Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
i.e. 2g fertiliser is dissolved in enough water to make a 50mL solution
m = 2g, V = 0.050L
o Per cent by mass, % (w/w)
uses a comparison of weight of solute compared to weight of solution, converted to
per cent for ease of comparison
household cleaners often express concentrations of active ingredients in this way
i.e. 35g NaCl is dissolved in 100g water
m
solute
= 35g, m
solution
= 100 + 35 = 135g
o Per cent by volume, % (v/v)
used when liquids are dissolved in other liquids
alcohol concentration in drinks is expressed in this way
i.e. 2.5mL hydrogen peroxide is dissolved in enough water to make 50mL of solution
v
solute
= 2.5mL, v
solution
= 50mL
o Parts per million (ppm)
means parts of a particular solute per million parts of mixture
often used in environmental contexts when the concentrations are very small,
especially when considering pollutants
i.e. if the maximum allowable concentration of DDT in beef is 1.5ppm, would a 500g
sample of beef containing 0.075g of DDT be acceptable?
m
DDT
= 0.075g, m
beef
= 500g
The beef is not acceptable as this is 100 times the allowable limit
10
3.1: Deduce the ions present in a sample from the results of tests:
Ions that are being tested:
o Cations: Ba
2+
, Ca
2+
, Pb
2+
, Cu
2+
, Fe
2+
and Fe
3+
o Anions: PO
4
3-
, SO
4
2-
, CO
3
2-
and Cl
-
Test Result Ions present
Add KI Yellow precipitate Lead
Add OH- ions, drop wise Deep blue precipitate that
dissolves in excess hydroxide
Copper
Spray into flame Apple green colour Barium
Add AgNO
3
White precipitate that darkens in
exposure to sunlight
Chloride
Add dilute HCl Gas produced that turns
limewater milky
Carbonate/hydrogen
When given a flowchart, it is very easy to deduce the ion(s) present.
However, you need to memorise the tests for the above ions.
We use precipitation reactions to identify ions in solution.
There are 2 situations possible: when there is only one ion present in a sample, or when there is a
mixture of ions in a sample.
CATIONS (when only one ion is present):
o To determine the ion present, HCl, H
2
SO
4
and NaOH is added in that order, and the
formation of a precipitate would indicate which ion it is:
o Firstly, HCl (Cl
-
ions) is added to the sample. If a white precipitate forms, then the unknown
ion is LEAD (Pb
2+
); the precipitate is lead chloride (PbCl
2
).
To verify, add a few drops of potassium iodide (KI) to a fresh sample. Pb
2+
ions form a
vibrant yellow precipitate with iodide (I
-
) ions.
o Next, H
2
SO
4
(SO
4
2-
ions) is added to a FRESH SAMPLE. If a precipitate forms, the unknown
ion is either calcium (Ca
2+
) or barium (Ba
2+
):
To distinguish the two ions, add a few drops of sodium fluoride (NaF) to a new
sample. Ca
2+
forms a precipitate with fluoride (F
-
), but Ba
2+
does not.
o Lastly, NaOH (for OH
-
ions) is added to a fresh sample. If a precipitate forms, the ion is either
copper (Cu
2+
), iron(II) (Fe
2+
) or iron(III) (Fe
3+
):
11
If the precipitate is blue then the ion is Cu
2+
. To further verify that it is copper,
dissolve the precipitate in ammonia (NH
3
), and if it is Cu(OH)
2
it will form a deep-blue
solution.
If the precipitate is NOT blue, then the ion is either Fe
2+
or Fe
3+
. Using a fresh sample,
add:
A few drops of potassium thiocyanate (KSCN) solution. Fe
3+
reacts with
thiocyanate ions (SCN
-
) to form a blood red precipitate.
A few drops of PURPLE potassium permanganate (KMnO
4
) solution. Fe
2+
decolourises the permanganate ion (MnO
4
-
), changing the solution from
purple to colourless.
CATIONS (when there is a mixture of ions):
o When there is a mixture of ions, there is the risk that the test for one ion will interfere with
the test for another ion.
o Once a precipitate is formed, the reagent is added until no more precipitate will form (this is
to remove all traces of a specific cation).
o The mixture is then filtered or centrifuged to remove the precipitate, and then further tests
are performed on the remaining solution.
o The procedure for identifying ions in a mixture:
Add HCl solution; if a precipitate forms, Pb
2+
is present in the mixture. Keep adding
HCl until no more precipitate forms, then filter.
Divide the filtrate into 2 portions:
Add NaF to one portion; precipitate indicates the presence of Ca
2+
.
Add H
2
SO
4
to the other portion; if a precipitate forms, Ba
2+
or Ca
2+
ions are
present in the mixture. Completely precipitate out all the barium and calcium
ions, then filter.
Add NaOH solution; if there is a precipitate, mix NH
3
into the solution and filter. A
presence of any blue precipitate indicates Cu
2+
, while any green or brown precipitate
indicates iron ions (to distinguish iron(II) and iron (III), use thiocyanate and
permanganate tests on new samples).
ANIONS (when only one ion is present):
o Carbonate (CO
3
2-
):
Add dilute nitric acid (HNO
3
); if bubbles of a colourless gas form (that when passed
through limewater turns it cloudy) carbonate is present.
If the solution has a pH of 8-11 then carbonate is likely present.
o Sulfate (SO
4
2-
):
If the addition of Ba(NO
3
)
2
(barium nitrate) in to an acidified sample produces a thick
white precipitate, then sulfate is present:
Acidify solutions using dilute nitric acid (does not form precipitates).
If acidification and addition of Pb(NO
3
)
2
(lead nitrate) produces a white precipitate,
then sulfate is present.
o Phosphate (PO
4
3-
):
If the addition of Ba(NO
3
)
2
(barium nitrate) to an ALKALINE sample produces a white
precipitate, phosphate is present.
12
Use ammonia (NH
3
) to make solutions basic.
If acidification followed by the addition of (NH
4
)MoO
4
(ammonium molybdate)
solution produces a yellow precipitate, phosphate is present.
o Chloride (Cl
-
):
If the addition of AgNO
3
(silver nitrate) to an acidified sample produces a white
precipitate that dissolves in ammonia solution and darkens in sunlight, then chloride
is present.
ANIONS (when there is a mixture of ions present):
o Again, care must be taken not to cause interference between tests:
o The procedure:
Add nitric acid; any bubbling indicates the presence of carbonate. Keep adding acid
until all bubbling stops.
Acidify solution with more nitric acid. Add Ba
2+
(through barium nitrate). If a
precipitate forms, sulfate is present. Filter solution.
Make the filtrate alkaline by adding ammonia. Add more Ba
2+
ions. If a precipitate
forms, phosphate is present. Filter solution.
Acidify solution again and add Ag
+
ions; precipitate indicates Cl
-
ions.
13
3.0.1: PRACTICAL Perform first-hand investigations to carry out a range of tests, including flame tests, to
identify the following ions:-
Cations: Barium, calcium, lead, copper and iron:
Anions: Phosphate, sulfate, carbonate and chloride:
In this practical, students were given vials of unknown solutions; vials were labelled as mixtures of
ions or only one ion.
Using both precipitation and flame tests, the contents of the vials were determined.
Precipitation Tests:
o Please see ABOVE for a very in-depth coverage of precipitation tests used to determine
anions and cations present in a sample.
Flame Tests:
o Flame tests were only used to identify cations.
o Anions cannot be identified by flame tests.
o Out of the given list of cations, only barium, calcium, and copper produce a distinctive flame
colour when sprayed into a flame:
Ba
2+
gives a pale-green flame.
Ca
2+
gives a brick-red flame.
Cu
2+
gives a blue-green flame.
3.2: Describe the use of atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) in detecting concentrations of metal ions in
solutions and assess its impact on scientific understanding of trace elements:
ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTROSCOPY:
A method of quantitatively determining the concentrations of metal ions in solutions; it is
extremely sensitive and measures in ppm (usually) or ppb (if a graphite furnace is used).
Developed by Australian scientist, Alan Walsh, and his CSIRO team in early 1950s.
HOW AAS WORKS:
o A hollow-cathode lamp containing the element being analysed generates wavelengths of
light specific to the metal ion being tested for. (for example, if cobalt is being tested for, a
cobalt lamp is used, where the cathode in the lamp is cobalt metal).
14
o A solution test sample being analysed is fed into a nebulizer where the liquid solution is
made into a spray or mist which is then mixed with a fuel and its oxidant (usually a mixture
of oxygen and acetylene).
o The flame vaporises the atoms in the mixture.
o The light beam is then passed through the sample which absorbs some of the light. (The
more concentrated the sample, the greater intensity of light that is absorbed).
o This changed light is passed into the monochromator which selects that specific
wavelength(s) which have been absorbed, and compares it to a reading without the
flame/atoms to determine a reading called absorbance.
o By measuring the fraction of the light at a specified wavelength that is absorbed, we can
determine the concentration of the element; absorbance is proportional to concentration,
and hence the unknown concentration of the element is determined.
Absorbance is an arbitrary unit, so the AAS device must be calibrated using standard solutions
(solutions of an element of known concentration):
prior to the unknown sample being tested, standard solutions of known concentration are
aspirated one at a time, and the light absorbed by each solution is measured and recorded. The
absorbance of the light is then graphed against the concentration of the samples. This process is
calibrating the AAS.
USES OF AAS:
o It is used to monitor concentrations of heavy-metals in the environment as well as in food,
for health and safety reasons. AAS is used as even at low concentrations these metals can
be very dangerous.
o It is used to measure concentrations of micronutrients in soils.
o Used to measure levels of pollutants in water, soil and air.
o It can determine the concentration of trace elements in living things and hence determine
the cause of deficiency-related diseases.
The Impact of AAS On Understanding of Trace Elements:
o Trace elements are elements that are needed in very small amounts by living things (in the
range of 1-100 ppm).
o Trace elements are needed in minute quantities for the proper growth, development, and
physiology of organisms.
o Common trace elements in humans are:
zinc
cobalt
copper
nickel
molybdenum
iodine, and
selenium.
o Before the invention of AAS, analytical methods were not sensitive enough to measure the
concentration of trace elements in organic samples.
o The presence of these elements were often unnoticed, and the causes of diseases relating
to trace-element deficiency (such as goitre; iodine deficiency) were unknown.
15
o AAS showed that not only that there were trace amounts of elements in all organisms, but
that these were also essential for their well-being.
o Hence, AAS had a great impact on the understanding of trace elements:
o Examples of AAS use related to trace elements:
In coastal SW Australia, animal health was very poor even though they were grazed
on seemingly good pasture. AAS showed that there were cobalt deficiencies in the
soil and the pasture, and this was corrected.
Arid areas of Victoria could not support legume crops until molybdenum deficiencies
were detected and rectified.
Before the 1930s large areas of Australia couldnt be farmed very well, even when
heavily fertilized with superphosphate. If the grass grew, sheep that fed on it grew
very patchy wool. Research using wet methods of chemistry showed that the soils
were deficient in trace elements such as Cu, Zn, Mn and Mo. As soon as these
elements were provided, farming could be established. AAS has allowed the levels of
trace elements in our soils to be more readily monitored.
3.0.5: Gather, process and present information to interpret secondary data from AAS measurements and
evaluate the effectiveness of this in pollution control:
AAS is an extremely effective tool in pollution monitoring and management.
It can be used to measure levels of pollutants in the soils, food, water and has many other
applications in relation to pollution control.
EG:
o AAS was used in Bangladesh to monitor levels of arsenic in drinking water.
o Arsenic is a serious pollutant as it is extremely toxic.
o The following AAS absorbance data was obtained by using standard solutions of arsenic of
known concentration:
Total Arsenic Concentration Absorbance
50 g/L 0.12
100 g/L 0.23
150 g/L 0.35
This data was then graphed on a calibration curve:
16
Samples of drinking water were taken and their absorbances were measured:
Sample Absorbance
1 0.28
2 0.13
3 0.31
These absorbances were then plotted on the graph, and from there the arsenic concentrations
were estimated:
o Sample 1 (124 ppb)
o Sample 2 (61 ppb)
o Sample 3 (163 ppb)
Arsenic levels higher than 100 ppb were considered polluted.
Hence, AAS is a very effective tool in pollution monitoring and control.
3.0.2: Gather, process and present information to describe and explain evidence for the need to monitor
levels of specific ions in substances used in society:
Lead:
o Lead needs to be monitored because it is a severe neurotoxin.
o It retards intellectual development in young children, causes brain damage and can lead to
neurological disorders.
o Until recently, lead was widely used as an additive in petrol; it was released in great
quantities to the atmosphere in vehicle exhausts and deposited in the environment near
highways.
o Lead also used to be found in many paints, as these were often lead-based pigments; this
lead was released into waterways, the soil and air when old houses were demolished.
o Monitoring of lead concentrations of soil near highways, in water and in the atmosphere is
essential to ensure that people are not exposed to harmful levels of toxic lead ions.
Phosphate:
o Phosphate occurs in natural waterways at low concentrations and is essential for normal
aquatic plant growth.
o However, if phosphate levels become too high, it could set off and algal bloom; this will
choke the entire waterway, as the waterway will be completely surrounded by algae and
drained of oxygen.
o This has many detrimental effects on the ecosystem living in the water.
o Hence, by monitoring the levels of phosphates in waterways and in consumer goods that
reach waterways (e.g. detergents), scientists can guard against the development of algal
blooms.
Summary of information gathered
Identify the ion chosen Lead
Why the ion needs to be monitored Lead is a toxic, heavy metal and a neurotoxin
Can cause damage to all organisms in the body,
especially the brain, kidneys and reproductive
system. It disrupts enzyme systems and causes
anaemia as it inhibits the formation of red blood
17
cells.
Causes brain damage and retards intellectual
development in young children.
Lead bioaccumulates and is difficult to eliminate
Bioaccumulation occurs along the food chain so
levels can build up in animals at the end of
chains, i.e. humans
How the ion is monitored Lead is readily detected and its concentration is
measured by AAS
Substances monitored for this ion atmosphere
waters
food
human tissues
soil
Sources of the ion in these substances Mining and refining of ores containing lead (i.e.
copper smelters)
Paints containing lead released as it
deteriorates or is sanded or burnt
Lead glazing of pottery
Corrosion of plumbing materials containing lead
Car batteries
Burning of rubbish
Incidents involving this metal Higher concentrations of lead in the atmosphere
along major roads, when lead was allowed in petrol,
and around mining towns and copper smelting,
caused lead poisoning. Children with higher than
normal lead concentrations in blood after eating
flaking paint in their homes.
3.0.3: PRACTICAL Identify data, plan and select equipment and perform first-hand investigations to
measure the sulfate content of lawn fertiliser and explain the chemistry involved:
In this practical, the sulfate content of a lawn fertiliser was calculated.
This is an example of gravimetric analysis; it is a quantitative analysis.
METHOD:
o In a dry beaker, 5 grams (0.01%) of fertilizer was electronically weighed.
o All the fertilizer was carefully transferred to a mortar and pestle, where it was ground into a
fine powder.
o The powder was transferred into a beaker; using a wash bottle with distilled water, all the
residue was washed into the beaker up to the 200 mL mark.
o 50 mL of 0.1 M hydrochloric acid was added, and the mixture stirred until all of the fertilizer
dissolved.
18
o The mixture was then heated to its boiling point; the flame was turned off, and barium
chloride was added in drops, which formed a precipitate:
BaCl
2 (aq)
+ SO
4
2-
(aq)
BaSO
4 (s)
+ 2Cl
-
(aq)
o Barium chloride was added until no more precipitate formed.
o The mixture was digested (heated just below boiling point) for 30 minutes, stirring every
now and then, and then the precipitate was allowed to settle.
o The beaker and its contents were then cooled in an ice-bath.
o Using a sintered-glass crucible (which had its mass recorded), connected to a vacuum pump,
the mixture was filtered.
o The crucible was washed with water, and then ethanol, and then dried in an oven to a
constant mass.
o The difference between the crucibles original weight and weight after drying (which was
the mass of BaSO
4
) was found to be 5.92 g.
CALCULATING SULFATE CONTENT:
mass of BaSO
4
formed = 5.92 g
percentage of sulfate in BaSO
4
= molar mass sulfate / molar mass BaSO
4
= (32.1 + 416.0) / (137.3 + 32.1 + 416.0)
= 41.2 %
mass of sulfate in BaSO
4
= 5.92 41.2 %
= 2.44 g
percentage of sulfate in fertilizer = mass of SO
4
/ mass of fertilizer 100
= 2.44 / 5.0 100
= 48.9 %
3.0.4: Analyse information to evaluate the reliability of the results of the above investigation and to
propose solutions to problems encountered in the procedure:
RELIABILITY:
o The use of a very precise electronic scale ensured accurate measurement.
o The fertilizer was ground into a powder to ensure that all of it dissolved; if some sulfate
stayed in solid form, the measurements would be inaccurate.
o The washing of the mortar and pestle into the beaker was to ensure all of the fertiliser was
transferred into the beaker.
o Hydrochloric acid was added to aid in the dissolving of the fertiliser.
o Slowly forming precipitates (using a dropper) at a high temperature ensures the formation
of large particles.
o Also, the mixture was digested for half an hour to allow the particles to grow.
o Large particle size meant fewer loses of BaSO
4
through the filter.
o The mixture was cooled in ice-water to greatly reduce the solubility of BaSO
4
to ensure that
virtually the entire sulfate precipitated out.
o A sintered-glass crucible was used instead a filter-paper as filter paper pores are too large;
they allow an unacceptable level of BaSO
4
through.
o The washing with water and ethanol removed any traces of contaminants.
19
SOLUTIONS to Problems Encountered:
o Human errors in measurement were the main source of inaccuracies; more careful
measurement of fertilizer mass, would ensure better results.
o There were small losses of barium sulfate due to its very small solubility. This was why the
beaker was cooled in ice-water before filtering (solubility decreases at low temperatures).
However, due to time constraints, cooling did not occur to a great extent.
o Longer digestion times would allow larger particles to form, and less loss of barium sulfate
through the filter would occur.
o There was possibly some barium sulfate left on the beaker walls before filtering; this would
be solved by washing out the beaker with distilled water.
o An incomplete drying of the sintered glass crucible (due to moist environment, as well as
time constraints) would be solved by a longer period of heating, as well as by using a
desiccator.
4. Human activity has caused changes in the composition and the structure of the
atmosphere. Chemists monitor these changes so that further damage can be limited
4.1: describe the composition and layered structure of the atmosphere
Name of layer Minimum and
maximum distance from
the surface of the Earth
Composition Temperature
Troposphere 0 approximately 15km Contains 90% of
atmospheric gases. 78%
N
2
, 21% O
2
, 0.9% Ar,
small amounts of other
gases such as CO
2
, Ne,
He and pollutants such
as methane and oxides
of sulfur and nitrogen.
Variable. This is where
weather is determined.
For every rise in altitude
of 1km, the temperature
drops by around 5
o
C
Stratosphere 15 50km Contains 9% of
atmospheric gases.
Nitrogen (N
2
), Oxygen
(O
2
) and Ozone (O
3
) and
-50
o
C to 30
o
C at the top.
Temperature increases
largely because of
ozone, which absorbs
20
other gases in the
troposphere
some thermal energy
from the suns radiation.
Ionosphere (made up of
the two layers called the
mesosphere and
thermosphere)
50 150km (atmosphere
gradually fades away
there is no sharp upper
boundary)
Contains 1% of
atmospheric gases. The
spacing between
molecules is even
greater at these
altitudes; the gas
particles include ions
(i.e. O
2
+
, NO
+
) together
with atoms (such as O)
and free electrons that
would not be stable at
higher altitudes.
Mesosphere:
temperature decreases
with increasing altitude
to about -120
o
C.
Thermosphere:
temperature increases
with increasing altitude.
4.2: identify the main pollutants found in the lower atmosphere and their sources
Pollution refers to an undesirable change in the physical, chemical, or biological characteristics of the natural
environment, brought about by man's activities.
The main pollutants found in the lower atmosphere and their sources:
Pollution Artificial Source Natural Source
Nitrogen oxides (NO
x
, i.e. NO,
NO
2
)
Motor vehicles, energy
production, jet engines
Biomass burning, lightning, soil
bacteria
Volatile organic compounds Unburnt fuel, solvents and paints Emitted by vegetation, i.e.
eucalypts
Carbon monoxide (CO) Motor vehicles, incomplete
combustion of fuels
Biomass burning, volcanoes,
decomposition of plants and
animals
Carbon dioxide (CO
2
) Combustion of fossil fuels in
motor vehicles and electricity
production
Biomass burning, volcanoes,
decomposition of plants and
animals
Sulfur dioxide (SO
2
) Electricity production, smelting
metal sulfide ores, combustion of
fossil fuels, sulfuric acid plants,
industries, i.e. paper and food
processing
Bacteria, volcanoes, hot springs
Particles (soot, asbestos etc) Combustion of fossil fuels,
mining, construction, incinerators
Biomass burning, soil (wind
erosion), pollen, spores
Lead Motor vehicles (with leaded
petrol), smelting metal ores,
incinerators, paint,
manufacturing, i.e. batteries
Erosion of lead ores
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Formerly in spray cans,
refrigerant/air conditioner
21
coolant, foaming agent
Ozone High voltage equipment Lightning, the reaction between
hydrocarbons and the oxides of
nitrogen under the influence of
UV light.
GAS MIXING:
o Hot air rises and cold air falls.
o For the troposphere, its bottom is warmer than its top (because temperature decreases as
altitude increases); hence, the air from the bottom is always rising to the top. That is, there
is constant mixing of gases (convection).
This means that pollutants released at the Earths surface by human activity are
rapidly dispersed throughout the stratosphere.
This is what causes the lower atmosphere to be so rapidly polluted.
o For the stratosphere, its bottom is colder than its top (because temperature increases as
altitude increases); hence, there is little movement of gases. The cold air at the bottom and
hot air at the top simply stays there.
This protects the stratosphere from pollutants released at the surface, as gas
mixing stops at the tropopause. The only way pollutants enter the stratosphere is by
slow diffusion of gases.
Pollutants are very minor constituents in the troposphere and their concentrations are usually
measured in ppm.
Pollution interferes with ecosystems and our health and quality of life:
o Sulphur dioxide: irritates the respiratory system, causes lung damage and may cause asthma.
It also contributes to acid rain.
o Nitrogen oxides: contribute to acid rain and photochemical smog; they decrease lung
function, increase susceptibility to respiratory infections and sensitivity to asthma.
o Particles: settle in the lungs and cause irritation, reduce visibility and some are carcinogenic.
o VOCs: contribute to photochemical smog and many carcinogenic.
o Carbon dioxide: greenhouse gas, contributes to global warming
o Carbon monoxide: toxic, combines with haemoglobin better than oxygen, causing
asphyxiation
o CFCs: ozone depletion in the atmosphere
4.3: describe ozone as a molecule able to act both as an upper atmosphere UV radiation shield and a lower
atmosphere pollutant
The action of ozone (as well as its value) depends greatly on where it is located.
In the upper atmosphere (stratosphere) ozone is found as the ozone layer. It is extremely crucial
part to life on Earth.
However, in the lower atmosphere (troposphere), ozone is a serious air pollutant.
Ozone in the Stratosphere:
o Ozone in the stratosphere, in the form of an ozone layer, protects us from harmful
ultraviolet radiation (UV light):
There are 3 forms of UV light; UV-A, UV-B and UV-C.
22
The ozone-layer blocks the harmful UV-B and UV-C rays from passing through the
atmosphere; these can cause many cancers and severe sunburn.
The useful UV-A (needed for photosynthesis) can still pass through.
Ozone layer in the stratosphere absorbs 97-99% of the Suns UV light
o The following equations show how ozone is formed and destroyed as well as how it protects
us from harmful UV radiation:
O
2
+ UV radiation 2O
O + O
2
O
3
O
3
+ UV radiation O + O
2
O + O
3
2O
2
o Every time an oxygen/ozone reacts with UV light, it absorbs it.
o Hence ozone can be said to be an upper atmosphere UV radiation shield.
Ozone in the Troposphere:
o However, when ozone is found in the lower atmosphere (troposphere), it is considered a
serious air pollutant.
o This is because ozone can cause serious health and environmental problems.
o HEALTH ISSUES:
Ozone is poisonous to humans; as a strong oxidant, it can react with body tissue,
especially with sensitive mucous membranes when breathed in.
Ozone causes breathing difficulties, aggravates respiratory problems and produces
headaches and premature fatigue.
o PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG:
When ozone is found as a component of smog it is a serious pollutant, and can be
very hazardous for health.
Sunlight splits nitrogen dioxide and the free radical produced joins with oxygen to
form ozone: NO
2
NO + O. Also, hydrocarbons and PAN (peroxyacyl nitrates)
can be present in the smog.
Thus ozone is both as a major pollutant, and a UV radiation shield.
o Fortunately, most ozone is located in the stratosphere.
4.4: describe the formation of a coordinate covalent bond
Non-metallic compounds contain covalent bonds. A covalent bond is a shared pair of electrons that
keeps two atoms together. Normally one atom contributes one electron and the other joined atom
contributes the other shared electron.
A coordinate covalent bond is formed when one atom donates both the electrons in the shared
pair. A lone pair from one atom forms the bond.
o Once the coordinate bond has formed, cannot be distinguished from other covalent bonds.
4.5: demonstrate the formation of coordinate covalent bonds using Lewis electron dot structures
RECALL:
23
o In LEWIS electron-dot structures, atoms are represented by their chemical symbol,
surrounded by only valence electrons; e.g. oxygen will be represented as an O surrounded
by 6 electrons (see ABOVE).
o Use different symbols for the electrons of different atoms (e.g. crosses/dots).
A coordinate-covalent bond involves one atom donating a pair of electrons to the other to form a
bond, so both can have an octet; all the electrons in the bond come from one atom:
o EXAMPLES:
o In the OZONE (O
3
) molecule, one of the oxygen atoms forms a coordinate covalent bond
with an oxygen atom:
o Ions, such as the hydronium H3O
+
and the ammonium NH
4
+
, contain a coordinate covalent
bond. In the formation of the hydronium ion, one of the non-bonding electron pairs on the
oxygen atom is used to form a covalent bond between the hydrogen ion H
+
(which has no
electrons) and the oxygen atom.
o Formation of a coordinate covalent bond in the hydronium ion:
o Formation of a coordinate covalent bond in the ammonium ion:
o TIP When asked to draw a Lewis diagram of ozone, check that all oxygen atoms have only
6 electrons of their own, but 8 electrons bonded altogether:
Left: 4 unbonded electrons + 4 electrons in covalent bond = 8
Middle: 2 unbonded + 4 in covalent bond + 2 in coordinate covalent = 8
Right: 6 unbonded + 2 in coordinate covalent = 8
4.6: compare the properties of the oxygen allotropes O
2
and O
3
and account for them on the basis of molecular
structure and bonding
Allotropes are different forms of an element made of the same type of atom, but with atoms
arranged differently. Allotropes have the same chemical properties but different physical properties.
o For example, allotropes of carbon are graphite, diamond and fullerenes.
Both oxygen gas and ozone are composed of oxygen atoms, but they are arranged differently.
Oxygen is a diatomic molecule with two atoms joined by double covalent bonds. Ozone molecules
24
have three oxygen atoms, two of them joined by double covalent bonds and one joined to the
central atom by a single coordinate bond.
Property O
2
(oxygen gas) O
3
(ozone) Explanation
State and colour Colourless gas Pale blue gas No explanation
Odour Odourless Sharp, pungent odour No explanation
Reactivity Moderately reactive.
Decomposed by high
energy UV light.
Highly reactive.
Decomposed by
medium energy UV
light.
To decompose oxygen, its double bond
has to be broken; this requires
considerable amounts of energy.
However, the single bond (coordinate
covalent bond) in ozone requires much
less energy to be broken, and hence
ozone is much less stable (readily
decomposes to O
2
).
Oxidation ability Moderately strong
oxidising agent
Very strong oxidising
agent.
The oxidising strength of ozone comes
from the weakness of the single bond; it
easily releases an oxygen atom which
can then oxidise a compound.
e.g. reaction with metals: oxygen forms
the oxide as the only product whereas
ozone reacts more readily producing the
metallic oxide and an oxygen molecule.
Solubility in water Slightly soluble 15 times more soluble
than oxygen
Non-polar O
2
does not form strong
intermolecular forces in the polar water.
Ozone has a bent structure, which
provides for some polarity of the
molecule in its interaction with water.
Effect on humans Essential for life Lethal to
microorganisms.
Causes coughing,
chest pain and rapid
heartbeat. Irritates
eyes and airways.
At concentration > 1
ppm it is toxic.
Melting point and
boiling point
MP: -218.75
o
C
BP: -182.96
o
C
MP: -192.5
o
C
BP: -110.5
o
C
The boiling point of diatomic oxygen is
lower than that of the ozone as diatomic
oxygen has a lower molecular mass
requiring less energy in the boiling
process.
Structure and
bonding
Diatomic molecule
two oxygen atoms held
together with a covalent
double bond.
Three oxygen atoms
held together with 1
double covalent bond
and 1 single
coordinate covalent
bond
Shape Molecule is linear
shape. Thus, non-polar.
Molecular shape is
bent polar molecule
25
4.7: compare the properties of the gaseous forms of oxygen and the oxygen free radical
A free radical is a reactive particle that contains one or more unpaired electrons in its outer shell.
EG: The oxygen free radical:
o The oxygen free radical has two pairs of electrons, as well as two unpaired electrons (see
diagrams); these unpaired electrons are highly reactive.
o It is basically an oxygen atom; they have the same electron configuration.
The oxygen free radical can be made either by passing electrical current through oxygen gas to
decompose it, or by exposure to U.V. radiation:
o O
2
2O
o the energy absorbed in the splitting of oxygen, and the unpaired electrons, make the free
radical very reactive.
COMPARISON:
o O
2
, O
3
and the oxygen free radical (O) are all forms of the element oxygen, but the free
radical is much more reactive and the most toxic. O
2
and O
3
are relatively stable in the
atmosphere unless acted upon by UV, but the free radical only lives briefly, once formed it
immediately reacts.
4.8: identify the origins of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons in the atmosphere
Chloroflurocarbons (CFCs) are halogenated alkanes with all hydrogens substituted with chlorine
and fluorine atoms, i.e. dichlorofluromethane and 1,1,2,2-tetrachloro-1,2-difluroethane.
o they are man-made (synthetic) chemical compounds.
o DO NOT CONTAIN HYDROGEN AT ALL
o CFCs were introduced in the 1930s (known as freons) as replacements for ammonia in
refrigeration:
This was because had the required pressure-dependent properties that refrigerants
needed, as well as that they were odourless, non-flammable, non-toxic and inert,
much unlike the toxic, foul-smelling ammonia.
o CFCs were very widely used as:
Refrigerants in fridges and air-conditioners
Propellants in aerosol spray cans
Foaming agents in the manufacture of foam plastics like polystyrene
Cleaning agents in electronic circuitry
Solvents in dry cleaning
o These many uses released CFCs directly into the lower atmosphere.
o As they were very inert and insoluble in water (rain), they remained in the troposphere,
where air convection spread them throughout the atmosphere.
26
o Very slowly, the CFCs began to diffuse through the tropopause and into the stratosphere,
where problems began to occur.
Halons are halogenated alkanes with hydrogens substituted with bromine in addition to chlorine
and fluorine atoms, i.e. bromotrifluromethane, bromochlorodifluromethane.
o They are dense, non-flammable liquids that were widely used as effective fire-extinguishers
(called BCF fire-extinguishers) because of their excellent fire retardant properties.
o As they were used onto fires, the halons were released directly into the atmosphere, where
they too slowly diffused into the stratosphere.
o Halon use has been dramatically reduced because the bromine molecules are even more
effective than chlorine atoms in the chain reactions that lead to the depletion of the ozone
layer.
Because both halons and CFCs are so inert, they remain in the atmosphere unchanged for many
years.
27
4.9: identify and name examples of isomers (excluding geometrical and optical) of haloalkanes up to eight
carbon atoms
A haloalkane is an alkane with one or more halogen (elements in group 7) atoms replacing
hydrogen atoms.
Naming Haloalkanes:
o Use prefixes for the halogen group i.e. fluro-, chloro-, bromo-, iodo-
o If more than one type of halogen atom is present, list them in alphabetical order
o Use di, tri, tetra when there is more than one atom of any halogen
o Number the carbon chain, giving the lowest set of numbers to the halogens present
o If the numbers are the same from both ends of the chain, then give the first named halogen
the lowest number
Isomers:
o Isomers are compounds that have the same molecular formula, but a different structural
formula (different arrangement of atoms).
o Carbon compounds, such as haloalkanes are able to form many different isomers:
Molecules of alkanes and alkenes containing less than 4 carbon atoms can only
assume one possible structure.
Molecules larger than and including butane and butane have various isomers the
number of which increases with increasing molecular size.
o Due to the differences in the arrangement of the atoms, isomers have different chemical
and physical properties, and hence it is vital that these differences in structure are reflected
in systematic names.
o EG: Draw 4 isomers of C
4
H
7
ClF
2
and name them using IUPAC nomenclature:
2-chloro-1,3-difluorobutane.
4-chloro-1,1-difluorobutane.
1-chloro-1,1-difluorobutane.
1-chloro-1,1-difluoro-2-methylpropane.
28
4.10: discuss the problems associated with the use of CFCs and assess the effectiveness of steps taken to
alleviate these problems
CFCs were widely used for 50 years
The biggest problem associated with the use of CFCs is the destruction of stratospheric ozone (i.e.
depletion of the ozone layer) and the greenhouse effect:
o CFCs are very inert, and are not washed out by rain.
o CFCs remain in the troposphere for many years, because they are very stable, and
eventually diffuse into the stratosphere.
CFCs are broken down by the presence of UV radiation in the atmosphere (photo
dissociation), releasing halogen free radicals.
These free radicals can then react with ozone, destroying it.
o This increases the UV radiation penetrating the Earth, leading to:
increases in sunburn and skin cancer
damage to plants
possible harmful effects on sensitive ecosystems, such as those found in the
Antarctic
the breaking down of chemical bonds, in particular in biological polymers like DNA
and proteins, causing considerable damage to living systems
increases in eye cataracts
increased rate of deterioration of synthetic polymers left in the sin
damage to aquatic plants and animals
decreases in phytoplankton
decreases in crop productivity
o The production and destruction of ozone is an equilibrium process until the release of
CFCs
o CFCs catalyse the destruction of ozone depleting the layer faster than it can be made
naturally, and hence they decrease the amount of shielding against UV radiation.
How CFCs Destroy The Ozone Layer:
o Firstly, short wavelength UV radiation (that has not been removed by the ozone layer)
attacks the CFC molecule and breaks off a chlorine atom:
CCl
2
F
2 (g)
+ UV radiation Cl
(g)
+ CClF
2 (g)
o The chlorine radical reacts with ozone, forming oxygen gas, and a chlorine monoxide radical:
Cl
(g)
+ O
3 (g)
ClO
(g)
+ O
2 (g)
o The chlorine monoxide radical then reacts with an oxygen radical, and the chlorine radical is
regenerated:
ClO
(g)
+ O
(g)
Cl
(g)
+ O
2 (g)
o The net result is that an ozone molecule and an oxygen radical have been converted into 2
oxygen molecules AND the chlorine has not been used up.
o The chlorine radical can then attack another ozone molecule and repeat the whole process
thousands of times; this is a chain reaction.
o Thus, a very small amount of CFC in the stratosphere can do significant damage.
How Chlorine Radicals Are Removed:
o According to the above, theoretically, a single chlorine atom could destroy the entire ozone-
layer; however certain natural reactions remove this radical.
29
o The chlorine atom reacts with stratospheric methane, ending the chain reaction:
Cl
(g)
+ CH
4 (g)
HCl
(g)
+ CH
3 (g)
o Neither HCl nor the methyl-radical has any effect on ozone.
o Another important reaction for stopping ozone depletion involves the ClO species reacting
with nitrogen dioxide, forming chlorine nitrate:
ClO
(g)
+ NO
2 (g)
ClONO
2 (g)
The Greenhouse effect:
o The greenhouse effect is the heating of the Earth as a consequence of some gases in the
atmosphere which absorb and emit infrared radiation. Without these gases, heat would
escape back into space and Earths average temperature would be much colder. Because of
how they warm our world, these gases are referred to as greenhouse gases.
o CFCs are greenhouse gases
o Many people are worried that all of the extra greenhouse gases being generated because of
human activities might increase the greenhouse effect causing more heat to be retained by
the Earth, leading to global warming
The Antarctic Spring Ozone Hole:
o There is a serious periodic depletion of the ozone-layer that occurs every spring over
Antarctica; it is called the Ozone Hole.
o This is due to the conditions of Antarctica in winter, as well as spring.
o Antarctic winters are perpetually dark; the cold conditions, as well as solid particulate
catalysts in the air, encourage the following reaction to occur:
HCl
(g)
+ ClONO
2 (g)
Cl
2 (g)
+ HNO
3 (g)
o This has zero effect on ozone levels during the winter.
o However during early spring, the Sun begins to rise, and the situation changes dramatically;
sunlight is able to split chlorine molecules:
Cl
2 (g)
+ UV radiation 2Cl
(g)
o Hence in spring there is another source of chlorine radicals to destroy more ozone; the
concentration of ozone is reduced dramatically, causing a hole.
o Eventually, the fixed amount of Cl
2
created over the winter is blown away by Antarctic winds
and the ozone layer slowly regenerates.
Dealing With The CFC Problem:
o The only way to stop ozone depletion is to STOP releasing CFCs of any form.
o INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS:
The main way the CFC problem is being dealt with is by international agreements
based on the common goal of phasing out CFCs.
The Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer (1987) is an
international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the
production of a number of substances believed to be responsible for ozone
depletion.
Its goals included ceasing the manufacture, and banning the use, of CFCs and certain
haloalkanes by 1996, the end of halon use by 1994, the phasing out of HCFCs, as well
as the provision of financial assistance to developing nations in order to help them
reach the goals of Montreal.
30
o CFC REPLACEMENTS:
Finding alternative compounds to fulfil the roles of CFCs is a major step forward in
preventing ozone depletion.
Alternatives include:
Replacing CFC aerosols propellants with hydrocarbons and the use of normal
pressure packs
Alternative chemicals:
o HCFCs are less damaging to the ozone layer than CFCs because they
have more reactive carbon-hydrogen bonds and so react before they
can diffuse into the stratosphere. HCFCs that do diffuse into the
stratosphere will be a source of chlorine radicals
o HFCs do not contain chlorine and so do not deplete the ozone layer
even if they are released into the stratosphere. HFCs are the best
chemicals to replace CFCs.
o they also contribute less to global warming
o Dealing With Increased UV Radiation:
Increasing UV levels have meant that more UV inhibitors need to be included in
polymers (such as PVC) and Cancer Councils have advised the use of only sunscreens
with a rating of SPF 30+ or greater.
Effectiveness of These Solutions:
o The Montreal Protocol is only effective if member nations ratify the protocol and adhere to
its regulations; so far, the Montreal Protocol has been a huge success in international
agreement and environmental health.
o Certain CFC replacements are not as effective as the CFCs themselves; future technological
advancement hopes to find better replacements.
o There are still, however, significant levels of CFCs in the atmosphere, and current
technology has no way of removing them.
4.0.1: present information from secondary sources to write the equations to show the reactions involving
CFCs and ozone to demonstrate the removal of ozone from the atmosphere
All the CFC-related equations from above:
o Formation of chlorine radical:
CCl
2
F
2 (g)
+ UV radiation Cl
(g)
+ CClF
2 (g)
o Reaction of ozone:
Cl
(g)
+ O
3 (g)
ClO
(g)
+ O
2 (g)
o Regeneration of chlorine:
ClO
(g)
+ O
(g)
Cl
(g)
+ O
2 (g)
o Removal of chlorine radical:
Cl
(g)
+ CH
4 (g)
HCl
(g)
+ CH
3 (g)
o Removal of chlorine monoxide radical:
ClO
(g)
+ NO
2 (g)
ClONO
2 (g)
o Formation of molecular chlorine:
HCl
(g)
+ ClONO
2 (g)
Cl
2 (g)
+ HNO
3 (g)
o Decomposition of molecular chlorine:
31
Cl
2 (g)
+ UV radiation 2Cl
(g)
Since the chlorine atom is not being used up in the above reactions, it is able to attack more ozone
molecules, and continue breaking ozone up indefinitely. This continues like a chain reaction until
the chlorine reacts with nitrogen or hydrogen forming compounds such as ClONO
2
and HCl
4.11: analyse the information available that indicates changes in atmospheric ozone concentrations,
describe the changes observed and explain how this information was obtained
How Are Ozone Levels Measured?
o Stratospheric ozone levels are measured from ground-based instruments, from instruments
in satellites and from instruments in weather-balloons.
Ozone levels are measured in Dobson Units (DU) the lower the DU, the less ozone
is present/the lower the concentration of ozone
One Dobson Unit is equivalent to about 2.69 1016 ozone molecules in a column
with a cross section of 1 square centimetre.
The instrument that measures ozone concentrations in Dobson units is called the
Dobson spectrophotometer. It works by measuring the intensity of sunlight at two
wavelengths that are absorbed by ozone, and two that aren't.
o The measurements made indicate that changes in ozone levels have occurred.
o GROUND-BASED:
The ground-based instruments used are UV spectrophotometers that are able to
measure the intensity of light at specific wavelengths.
These instruments are pointed directly upwards towards the sky and are set to
measure light intensity at the wavelengths of light at which ozone absorbs (such as
UV-B and UV-C) and at wavelengths on either side (for light which ozone does not
absorb).
A comparison of these 2 measurements gives a measure of the total ozone in the
atmosphere per unit of area of Earth surface at that location.
o BALLOON-BASED:
These spectrophotometers can also be placed in high-altitude weather balloons that
can rise above the stratosphere.
The instruments are pointed downwards, and measure ozone from above.
o SATELLITE-BASED:
TOMS (total ozone mapping spectrophotometers):
used on board probe satellites
They measure the total ozone in a column of atmosphere below it by
comparing the UV radiation coming from the column of atmosphere below
with the UV radiation directly coming from the sun. The data is usually
presented as a computer generated colour map.
TOMS are able to scan the entire globe and measure ozone concentrations as
a function of altitude and geographical location.
TOMS are no longer used since a failure in 2006, OMI is now used
OMI (Ozone Mapping Instrument)
modified spectrophotometer
32
The Changes Observed:
o Measurements of the total amount of ozone in a column of atmosphere have been
recorded since 1957.
o The main depletion of ozone has occurred over the Antarctic.
o Scientists identified that a dramatic decline in springtime ozone occurred from the late
1970s over the entire Antarctic. The decline reached approximately 30% by 1985. In some
places, the ozone layer had been completely destroyed.
o The ozone decline over Antarctica during springtime is now not so dramatic, but often
exceeds 50%.
4.0.2: gather, process and present information from secondary sources including simulations, molecular
model kits or pictorial representations to model isomers of haloalkanes
In this experiment, molecular modelling kits were used to show different isomers of a haloalkane.
The class was divided into groups, and each group was provided with a kit.
Each group was provided with a haloalkane, which they were require to draw structural formula for,
and then using the kit, 3 different isomers were formed.
JUSTIFY the method:
o The models created a good visual 3D representation of a chemical property; that is,
isomerism.
RESULTS:
o Four isomers of C
4
H
7
ClF
2
with their IUPAC names:
o
2-chloro-1,3-difluorobutane.
o
4-chloro-1,1-difluorobutane.
33
1-chloro-1,1-difluorobutane.
o
1-chloro-1,1-difluoro-2-methylpropane.
4.0.3: present information from secondary sources to identify alternative chemicals used to replace CFCs
and evaluate the effectiveness of their use as a replacement for CFCs
Ammonia:
o Large scale (industrial) refrigeration has reverted back to using ammonia as a refrigerant, as
was done prior to the discovery of CFCs.
o However, great care is exercised, as ammonia is dangerous and toxic.
HCFCs:
o Hydro chlorofluorocarbons are CFCs that contain hydrogen.
o These were the first replacements for CFCs.
o HCFCs contain CH bonds that are susceptible to attack by reactive radicals in the
troposphere and so are decomposed rapidly to a significant extent.
o This means that only a very small proportion ever reaches the stratosphere.
o HCFCs replaced CFCs in domestic refrigeration, as propellants in spray cans, as an industrial
solvent and as a foaming agent.
o Effectiveness:
Small amounts of HCFCs do reach the stratosphere, and hence they are also ozone-
depleting (10% the ozone-depleting potential of CFCs).
They are seen as only a temporary solution.
HCFCs also contribute massively to the greenhouse effect, and so their use is being
phased out (complete ban by 2030).
HFCs:
o Hydro fluorocarbons are compounds that contain only carbon, hydrogen and fluorine (NO
chlorine or bromine).
o They are widely seen as a viable CFC and HCFC alternative, as they contain reactive CH
bonds (so they degrade in troposphere) as well as the fact that they do not contain any
chlorine (and hence cannot form Cl radicals).
o Their ozone depleting potential is zero.
o HFCs are very widely used in refrigeration and air-conditioning applications.
o Effectiveness:
As they have zero ozone-depleting potential, HFCs are a good alternative to using
CFCs in terms of atmospheric health.
However, they are not as effective refrigerants as CFCs, and are slightly more
expensive.
They are also strong greenhouse gases, and so further research is required.
34
5. Human activity also impacts on waterways. Chemical monitoring and management assists in providing
safe water for human use and to protect the habitats of other organisms
5.1: identify that water quality can be determined by considering: concentrations of common ions, total
dissolved solids, hardness, turbidity, acidity, dissolved oxygen and biochemical oxygen demand
Water quality can be determined by considering the following factors:
o Concentrations of common ions:
CATIONS:
Most common cations in water: Na
+
, Mg
2+
, Ca
2+
, K
+
, Sr
2+
, Fe
3+
Other metal ions are analysed routinely, like Al
3+
, which is mobilised by
increased acidity, toxic heavy metals, like Hg
2+
, Pb
2+
, and Cd
2+
, and As
(arsenic) in its various forms.
AAS is the preferred method for determining the concentrations of most of
these ions.
ANIONS:
Most common anions in water: Cl
-
, SO
4
2-
, HCO
3
-
Chloride: gravimetric analysis is used to determine chloride levels by
precipitation as AgCl. Alternatively, volumetric analysis can be used by
titration with AgNO
3
solution.
Sulfate: concentration usually determined gravimetrically as BaSO
4
Hydrogen carbonate: concentration determined volumetrically by titration
with standard HCl
Relative concentrations of ions in water depend on three factors:
their prevalence in the Earths crust
their solubilities, and
the degree to which they are extracted from the water by living things
Factors affecting solubility of substances in water:
the nature of the solute ionic, covalent network, covalent molecular either
polar or non-polar (water is a good solute for ionic and polar substances)
temperature the solubilities of most solids increase with increasing
temperature; the solubilities of gases decrease with increasing temperature
gas pressure the solubilities of gases are directly proportional to the
pressure of the gas above the water
The concentrations of sodium and chloride are important indicators of the salinity of
the water system; any significant change in salinity (increase or decrease) can greatly
affect aquatic life.
Magnesium and calcium ions are measured to indicate water hardness, which is
covered in more detail below.
Phosphate and nitrate ions are essential to aquatic life; however, excess levels these
ions leads to eutrophication and algal blooms, destroying waterways.
o Total dissolved solids
TDS are usually ionic salts
TDS is commonly referred to as measuring the salinity of the water
35
high concentrations are usually uninhabitable for many species contrastingly, some
species can only live in a marine or brackish environment
MEASURMENT:
TDS determined by evaporation of a filtered sample and weighing the
remaining solids concentrations measured in ppm or mg L
-1
alternative method: measure the electrical conductivity of the water using a
conductivity meter and estimate the TDS based on a series of standards
o Hardness:
hard water is water that contains significant concentrations of calcium and
magnesium ions together with hydrocarbonate, sulfate and chloride ions
temporary hardness: hardness that can be removed by boiling the water. It is
caused by the presence of calcium and magnesium hydrogen carbonate.
These form the insoluble carbonate when heated, thus removing calcium ions
from the water.
permanent hardness: caused by the presence of heat stable salts such as
sulphates. These cannot be removed by boiling. Permanently hard water can
be softened by adding sodium phosphate (calogen) or sodium carbonate
(washing soda).
Advantages of hard water:
the scum that builds up inside pipes helps prevent metals leaching from old
pipes or joints into the water supply
some industries, such as the brewing industry, prefer hard water
Ca for growth of strong bones and teeth
Disadvantages of hard water:
difficult to lather, leaving scum on the washing
calcium carbonate deposits inside hot water systems and pipes, eventually
blocking the flow of water
How to turn hard water into soft water: ion exchange process
in an ion exchange process hard water is passed through a bed of sodium
zeolite and calcium and magnesium ions in the water are removed and
replaced by sodium ions in the zeolites, leaving soft water. A deioniser is an
ion exchanger containing zeolites that softens water by replacing either
calcium and magnesium ions with hydrogen ions or negative ions with
hydroxide ions.
NOTE desalination is a technique that may also be used but is not currently
viable due to the excessive amount of energy required
MEASUREMENT:
concentrations of calcium and magnesium ions in a water sample can be
determined by volumetric analysis by titration with ethylenediaminetraacetic
36
acid (EDTA) the EDTA forms stables complexes with calcium and
magnesium ions
o hardness of water is usually reported as mg L
-1
or ppm CaCO
3
assuming all the calcium ions are present as calcium carbonate and no
magnesium ions are present
can also be assessed qualitively using height of the lather head technique
o Turbidity
turbidity is a measure of suspended solids in water
sources of suspended solids include clay, silt, plankton, industrial wastes, sewage
high turbidity is a problem:
reduces the penetration of sunlight, reducing the effectiveness of aquatic
plants photosynthesis, affecting oxygen concentration and pH
suspended sediment can carry nutrients and pesticides into waterways
small particles in the upper layers of a water body can absorb infra-red
radiation from sunlight, raising water temperature
suspended solids also affect animals i.e. they smother oysters, clog fish gills
and make it difficult for predators to find food
MEASUREMENT
can be measured visibly (qualitive test)
can be measured using a turbidity or Secci disk the disk is lowered into the
body of water until the cross or mark can no longer be seen; the greater the
concentration of the suspended solids in the water, the more quickly the
mark will disappear as the disk is lowered
can be measured by pouring water into a turbidity tube which allows
turbidity to be measured in NTU. Potable (drinking water) needs to have a
reading lower than 3 NTU
o Acidity
the pH of an aquatic system depends on the source of the water, the geology of the
catchment and levels of biological activity within the system
good indicator of the water bodies health
changes in acidity/alkalinity affect the usability of the water
MEASUREMENT
pH probe or universal indicator may be used
potable water needs to have a pH range between 6.5 and 8.5
o Dissolved oxygen
the concentration of dissolved oxygen in an aquatic ecosystem is an excellent
indicator of its health dissolved oxygen is sensitive to temperature, the presence of
organic wastes and the overall health of the system
imperative because aquatic organisms require oxygen to survive
two main sources of dissolved oxygen:
dissolved from the atmosphere which is mixed through the water body by
turbulence created by wind, water flow and thermal currents
37
oxygen produced by photosynthesis by aquatic plants, algae and
phytoplankton
low levels of dissolved oxygen are often an indicator of pollution
MEASUREMENT:
Winkler method titration (quantitive)
meter with calibrated O
2
sensitive electrode (quantitive)
special tablets can be used that dissolve in water and change colour
depending on the level of dissolved oxygen (qualitive)
o Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
BOD is a method of assessing the capacity of the organic matter in a water sample to
consume oxygen
also in indirect measure of organic waste present in the water
MEASUREMENT
assessing the quantity of oxygen used up in decomposing the organic matter
the BOD test uses anaerobic organisms to decompose (oxidise) the organic
matter over a five day period at 25
o
C
o the difference between the dissolved oxygen levels at
commencement and at the end of the five day period represents the
BOD of the sample
o water samples in excess of 4ppm are regarded as being likely polluted
o Nitrogen to phosphorus ratio:
Because of the excessive nutrient inputs into our aquatic systems, it is imperative for
chemists to regularly monitor their levels and identify their major sources.
Both nitrogen and phosphorous are essential for the growth of plants and plants
differ in their requirements for these elements. If the N:P ratio is >10:1, or if N and P
respectively > 1 and 0.1 ppm, then eutrophication tends to occur.
Thus, the NSW EPA recommends a N:P ratio of >10:1, total nitrogen in the
range of 0.1-1 ppm and total phosphorous in the range 0.01-0.01 ppm
MEASUREMENT:
Nitrate and other ionic forms of nitrogen (inc. NO
2
-
and NH
4
+
) are generally
analysed by visible spectrometry following the addition of particular reagents
Alternatively, (school lab) drop a few drops of sulfuric acid and a small piece
of copper foil to 1mm of the sample. This is then heated gently in a fume
hood and brown fumes of noxious nitrogen dioxide should result.
Phosphate analysed by visible spectrometry; depends on the addition of a
particular reagent that forms a coloured complex in the presence of a
phosphate ion.
38
5.2: identify factors that affect the concentrations of a range of ions in solution in natural bodies of water
such as rivers and oceans
Ion concentration in solutions of natural water bodies (i.e. rivers, lakes, oceans) are affected by a
number of factors, both natural and unnatural
o Natural Sources of Ions:
rocks and soils of over which the river flows. i.e. water which contains dissolved
carbon dioxide will be acidic enough to dissolve carbonates from rocks such as
limestone:
CaCO
3(s)
+ 2H
2
CO
3
CO
2(g)
+ H
2
O
(l)
+ Ca(HCO
3
)
2(aq)
If rain falls on bushland, and then runs-off into streams and rivers, it will only pick up
small amounts of nitrates and phosphates from surface nutrients, as well as some
Mg2+ and Ca2+ from minerals; TDS will be low (50).
If rain soaks into the ground and flows into aquifers (layers of permeable rock) and
then into rivers, the water will have increased levels of Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl-, SO42- and
CO32- which are dissolved from the soils and rocks the water flows through. TDS will
be moderate (200).
If water seeps down into rocks (percolates) in deep underground basins (artesian
basins) and only reaches the surface centuries later, then the levels of the above ions
will increase massively, as may contain other ions (such as Fe3+, Mn2+, Cu2+ and
Zn2+. TDS values are very high (>1000).
o Land Clearing:
When land is cleared of vegetation, the soil loses the stabilising effects of plant roots
and so soil is easily moved and displaced.
If rain flows over cleared land, it will disturb dirt and sediment and carry it into the
water body it flows into (this will greatly increase TURBIDITY).
The level of dissolved solids and ions (TDS) will increase, due to high levels of mineral
ions in the soils (such as Na+, K+ etc.)
o Agriculture:
When rain flows over land used for the growing of crops and pasture-land it leads to
increased levels of phosphates and nitrates due to fertilizer run-off.
The turbidity will also increase, as well as the BOD, as organic matter (such as animal
faeces) enters the water-ways.
o Raw Sewage and Other Effluents:
Raw sewage, if discharged directly into the water, will greatly increase the levels of
many ions (especially nutrient ions such as nitrates and phosphates).
Sewage can increase a water-ways TDS by 200 or more; it also greatly increases
turbidity, BOD and pathogen levels.
Stormwater run-off in urban areas can also carry high levels of ions.
Industrial effluent as well as leaching from rubbish dumps can increase the levels of
dangerous HEAVY-METAL ions in water (such as Hg2+ and Cd2+).
o Other factors:
Discharge of wastes from mines, power stations and other industries
Increased soil salinity due to irrigation, clearing of land, water logging of soil and
rising water tables
39
Solubility of a substance. The solubility of most substances increases with
temperature and can vary with pH (i.e. aluminium becomes more soluble in acidic
water)
Rate of river flow
Gases from the atmosphere dissolving in falling rain
5.3: describe and assess the effectiveness of methods used to purify and sanitise mass water supplies
TREATMENT OF DRINKING WATER:
Monitoring Catchment:
o The first step to ensure water used for human use is clean is to ensure that the area the
water flows over (the CATCHMENT area) is kept clean.
o This involves banning any land-clearing, swimming, boating, industry and agriculture in the
entire catchment area, to prevent sediment, animal waste or bacteria to build up in water
supplies.
o EFFECTIVENESS:
This is a very cheap and effective way of ensuring the purity of water for human use;
by removing the sources of contamination, purity is ensured.
Screening:
o Before the water from catchment areas is allowed to enter treatment plants or storage
dams, it is passed through metal screens that remove large debris such as sticks, leaves,
trash and other large particles which may interfere with subsequent purification steps
o EFFECTIVENESS:
This step is effective for its purpose, but more treatment is needed.
Flocculation:
o Some suspended particles (called colloidal particles) cause water to become turbid, but are
too small to be removed by conventional filtration.
o During flocculation, chemicals, such as iron (III) chloride and aluminium hydroxide and a
cationic polymer, are added to coagulate the fine particles together, forming larger particles,
which can then be removed by filtration.
NOTE: the precipitate is first formed as very tiny particles, but as the water is gently
agitated or stirred, the particles flocculate into larger particles.
o EFFECTIVENESS:
Flocculation removes most of the suspended particles, as well as bacteria, which are
caught up in the particle aggregates. It is very cost-effective, and relatively fast.
Clarification or Sedimentation:
o Water that has been flocculated is then allowed to settle in large tanks; this causes the dirt
and other particles to fall to the bottom of the tank as sludge, where it is removed.
o The clear water is then pumped to the filtration systems.
o EFFECTIVENESS:
Sedimentation employs a natural force (i.e. gravity) to separate the sludge from
clean water, and so reduces plant running costs.
The slow speed of sedimentation may affect its effectiveness.
40
Filtration:
o Water from the settling tank is then passed through a 2m deep filter bed of fine sand and
gravel; removing the rest of the particulate matter, as well as the material that did not settle
to the bottom of the tank.
o Over 300 000 small nozzles, under the sand bed, filter 24m
3
of water per square meter of
sand per hour. They are cleaned by backwashing with water and air to remove solid
particles. These settle out in tanks, are centrifuged and dried, then used for compost.
o Sometimes anthracite (metamorphic coal) is added to the filter beds, as it adsorbs organic
matter and removes odours.
o EFFECTIVENESS:
Sand filtration removes a high proportion of the particulate matter that aggregated
during flocculation, however extremely small particles are not removed (such as
some bacteria and viruses).
It is suitable for providing water to urbanised areas.
Chlorination and Fluoridation:
o Following filtration, chlorine gas is bubbled through the water to destroy any residual
bacteria and prevent the growth of algae in pipes. Chlorine reacts with water as shown:
The hypochlorite ion (OCl
-
) can kill disease causing agents, such as bacteria and some
viruses.
o The quantity of chlorine added is dependent on the quality of the water.
o Monitoring of the microorganisms in water before it is chlorinated and the use of an
automatic metering device constantly alter the amount of chlorine added. As a result, the
water from household taps can at times have a very strong chlorine smell though not at
other times.
o Fluoride is added as Na
2
SiF
6
or NaF to reduce dental decay in children.
o EFFECTIVENESS:
Chlorination is an effective way of removing most pathogenic organisms, but, it is
not so effective at killing viruses
Also, chlorine may impart an unpleasant odour on the water.
Fluoridation has proved an effective method to increase tooth hardness.
Alternative - Membrane Filters:
o All the above are the steps taken to sanitize water in most Australian plants.
o Alternatively, membrane filters can be used, which would replace many of the steps used
above.
o Membrane filters would remove the need for flocculation, sedimentation, sand filtration
and also chlorination, because:
Their pore size is sufficiently small to remove suspended particles.
Membranes are very thin and allow the use of pressurization; this greatly speeds up
the process, and hence removes the need for sedimentation.
Sand filtration is a slow process that membrane filtration supersedes.
o Membrane filters can remove all bacteria AND viruses, as these organisms are much too
large to fit through the pores of a membrane filter.
41
However, membrane filters are considerably more expensive than current methods used, and so
their use is limited by costs.
CHLORINATION OF SWIMMING POOLS
o Because of their oxidising ability, chlorine and hypochlorites are also used extensively in
sterilising swimming pool water, the treatment of waste water, and many household
disinfectants and bleaches.
o Municipal water supplies and public swimming pools are usually treated with metered doses
of free chlorine gas. In domestic swimming pools, calcium hypochlorite granules or sodium
hypochlorite solution are often used
Both chlorine and hypochlorite react with water to form hypochlorous acid which
kills microorganisms.
o Alternative: Ozone treatment
More expensive treatment, but more effective.
Ozone must be produced on the site it is to be used as it is very reactive.
5.4: describe the design and composition of microscopic membrane filters and explain how they purify
contaminated water
Australia is a very dry continent, suffering regular droughts and hence, an unreliable water supply.
To conserve water in the future, as population increases, it will be necessary to recycle water,
desalinate sea water or even to treat sewage and bring it back to potable water. One possible
technique is membrane filtration.
A membrane filter is basically a thin film of synthetic polymer throughout which there are small
pores of uniform size.
They are made from polymers such as cellulose acetate, PVC and polypropylene.
Filters are classified according to the size of their pores, as this determines what type of particles
can pass through.
MEMBRANE FILTERS:
o There are many designs in which the filter can be formed; this depends on the purpose for
which the filter was made.
o Filters can be classified according to the size of their pores and hence the particles they
remove.
o Depth Filters:
Made of fibrous materials compressed together to form a maze of flow channels in a
thick mat that traps particles
Used as pre-filters as they can remove a large load of suspended solids economically
o Surface Filters:
Thin sheet of filter-membrane folded around a hollow core (such as a thin tube) and
surrounded by a casing.
When water is pumped in at one end and flows over the polymer sheets at right
angles, exiting via the hollow core.
o Screen Filters:
Design involves forming the membranes into capillaries (tiny tubes) with a diameter
of about 500 m.
42
Millions of capillary pores are in each square centimetre of filter, allowing for a very
fast flow rate. s are bounded together to form a filtering unit that has a very large
surface area.
Water is passed over the surface of the capillary and clean water passes through to
the middle of the capillary and flows out.
Types of screen filters:
Microfiltration: can remove inorganic and biological particles including
suspended solids, algae, protozoans such as giardia and cryptosporidium and
fecal bacteria such as Ecoli.
Ultrafiltration (10
-8
m): can remove viruses and some metal ions.
Nanofiltration (10
-9
m): can remove metal ions, thus can reduce hardness as
well as some toxic heavy metals.
ADVANTAGES OF MEMBRANE FILTERS:
o Operation is not expensive
o Heavy metals could be removed and recycled
o Ensure tiny micro-organisms such as the escape of gardia and cryptosporidium are kept out
of our water supply
o Could be used to purify catchment water and also water from households and industry to be
recycled
ensuring water supply during droughts
DISADVANTAGES OF MEMBRANE FILTERS:
o High cost to purchase and install
o Need for regular cleaning
5.0.1: perform first-hand investigations to use qualitative and quantitative tests to analyse and compare
the quality of water samples
PRACTICAL ONE:
Analysing and comparing the quality of water samples
o We were supplied with three water samples, labelled A, B and C
o We then tested for chlorine ions, hardness, acidity (pH), temperature and turbidity
Test Bottle A Bottle B Bottle C
Turbidity look at the
bottles against a white
background and determine
extent of turbidity
No turbidity No turbidity High turbidity
water murky, hence,
suspended solids
clearly seen
Temperature place a
thermometer into each
bottle, wait for 1 minute
19.8
o
C 19.8
o
C 19.5
o
C
Acidity (pH) add 3 drops
universal indicator to
separate test tubes of the
solutions (all standard
amounts of solution), check
pH 11 pH 7 pH 7
43
pH with a universal indicator
chart
Chloride ions add 5 drops
AgNo
3
to solution
Large amount of
precipitate
Small amount of
precipitate
Moderate amount of
precipitate
Hardness add one drop of
liquid soap to half a test tube
worth of water, shake for 30
seconds
Most hard (smallest
lather head)
Moderately hard
(moderate height
of lather head)
Least hard (most
height of lather
head)
JUSTIFICATION:
o This method gave us a qualitive representation to compare the three water samples
o Our results we found, particularly for the pH test, were unreliable as there was
discrimination as to what the pH of the samples were
o Our results also contradicted the solutions that they were supposed to be:
Bottle A deionised water
Bottle B sodium chloride solution
Bottle C tap water
o We have since assumed the equipment we used was contaminated
PRACTICAL TWO:
Solids in water:
Aim: to find quantitively the amount of suspended and dissolved solids in a sample of water.
Materials:
o Samples of water Balance
o Standard laboratory glassware
o Filter grade filter paper
o Hotplate
Safety:
o Do not burn yourself with hot evaporating basins, hotplates or other equipment.
Method:
o To determine total suspended solids:
o Weigh a fine grade filter paper and evaporating basin as accurately as possible.
o Filter 400mL of the water sample.
o Place the filter paper into the evaporating basin. Heat the filter paper and basin to a
constant mass as gently as possible on a hotplate; this ensures that the filter paper wont
burn and the suspended matter wont vaporise. Record the final mass.
o Calculate the mass of the suspended matter per litre of water.
o To determine the total dissolved solids:
o Weigh, as accurately as possible, two clean and dry 250mL beakers.
o Place 100mL of the filtered samples into each beaker.
o Using hotplates, slowly heat the samples to dryness. Do not let the beakers get to hot as
they may crack, the contents may spit or you may vaporise some of the dissolved solids.
Find a way to protect the samples from dust in the laboratory.
o When cool, reweigh the beakers and find the mass of dissolved matter per 100mL of water.
Average the results.
44
Results:
o Suspended solids:
o Filter paper and evaporating basin initial: 54.97g
o Filter paper and evaporating basin final: 55.03g
Therefore, 0.06g of suspended solids per 400mL
Therefore, 0.15g of suspended solids per 100mL
Class average: 0.158g/L
o Total dissolved solids:
o Beaker one initial: 92.04g
o Beaker one final: 92.08g
Difference: 0.04g
o Beaker two initial: 93.31g
o Beaker two final: 93.33g
Difference 0.02g
o Average: 0.03g/100mL
o
Conclusion:
o In our sample of water we measured it to contain 150ppm suspended solids and 300ppm
total dissolved solids.
o Our results do not seem to be valid because we should have found there to be a greater
concentration of suspended solids than TDS. Our filter paper allowed small particles to pass
through. Thus, to increase accuracy we should have used two filter papers in the first
experiment. Filtering a greater volume of water would also have increased our accuracy.
5.0.2: gather, process and present information on the range and chemistry of the tests used to: identify
heavy metal pollution of water, monitor possible eutrophication of waterways
Heavy metal pollution of water:
o Heavy metals refer to metals with large atomic masses
The heavy metals that are of the most concern due to their extremely detrimental
effects on health (and hence should be monitored for the most) are mercury, lead,
cadmium, chromium and arsenic.
they are a problem because they
interfere with enzyme systems from the body
cannot be easily eliminated from the body
bioaccumulation (they build up to high levels in the tissues of organisms)
biomagnification (concentration gets greater as it moves up the food chain)
persist in the environment for long periods of time
have increased in the environment.
o They mostly settle into the sediments in water ways when the sediments are disturbed,
the heavy metals become suspended, allowing them to accumulate in fish and shellfish
o A closer look at the effect of Mercury on the environment:
Industrial production:
45
power stations using fossil fuels mercury is released during combustion of
coal to produce steam for turbines
manufacture of ammonia
manufacture of NaOH
fluorescent mercury light tubes
mercury switches
manufacture of some plastics
The transition to organic mercury:
once elemental mercury is released into the atmosphere via industrial
processes, it interacts with ozone (O
3
) in the atmosphere to form inorganic
mercury, which settles into sediments in water ways
here, bacteria convert the inorganic mercury into organic mercury its most
damaging form
o NOTE: organic mercury is so dangerous because it is most readily
absorbed by the intestine, so enters the bloodstream readily, and is
also fat soluble, so most readily taken up by tissues, especially
nervous tissue
o METHODS TO TEST FOR HEAVY METALS:
Quantitive:
AAS: very sensitive, quick and accurate samples need to be sent to a lab
o Chemistry: absorbance of the atomised water sample is measured at
specific wavelengths. Each wavelength is selected to measure one
element in the mixture. The absorbance is related to concentration
using a calibration curve
Qualitive:
Bio-assay:
o i.e. dissecting animals and viewing the effects of mercury on their
systems
o this gives a better measure of mercurys impact on the ecosystem
Precipitation tests can be used in the field,= when an immediate indication
is required, not as sensitive as AAS
o Chemistry: precipitation tests utilise the varying solubility of ionic
compounds
i.e. add KI to form a yellow precipitate of PbI
2
, indicating lead
contamination
Flame tests
Eutrophication:
o Healthy ecosystems must contain sufficient nutrients. The most imperative are the nitrate
ion, ammonium ion, and phosphate (generally as H
2
PO
4
). These nutrients are essential to
support plant growth in aquatic ecosystems. However high levels of nutrients resulting from
sewage outlets, animal wastes, fertiliser run-off and excessive use of phosphate-containing
detergents can lead to serious problems of algal blooms and eutrophication.
46
Eutrophication involves an increase in the nutrients in water, leading to excessive
algal growth, followed by the decay of the organisms and depletion of oxygen in the
water.
o The process of eutrophication:
Excess nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus, wash into the water as
pollution and stimulate the growth of aquatic plants and algae
The algae grow rapidly, some producing toxins, and then die
The decomposition of the algae (by bacteria and other micro-organisms) uses up the
oxygen in the water and the water becomes stagnant.
stagnant = not moving; motionless
With reduced levels of dissolved oxygen, the system is less able to support higher
forms of life, resulting in the death of various aquatic organisms, including fish
o NOTE: blue-green algae are really a form of bacteria, cyanobacteria that can carry out
photosynthesis; they turn the water emerald green. They produce a toxin that causes skin
and eye irritation and affects the gastric and respiratory system.
o METHODS TO TEST FOR EUTROPHICATION:
Measuring the nitrogen and phosphorous content of the water by coulorimetric
tests
Chemistry: the nitrates or phosphates are converted to coloured compounds
using standard reagents. The depth of the colour is measured and converted
to concentration units with a calibration curve.
Measure turbidity turbidity increases as algae grow
Chemistry: turbidity is measured by the light that can penetrate a solution.
Attach a faint black cross to the base of a long colourless cylinder. Look down
the tube. Slowly pour in the water until the cross disappears.
Measure DO and BOD DO will decrease and BOD will increase as the algae die
Chemistry: Do and BOD are measured by data loggers and an oxygen probe.
The probe sets up an electrochemical cell with the oxygen and a voltage is
generated that is proportional to the oxygen content.