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Cell-Cycle Checkpoints
G1 Checkpoint
• �START in yeast
• �Restriction Point in mammals
• �Main step that commits a cell to division
• �Sensitive to:
• �� Cell size
• �� Availability of nutrients
• �� External growth factors
G2 checkpoint
�
Error check: DNA replication must be
complete
� Detects unreplicated DNA, holds cell at
G2
�� Detects damaged DNA, arrests cell in G2
until damage repaired
Spindle Assembly Checkpoint
• Boundary between metaphase and anaphase
• All chromosomes must be properly attached to the spindle
• MPF causes activation of anaphase promoting complex pathway that promotes
anaphase
In silico cell---------
Ion channels-------- Ion channels are usually small proteins that span the
membrane and have central water-filled pores and its outside surface is
hydrophobic and the inside hydrophilic. Most ion channels are gated and open
transiently in response to a specific stimulus, such as a change in membrane
potential or the binding of a ligand or a chemical (phosphorylation) or electrical
stimulus.
active transport------- Often the transport has to happen in the direction
opposite to the electrochemical or concentration gradient. In order to accom-
plish this, membranes have evolved elaborate schemes to pump the substance
( ions or moleciles) from the area of smaller concentration to a compartment
with higher concen-tration. All these schemes cost the cell energy (hydrolysis of
ATP or light energy) and thus are called active transport. It is sensitive to inhibi-
tors that stop ATP synthesis.
-
• Nuclear pore------- There are many small pores on the nuclear envelope
,which is called nuclear pore. It is formed by the two membranes fusion in
some places. The diameter of nuclear pore is about 40-100nm, average
diameter is 80nm.The number of nuclear pores is different with the cell type
and the physiological conditions. Nuclear pores allow communication
between the nucleus and cytosol.
Degenerate----------
Cell cycle-------------------
Homologus chromosome----------
Sister chromatids------------
Pars granulose-----------
Ultrastructure of mitochondria
Outer membrane Outer membrane is the outerest unit membrane enveloping the
whole mitochondria. The width is 6nm. Its surface is smooth and elastical.
Inner membrane The inner membrane has a very large surface area owing to its
characteristic infolds ,which are called cristae. This membrane is composed of 75%
proteins and is extremely active functionally. The inner membrane contains proteins
involved in the respiratory chain ,ATP synthesis, and the transport of substrates
and products of oxidative phosphorylation into and out of the mitochondria.
The matrix contains enzymes involved in the oxidation of pyruvate and fatty acids
,as well as most of the enzymes of the citric acid cycle. In addition, the mitochondrial
genome and mitochondrial ribosomes are located in the matrix.
semiautonomous organelle- mitochondrion
Mitochondria replicate much like bacterial cells. When they get too large, they
undergo fission. This involves a furrowing of the inner and then the outer
membrane as if someone was pinching the mitochondrion. Then the two daughter
mitochondria split. Of course, the mitochondria must first replicate their DNA. An
electron micrograph depicting the furrowing process is shown in these figures.
Mitochondria have their own autonomous double-stranded circular DNA, and
almost the entire genome is coding sequence. The human mitochondrial
genome contains 16569 nucleotides which encode 13 proteins, 2 rRNA genes
and 22 tRNA genes. Many of them are subunits of protein complexes involved
in electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation .
The difference
between mitosis and meiosis
䦋㌌㏒䦋좈琰茞 ᓀ
Mitosis Meiosis
�Ü
Number of divisions 1 2
Number of daughter
2 4
cells
Genetically identical? Yes No
2nd level: 6 nulearsomes coiling into a helical array - 30nm solenoid (packaging
ratio -6)
3rd level : Solenoid coiling into a 400nm supersolenoid (packaging ratio -40)