), then
the perpendicular on palm represents the direction of magnetic field.
Accordingly for a current carrying wire CD of Fig. the field on the right of wire in the plane of paper is
downward, while on the left it is upward perpendicular to plane of paper.

(ii) Magnetic field induction at the axis of circular loop of radius a a distance x from the center of
loop is given by:


Where i = current in the loop
N = number of turns in the loop

Magnetic Field of Induction

The direction of field is also the axis of loop. At the center of loop x = 0; therefore, magnetic field at
center:


If current is anticlockwise, the field is upward perpendicular to plane of loop; which if current is
clockwise the magnetic field is downward perpendicular to plane of loop.

(iii) Magnetic field Induction due to a solenoid:
(a) If solenoid has number of tums per meter length n and is of finite length; are angles made
by lines joining point P from the ends of solenoid with its axis, then magnetic field at P is:



magnetic Field of Induction

(b) For a long solenoid ,
i.e.
along the axis.
Here n = (N/l); N = Total number of turns in length l of solenoid.

Force on a moving charge in a uniform magnetic field (Lorentz force)
When a charged particle of charge q moves in a magnetic field of induction B with velocity v, it
experiences a magnetic force given by:


This is the magnitude of force in qvB being angle between and direction of force is
normal to .
This force is also called magnetic Lorentz force.
Case (I): When charged particle moved parallel to field,
i.e.


Or, Force F = 0
That is if charged particle moves parallel to field B, it experience no force and the path of the particle is
unperfected straight line.

Case (II): When charged particle (charge q) enters the magnetic field at right angles, , then
the force on charged particle is maximum given by:
F=qvB (2)


Its direction is normal to , hence no work is done by the magnetic force on the charged
particle. Therefore, the kinetic energy and hence speed of charged particle remains constant, but its
direction changes. Hence the path of the particle is circular. The necessary centripetal force is provided
by the magnetic force.
i.e.


Or radius of circular path,


If T is the period of one revolution, then


Using (3), we have:


And frequency

Obviously the time period (T) and frequency f are independent of speed v and radius r of circular path.

Case (III): When charged particle enters, the magnetic field in any direction:
If the charged particle enters the magnetic field with velocity making an angle with magnetic field
vector , then its velocity may be resolved into two components and , along and
per-pendicular to direction of applied field .


The component is along the field and so remains unaffected by the field and hence the
charged particle continues to move along the field with a speed .

The velocity component is perpendicular to field and so the path due to this component
is circular. The radius of circular path is given by:


Thus the resultant motion of the charged particle is due to superposition of two concurrent motions-
straight line and circular motions. Due to these motions, the resultant path of the charged particle is a
helix (fig b). Time taken by the particle is one revolution.



Pitch: The linear distance traversed by the particle along the magnetic field in one revolution is called
the pitch of helix and is given by:


i.e.



Cyclotron

A cyclotron is a device to accelerate charged particles with the help of uniform magnetic field up to
energies of the order of million electron-volts (M e V).

It consists of two hollow metallic Dees D1 and D2 with a little gap between them. These are placed in a
uniform magnetic field (B) perpendicular to the plane of Dees. An alternating high voltage source is
applied between the Dees.
The charged particle (positive or negative) to be accelerated enters at mid-point C between the Dees.
The potential difference applied accelerates the charged particle and the magnetic field keeps the
charged particle in circular path.

Condition of resonance: The frequency of rotation of charged particle given by is made
equal to the frequency of alternating voltage source. This is called condition of resonance.
If this condition is achieved, the particle is accelerated twice in a rotation and its speed goes on
increasing, hence it continues to move in a circular path of increasing radius and finally it emerges
through a hole made in Dee to hit the target.
The energy gained by particle in one rotation =2q V. If N is number of rotations made by the particle in
the cyclotron, then total energy gained by particle =N 2q V. if r is radius of Dee, the final velocity v is
given by:

Therefore, Maximum kinetic energy gained by particle:

I.e.



Force and Torques on currents in a Magnetic Field


(i) Force: Magnetic force on a current carrying conductor of length l, carrying current I, in a magnetic
field of strength B is:

Force



being angle between current element .

In vector form,


Case I: When = 0, magnetic force
Case II: When , magnetic force
This equation give the definition of magnetic field induction B.
Accordingly B =
If i=1A, l=1m then i.e magntic field induction is numerically equal to the magnetic force
acting on a conductor of length 1m when it is placed perpendicular to magnetic field and current flowing
in it is 1 Ampere.
The direction of magnetic force is normal to current I and field B, given by Fleming left hand rule which
states that:
If forefinger, middle-finger and thumb of the left hand are stretched mutually perpendicular such that
forefinger points in the direction of magnetic field, the middle finger along the direction of current, then
the thumb points along the direction of force.

Direction of magnet

(ii) Torque: Torque on a rectangle current loop in a uniform magnetic field: if a rectangle loop of
Area ( side l, breadth b) carrying current is placed in a uniform magnetic field, then its two sides pq and
rs experience no force and the other two sides ps and rq experience force Bi; each, hence they
experience a couple which tends to rotate the diploe to set its axis parallel to the magnetic field. If is
angle made by its normal with the magnetic field,

Torque

Perpendicular distance between force (F, F) is ,



If N is the number of turns in the loop, then:


In the vector form

Torque

Clearly the torque is maximum when or normal to plane of coil makes an angle with
magnetic field lines i.e., the planes of coil is parallel to the magnetic field lines.

Force between parallel currents


Let a and b be two parallel wires carrying and separated by a distance R. each current
carrying wire produces a magnetic field around it and either wire is placed in the magnetic field
produced by the other; therefore each wire experiences a magnetic force. The force per unit length on
either wire is given by:


Force between parallel current



If current are parallel, the force is attractive but if currents are anti parallel the force is repulsive.

Definition of Ampere

The force between parallel current carrying wires:


This expression is used to define a fundamental unit Ampere in S.I. system.

Thus 1 ampere current is defined as the current which when flowing through two parallel thin wires
placed at 1 meter apart in vacuum exert a force on per meter length of either wire.

Moving Coil Galvanometer

A galvanometer is used to detect the current and has moderate resistance.
Principle: When a current carrying coil is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a torque given by :


Where is the angle between normal to plane of coil and direction of magnetic field. In actual
arrangement the coil is suspended between the cylindrical pole pieces of a strong magnet. The
cylindrical pole pieces give the field radial such that




Moving coil Galvanometer

If is torsional rigidly, then for deflection
In equilibrium we have,
External couple= Restoring couple
I.e.

In words the deflection produced is directly proportional to current in the coil.
The quality is called the sensitivity of the galvanometer.
For maximum sensitivity number of turns N, coil area A and magnetic field strength B should be higher
and torsional rigidity should be low. That is why suspension wire is made of phosphor bronze which has
low value of torsional rigidity.

Ammeter

An ammeter is a low resistance galvanometer; used to measure current directly in amperes and is
always connected in series with the circuit.

Ammeter

To convert galvanometer into ammeter, a low resistance, called shunt, is connected in parallel to the
galvanometer as shown in figure. Let be the current in galvanometer. Let I is the range of ammeter
and the current in shunt S. the working equation for conversion of galvanometer into ammeter is:

Value of shunt
The resistance of Ammeter so formed is given by :


Remark: Equation 2 may also be used to increase the range of given ammeter. Then G will be
resistance of given ammeter, S shunt applied, its initial range and I the new range desired.

Voltmeter

A voltmeter is a high resistance galvanometer and is connected between two points across which
potential difference is to be measured i.e. voltmeter is connected in parallel with the circuit.
TO convert a galvanometer into voltmeter, a high resistance R in series is connected with a
galvanometer. If V is the range of voltmeter, then:

Or Value of series resistance:



Voltmeter

This is working for conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter. The resistance of voltmeter so formed is:


Remark: Equation 1 may also be used to increase the range of voltmeter, then:

Where,


Frictional force





Friction is define as the opposing force that try to resist the speed of the body.It is produced due to
contact of two body or more with each other.
Friction :
When we try to slide a body on a surface, the motion of the body is opposed by a force called the force
of friction. The frictional force arises due to intermolecular interaction.
When a body is at rest on a surface and no external force is applied, no friction exists. In this case the
normal reaction R balances the weight Mg i.e. for vertical equilibrium R = Mg and frictional force =0

No friction
When an external force (F) is applied to move the body and the body does not move, then the frictional
force acts opposite to applied force F and is equal to the applied force i.e., F f =0 frictional force ,f =
applied force F. When the body remains at rest, the frictional force is called the static friction. Static
friction is self adjusting force.

Static friction
When the external force F is increased, a stage comes when the body is just at the verge of moving. At
this stage the force of friction is maximum and is called the limiting friction. It is found experimentally
that Limiting frictional force

where is called the coefficient of static friction. It is a dimensionless constant, but depends on the
nature of surfaces in contact.
Thus the static friction is self adjusting force and upto the body is at rest,
the static friction = applied force.

Limiting friction
Kinetic friction :
When the applied force is increased further (beyond the limiting frictional force), the body begins to
move, then the force opposing the motion is called the kinetic or sliding friction. The kinetic friction is
less than the limiting friction. The force of kinetic friction R where is called the
coefficient of kinetic friction.


The kinetic frictional force in between two surfaces remains unchanged, whether the body moves with
constant velocity or acceleration.
Graph between applied force and frictional force :
If a graph is plotted between applied force and frictional force, then it is in the form of a straight line.
Which tells that the
Frictional force = applied force.

Graph of applied force and frictional force
When the applied force increases beyond a certain value, the frictional force drops suddenly and
becomes equal to R which remains constant.
Rolling friction :
When a body rolls on the surface, the resistance offered by the surface is called Rolling friction. Rolling
friction is less than static friction or kinetic friction. Rolling frictional coefficient is denoted by


Angle of Friction :
When a block of mass M is placed on a horizontal surface and pulled to the right by an external force,
equal to limiting frictional force; then the resultant of normal reaction and limiting frictional
force .The angle made by the resultant force with the normal is called the angle of
friction.

Angle of friction

.(1)

But coefficient of static friction



As



..(2)

Comparing (1) and (2),



Frictional Force on a bicycle in motion:

Wheel rotated about its axis :
When a wheel is rotated about its axis without sliding, frictional force acting on it is the rolling friction
and it acts opposite to the direction of motion of its points of contact with the surface.For example in fig.
wheel rotates clockwise, the frictional force acting on it will be forward.

Wheel rotated about it's axis
(ii) When the bicycle is pedalled :
The force exerted on the rear wheel through the pedal chain axle system is in the
backward direction, therefore the force of friction on the rear wheel is in forward
direction. The front wheel of cycle moves by itself in the forward direction, therefore the
force of friction on the frontwheel is in the backward direction.
(iii) When the bicycle is not pedalled :
No external force is being exerted; both wheels move by itself in the forward direction,
and so the frictional force on both the wheels is in the backward direction.
Body on Inclined plane ; Angle of Repose


Angle of repose
Suppose a body is placed on the inclined plane of slope angle , then the forces acting
on the body are
(i) Its weight Mg (vertically downward),
(ii) Normal reaction R
(iii) Frictional force acting parallel to the plane upward
If we resolve the weight Mg, normal and parallel to the plane, then for equilibrium
perpendicular to plane
..(1)
and for equilibrium parallel to plane.
.(2)
i.e. if body is at rest on inclined plane
frictional force, f =
If angle of inclined plane increases, then Mg sin increases and hence frictional force
also increases. At one stage the body is just at the verge of sliding; at this stage, the
frictional force is maximum and the slope angle of plane is called the angle of repose.
Thus angle of repose is the angle of inclined plane such that the block placed on it just
starts sliding.
Thus


Also



or



As



So



Clearly angle of repose is equal to its angle of friction