REQUIREMENTS OF POWER SYSTEM

 It must supply energy practically everywhere the customer demands.  The load
demands vary with time. The system must able to supply this ever changing demand.
 The delivered energy must meet certain minimum requirements in regard to
quality. The following factors determine the quality: a) The system frequency must
be kept around 50Hz with a variation of +0.05Hz to -0.05Hz. b) The magnitude of
the bus voltages are maintained within prescribed limit around the normal value.
Generally the voltage variation should be limited to +5 to -5%.  The energy must
be available with high reliability.  The energy must be delivered without
overloading any element in the power system.  The energy must be delivered at
minimum cost.

1
REAL POWER (P): The real power, P is defined as the average value of P and
therefore, physically, means the useful power being transmitted. Its magnitude
depends very strongly on the power factor cosΦ. REACTIVE POWER (Q):The reactive
power, Q is by definition equal to the peak value of that power component that
travels back & forth on the line, resulting in zero average, and therefore capable
of no useful work.
2
TYPE OF LOADS:
TYPE OF LOAD I V I V I V L Ф I C I Ф V R I V PHASOR PHASE ANGLE POWER ABSORBED BY
THE LOAD P Q P>0 Q=0

Ф = 0°

Ф = +90°

P=0

Q>0

Ф = - 90°

P=0

Q<0

I V

R V L Φ I 0°<Φ<+90° P>0 Q>0

L
3
TYPE OF LOADS:
TYPE OF LOAD I V R C R C Φ PHASOR PHASE ANGLE POWER ABSORBED BY THE LOAD P Q

I V

-90°<Φ<0°

P>0

Q<0

Tuned to Resonance I V C Ic IL L IL = Ic PL = Pc Energy travels Back & forth

Between C&L
4
-90°<=Φ<=+90°

P=0

Q=0
TYPE OF LOADS
• Inductive load absorbs positive Q. i.e., an inductor consumes reactive power. •
Capacitive load absorbs negative Q. i.e., a capacitor generates reactive power. •
Sign change in Q simply means a 180° phase shift. • Resistive load consumes real
power. • Inductive load consumes positive reactive power • Capacitive load
consumes negative reactive power. • Combination of R & L load consumes real &
positive reactive power. • Combination of R & C load consumes real & negative
reactive power. • Reactive power is bi-directional power. It travels from source
to load as well as load to source.
5
CAPABILITY DIAGRAM OF A 110 MW ALTERNATOR
• I) COLLECT THE INFORMATIONS FROM T.G. NAME PLATE / MANUAL: 1. Terminal Voltage :
11,000 V 2. Rated MVA : 137.5 3. Rated p.f. (cos Ф) : 0.8 Lagging 4. Rated
Armature Current : 7220 A 5. Rated Field Current : 1500 A 6. Short Circuit Ratio :
0.5 II) CALCULATED VALUES: 1. MW = MVA X p.f. = 137.5 X 0.8 = 110 MW 2. MVAR = MVA
X SCR = 137.5 X 0.5 = 68.75 MVAR (Max. permissible zero p.f. leading MVAR) 3. Ф =
cos-1(0.8) = 36.87° 4. To ensure operational safety, there should be a margin of
at least 12.5 % (given by the manufacturer) of the power rating of the generator
between the working point & the theoretical stability (load angle ‘δ’) limit line.
The operational limit of a generator rated at 0.8 p.f. lagging can be tabulated
below: p.u. MW 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 p.u. MW + Margin 0.1 0.2 0.3
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 6

•
CAPABILITY DIAGRAM OF A 110 MW ALTERNATOR
REAL POWER p.u. MW Unity p.f. Leading p.f. VAR IMPORT VAR EXPORT Lagging p.f.

OE : No-load Field Current OD : Field Current required for Armature Reaction FGDHF
: Capability Diagram of the 110 MW Alternator

δ=90°
1.0 0.9 0.9

B
P.F.= 0.8 LAGGING

G
THEORITICAL STABILITY LIMIT LINE 0.7 0.6 0.5
MAR GIN (δ=6 3 °)

TURBINE LIMIT LINE 0.8 0.7

0.8

OR AT ST

0.6 0.5 0.4 R (O TO RO

R) FIE EN RR CU

ITY LIM IT W ITH 12.5 %

CU RR E

NT

R CU

AR MA TU RE

NT RE

UR R C ROTO

LD

IT LIM

0.4 0.3 0.2

ST AT OR

(O R)

IT T LIM REN

0.2 0.1

0.1
A
1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 SCR

E
0.5

PR A CT IC

Ф=36 .87°

BIL

L TA 0.3 TO

AL STA

TO TA L

H
0.3 0.2 0.1

C
1.0

0.4

REACTIVE POWER p.u. MVAR (leading)

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

MVA X SCR MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE MVAR IN ZERO p.f. LEADING.

REACTIVE POWER p.u. MVAR (lagging)

7
CAPABILITY DIAGRAM OF A 110 MW ALTERNATOR
REAL POWER p.u. MW Unity p.f. Leading p.f. VAR IMPORT VAR EXPORT Lagging p.f.

OE : No-load Field Current OD : Field Current required for Armature Reaction FGDHF
: Capability Diagram of the 110 MW Alternator

δ=90°
1.0 0.9 0.9

B
P.F.= 0.8 LAGGING

G
THEORITICAL STABILITY LIMIT LINE 0.7 0.6 0.5
(δ=6 3°)

TURBINE LIMIT LINE 0.8 0.7

0.8

MA R GIN

OR AT ST

0.6 0.5
R) 0.4 R (O TO RO FI

PRA CTIC AL STA BIL IT Y L IMIT WIT H 1 2.5 %

D EL

0.4 0.3 0.2

0.2 0.1 0.3

0.1

Ф= 36 .8

TO TA L

7°

L TA 0.3 TO

ST AT OR

(O R)

A
1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 SCR

E
0.5

AR MA TU RE
T EN RR CU

CU RR E

NT

IT L IM T EN LIMIT RR CU RENT CUR OR ROT

0.5

0.4

0.6

0.2

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

H
0.9

C
1.0

0.1

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

REACTIVE POWER p.u. MVAR (leading)

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6
0.7

0.8

MVA X SCR MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE MVAR IN ZERO p.f. LEADING.

REACTIVE POWER p.u. MVAR (lagging)

8
III) COMPARISON
         Actual MW=50 (i.e. 50/137.5=0.364p.u.) Actual MVAR=6 (i.e.
6/137.5=0.044p.u.) Arm. Current = 0.36p.u. X 7220A=2599A Field Current=0.475p.u. X
1500A=712.5A p.f.=cos(6.5°)=0.994 lag Load Angle ‘δ’=33.4° V=(MVA X 106)/(√3 X
2 2

E.T.P.S. *** UNIT-5

DATE: TIME:    MW = 50 MVAR = 6 Armature Current = 2600A Field Current = 710A
p.f.= 0.98 lag δ = -- (No measurement) V = 11.2 KV 09.08.2004 11:00 Hrs.

Iarm.)
6

=(√(MW +MVAR ) X 10 )/(√3 X

2 2 6

Iarm.)

 

=(√(50 +6 ) X 10 )/(√3 X 2599) = 11.12KV 

9
•  •  •   •   K.      

Rotor current limit Class of insulation (to take care of rotor insulation) Stator
current limit Class of insulation for stator. MW load limit Turbine limit (steam
power generation capability) Turbine is designed for MW load only . Minimum load
angle limit Leading p.f. operation Stability limit of generation Stator end
heating limit Stressing stator winding & heating of stator 10 to 20 MVAR (leading
p.f.) is safe Rotor is relieved from stress Stator end winding heated due to
capacitive effect Remove capacitor banks in load centres In NCTPS 210 MW unit,
running the generator at -64 MVAR load for ½ an hour. Not able to reduce the load.

CAPABILITY CURVE

10
USEFULNESS OF CAPABILITY DIAGRAM FOR EXCITATION CONTROL The information given by
the capability diagram regarding full load rotor current (excitation), maximum
rotor angle during steady state leading p.f. zone operation (<75°) etc., are
essential for proper setting of the various limiters in the excitation control
system. Capability diagram give the basic information regarding the limiting zones
of the operation so that limiters can be set / commissioned suitably for safe
operation of the units.
11
FREQUENCY IS RELATED TO REAL POWER ( P – f )
 SMALL DROP IN SYSTEM LOAD.  VALVE SETTINGS ARE IGNORANT OF THE LOAD CHANGE. 
INPUT TORQUE TO EACH MACHINE REMAINS UNALTERED.  DECREASE IN CURRENT SUPPLIED BY
EACH ALTERNATOR.  DECREASE IN ELECTRO-MAGNETIC TORQUE BY EACH ALTERNATOR.  EACH
ALTERNATOR EXPERIENCES SURPLES ACCELERATING TORQUE.  SLIGHT INCREASE IN SPEED AND
FREQUENCY.

12
EFFECT ON OTHER LOADS:
 AT HIGHER FREQUENCY, THE REMAINING LOAD ROTATES AT HIGHER SPEED AND TAKES MORE
CURRENT.  HENCE THE LOAD DEMAND INCREASES.  POWER GENERATION AT HIGHER
FREQUENCY EQUALS THE LOAD DEMAND POWER.  TO DECREASE THE FREQUENCY, THE VALVE
MUST BE CLOSED SLIGHTLY. EXAMPLE: PUMP SET (INDUCTION MOTOR) At high frequency,
the speed of IM increases. Ns = 120f / P Nr = Ns ( 1 - s ) The current taken by
the IM will be more. Hence the demand on the system increases.
ADJUSTING INPUT VALVES CONTROLS FREQUENCY CONTROLS REAL POWER

13
VOLTAGE IS RELATED TO REACTIVE POWER ( Q – V )
G1

V1

V2 jX P jQ

1. 2. 3.

Bus Voltage V1 is kept at constant magnitude. Transmission line has reactance only
i.e. jX. Power flow is P Q.

Take V1 as reference. V2=V1-jXI -----------------------------------(1) V1 * I = P

jQ I = (P-jQ) / V1 ------------------------------(2) Substitute (2) in (1) V2 = V1
– jX [(P/V1) – j(Q/V1)] V2 = [V1 – (X/V1)Q] – j(X/V1)P]

14
VECTOR DIAGRAMS:
V2 = V1- X Q - j X P V1 V1
BOTH DROPS EQUAL DOUBLE P DOUBLE Q

V1
X Q V1 X P V1

V1
X
V1

V1
Q
XP V1 2X Q V1

V2

V2 V2
2X P V1

DOUBLE “P ”: VOLTAGE ANGLE WILL CHANGE. NO CHANGE IN MAGNITUDE. DOUBLE “Q ”:

VOLTAGE MAGNITUDE IS VERY MUCH RELATED TO REACTIVE POWER. MORE “Q ” FLOW WILL
AFFECT THE VOLTAGE EXCITATION MORE EXCITATION LESS LAGGING MVAR LAGGING MVAR GEN.
VOLTAGE GEN. VOLTAGE15
REACTIVE POWER INJECTION AT LOAD SIDE BY USING SHUNT CAPACITORS, IMPROVES THE
VOLTAGE. UNDER LIGHT LOAD CONDITIONS, RECEIVING END VOLTAGE > SENDING END VOLTAGE
(FERRANTI EFFECT) DUE TO CAPACITIVE LOAD. CONNECT SHUNT REACTORS TO CONTROL
VOLTAGE. PEAK LOAD CONDITION CONNECT CAPACITORS TO CONTROL VOLTAGE

LIGHT LOAD CONDITION

CONNECT REACTORS

SYNCHRONOUS CONDENSER IS USED TO ABSORB or TO DELIVER THE REACTIVE POWER.

SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR UNDER NO-LOAD CONDITION IS SYNCHRONOUS CONDENSER.
16
POWER DIAGRAM (CAPABILITY DIAGRAM):

ASSUMPTION: I.R. drop is negligible. Sinδ E CosФ A

d
δ

CASE-I: In Δ ABC, BC=E

B Φ
IX

MW C

In Δ BCD, BC=IXd

E Sinδ = IXd CosФ I MVAR Multiply both sides by V Xd EV Sinδ = VI CosФ = REAL Xd
POWER At δ=90°, We get the maximum power i.e. the theoritical stability line. V D
• In Δ ABC, CD=AC – AD; In Δ BCD, CD=IXd SinФ In Δ ABC, AC=E Cosδ & AD = V IXd
SinФ = E Cosδ - V ; Multiply both sides by V , We get Xd EV Cos δ – V2 = VI Sin Ф
= REACTIVE POWER Xd Xd CASE-I I:

17
SHORT CIRCUIT RATIO ( SCR ):
SCR = FIELD CURRENT REQUIRED TO PRODUCE RATED VOLTAGE ON O.C. FIELD CURRENT
REQUIRED TO CIRCULATE RATED CURRENT ON S.C.

S.C.C.

O.C.C. PER UNIT CURRENT PER UNIT VOLTAGE 1.0 a b C E

AD AE AC DE BC

AB

o
SCR = o Fo 1 o Fs Xd c Fo b Fs c Fo a Fo

Fo
1

Fc

FIELD CURRENT
1 Per unit voltage on open circuit Corresponding per unit current on short circuit
18

a Fo / c Fo

= RECIPROCAL OF SYNCHRONOUS REACTANCE

TYPICAL S.C.R. VALUES:
For 500 MW T.G., SCR= 0.48 For 210 MW T.G., SCR= 0.49 For 110 MW T.G., SCR= 0.50
For 60 MW T.G., SCR= 0.59 The SCR value may have to be raised to 1.0 to 1.5, if
the loading is likely to be capacitive i.e. leading MVAR supply.  For modern
Turbo-alternator, the SCR is normally between 0.48 to 0.7     

EFFECT OF S.C.R. ON MACHINE PERFORMANCE:

 Higher value of SCR has higher stability limit.  Better voltage regulation for
high SCR.  High value of SCR has a long air gap which means that the mmf required
by field is large. Hence machine with higher SCR is costlier to build.
TRANSPORTATION PROBLEM

SCR

AIR GAP

WEIGHT

SIZE

Present trend is to build low value of SCR since fast acting excitation system
available.
19
• T.G. CAPACITY IN M.W.: 50 60 62.5 100 110 120 200 210 – Weight: 250 tonnes 235
250 500 800 future 1000 future

GENERATOR – IMPORTANT TIPS

20
GENERATOR – IMPORTANT TIPS
• T.G. TERMINAL VOLTAGE IN KV : 10.5 11 – ETPS 60 MW, 110 MW 13.8 15 – Neyveli-
Stage I 15.75 – BHEL 210 MW 16 – Nuclear 235 MW 18.4 – NTPC 210 MW 21 – 500 MW 22
- 500 MW 33 (or) 34 – Future (800 MW/1000 MW) requires 800 KV line (year 2010)
21
GENERATOR – IMPORTANT TIPS
 Higher capacity Hydro machine in India : 250 MW, KOINA (Maharastra), Air cooled.
Higher capacity T.G. in India Higher capacity T.G. : 500 MW.   : Advantage :
Reduction of cost of Generation. Limitations : (i) Transportation problem (bigger
size) (ii) Do not have adequate transmission lines. : 315 MVA, 3 phase, single
unit, 400 KV. : 400 KV AC. : 800 or 765 KV line – year 2010. : 400 KV line. :
FRANCE, 1500 MW T.G., Nuclear , 1600 MVA, 1200 KV. 22

Higher capacity G.T. in India

   

Maximum voltage National Grid Regional Grid World highest

GENERATOR – IMPORTANT TIPS
SPECIFICATION FOR ROTATING MACHINES:
IEC 34 Part – I, II, III (International Electro-Technical commission) IS 5422 
2*105 hours guaranteed operating time (23 years) 8760 hrs/year.  104 start/stop
times.  Total life time : 25 years.  Capital O/H : Once in 4 to 5 years (25
days).  Annual O/H : < 10 days.
23