Meristematic Tissues

Meristematic tissues are cells or group of cells that have the ability to divide. These tissues in a
plant consist of small, densely packed cells that can keep dividing to form new cells. Meristems
give rise to permanent tissues and have the following characteristics:
the cells are small,
the cells walls are thin,
cells have large nuclei,
vacuoles are absent or very small, and
there are no intercellular spaces.
Meristematic tissues is found in the following locations:
near tips of roots and stems. This is called apical meristems.
in the buds and nodes of stems.
in the cambium between the xylem and phloem in dicotyledonous trees and shrubs.
under the epidermis of dicotyledonous trees and shrubs (cork cambium).
in the pericycle of roots, producing branch roots.
Permanent Tissues
The cells of permanent tissues do not have the ability to divide. These cells are already
differentiated in different tissue types and is now specialized to perform specific functions. They
are subdivided into two groups, viz, simple tissues consisting of cells which are more or less
similar, e.g. epidermis, parenchyma, chlorenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma and complex
tissues consisting of different kinds of cells, e.g. xylem and phloem.
Parenchyma
Parenchyma is the most common plant tissue. It is relatively unspecialized and makes up a
substantial part of the volume of a herbaceous plant and of the leaves, flowers and the fruits of
woody plants. The thin-walled parenchyma cells have large vacuoles and distinct intercellular
spaces.
Functions:
o the most important function of the parenchyma cells of roots and stem is the storage of food
(e.g. starch) and water,
o the intercellular air spaces permit gaseous exchange.
Chlorenchyma
Chlorenchyma cells are actually parenchyma cells, but they contain chloroplasts, e.g. the
parenchyma cells of leaves and stems. The mesophyll cells of leaves can thus be regarded as
chlorenchyma.
Functions:
o the chlorenchyma are the main photosynthetic cells of the plant and manufacture carbohydrates
during photosynthesis.
Collenchyma
Collenchyma tissues are mainly found under the epidermis in young stems in the large veins of
leaves. The cells are composed of living, elongated cells running parallel to the length of organs
that it is found in. Collenchyma cells have thick cellulose cell walls which thickened at the
corners. Intercellular air spaces are absent or very small. The cells contain living protoplasm
and they sometimes contain chloroplasts.
Functions:
o the collenchyma serve as supporting and strengthening tissue,
o in collenchyma with chloroplasts, photosynthesis takes place.
Sclerenchyma
Mature sclerenchyma cells are dead and have secondary cell walls thickened with cellulose
and usually impregnated with lignin. In contrast to collenchyma, which is pliable,
sclerenchyma is elastic. The cell cavity or lumen is very small or it may disappear completely.
There are two types of sclerenchyma cells, namely sclereids and fibres.
1. Sclereids: The cells are irregular in shape. The cell walls are thick, hard and lignified which makes
the lumen very small. Simple pits (canals) are found in the thickened cell walls and link adjacent
cells. Sclereids are commonly found in fruit and seeds.
2. Fibres: The cells are needle-shaped with pointed tips, thick walls and rather small lumen.
Secondary cell walls, impregnated with, are formed. Simple pits are also present. Fibres are
abundant in the vascular tissue of angiosperms, i.e. flowering plants.
Functions:
o sclerenchyma is an important supporting tissue in plants,
o sclereids are responsible for the hardness of date seeds and the shell of walnut,
o fibres probably play a role in the transport of water in the plant,
o starch granules are stored in the young, living fibres.
Xylem
Xylem is a complex tissue composed of xylem vessels, xylem tracheids, xylem fibres and
xylem parenchyma.
1. Xylem vessels: Xylem vessels comprise a vertical chain of lengthened, dead cells known as
vessel elements. The cells are arranged end to end and the cross-walls dissolve completely or
have simple or complex perforation plates between successive cells. The secondary walls of
vessels are impregnated with lignin and are thickened unevenly. The walls of the vessels may
be thickened in different ways, e.g. annular, spiral and pitted thickening may be observed.
2. Xylem tracheids: A tracheids is an elongated cell, the contents of which are non-living. The cell
walls are thickened, impregnated with lignin and the lumen is smaller. As in the case of vessels,
there is a differentiation between annular, spiral and pitted tracheids again caused by the type
of thickening of the secondary walls. Tracheids have no perforation plates.
3. Xylem fibres and xylem parenchyma bear a strong resemblance to normal fibres and
parenchyma. Xylem fibres are sometimes separated by thin cross walls and the walls of xylem
parenchyma are sometimes thicker than those of normal parenchyma.
Functions:
o xylem is an important strengthening tissue,
o xylem vessels and tracheids transport water and mineral salts,
o starch is sometimes stored in the xylem fibres and xylem parenchyma.
Phloem
Phloem is a complex tissue composed of sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem fibres and
phloem parenchyma
1. Sieve Tubes: A sieve tube, like xylem vessels, is a series of cells (sieve elements) joined end to
end. The cross walls between successive cells (sieve elements) become perforated forming
sieve plates. The cell walls are thin. Although the cell contents are living, the nucleus
disintegrates and disappears. The lumen is filled with a slimy sap which is composed mainly of
protein.
2. Companion Cells: Companion Cells are specialized parenchyma cells which always appear with
the sieve tube element. They are also elongated, thin-walled and there is a distinct nucleus in
the cytoplasm of the companion cell. Companion cells are linked with the sieve tubes by small
canals filled with cytoplasm, which are smaller than pits.
3. Phloem Fibres: These cells are elongated tapering cells, found particular in the stem. They have
thickened walls.
4. Phloem Parenchyma: Phloem Parenchyma is living and has thin cell walls. These cells form the
packing tissue between all the other types of cells.
Functions:
o sieve tubes transport organic compounds,
o companion cells helps to regulate the metabolic activities of the sieve tube elements,
o the phloem fibres give the plant mechanical strength,
o the phloem parenchyma stores compounds such as starch.
Muscle tissues
| Structure | Smooth Muscle Tissue | Skeletal Muscle Tissue | Cardiac (Heart) Muscle Tissue |
Structure
We know that living organisms can move on their own or can perform other types of movement.
Muscle tissue has a ability to relax and contrast and so bring about movement and mechanical
work in various parts of the body. There are other movements in the body too which are
necessary for the survival of the organism such as the heart beat and the movements of the
alimentary canal.
Muscles can be divided into three main groups according to their structure, e.g.:
Smooth muscle tissue.
Skeletal muscle tissue.
Cardiac (heart) muscle tissue.

A whole muscle with many
fasciculi
Types of Muscle Tissue
Smooth Muscle Tissue.
Smooth muscle tissue is made up of thin-elongated muscle cells, fibres. These fibres are
pointed at their ends and each has a single, large, oval nucleus. Each cell is filled with a
specialised cytoplasm, the sarcoplasm and is surrounded by a thin cell membrane, the
sarcolemma. Each cell has many myofibrils which lie parallel to one another in the
direction of the long axis of the cell. They are not arranged in a definite striped
(striated) pattern, as in skeletal muscles - hence the name smooth muscle . Smooth
muscle fibres interlace to form sheets or layers of muscle tissue rather than bundles.
Smooth muscle is involuntary tissue, i.e. it is not controlled by the brain. Smooth muscle
forms the muscle layers in the walls of hollow organs such as the digestive tract (lower
part of the oesophagus, stomach and intestines), the walls of the bladder, the uterus,
various ducts of glands and the walls of blood vessels .
Functions of Smooth Muscle Tissue
o Smooth muscle controls slow, involuntary movements such as the contraction of the
smooth muscle tissue in the walls of the stomach and intestines.
o The muscle of the arteries contracts and relaxes to regulate the blood pressure and the
flow of blood.

Smooth Muscle Tissue
Skeletal Muscle Tissue.
Skeletal muscle is the most abundant tissue in the vertebrate body. These muscles are
attached to and bring about the movement of the various bones of the skeleton, hence
the name skeletal muscles. The whole muscle, such as the biceps, is enclosed in a sheath
of connective tissue, the epimysium. This sheath folds inwards into the substance of the
muscle to surround a large number of smaller bundles, the fasciculi. These fasciculi
consist of still smaller bundles of elongated, cylindrical muscle cells, the fibres. Each
fibre is a syncytium, i.e. a cell that have many nuclei. The nuclei are oval in shaped and
are found at the periphery of the cell, just beneath the thin, elastic membrane
(sarcolemma). The sarcoplasm also has many alternating light and dark bands, giving
the fibre a striped or striated appearance (hence the name striated muscle). With the
aid of an electron microscope it can be seen that each muscle fibre is made up of many
smaller units, the myofibrils. Each myofibril consists of small protein filaments, known
as actin and myosin filaments. The myosin filaments are slightly thicker and make up
the dark band (or A-band). The actin filaments make up the light bands (I-bands)
which are situated on either side of the dark band. The actin filaments are attached to the
Z-line. This arrangement of actin and myosin filaments is known as a sacromere.

A myofibril with actin and myosin filaments
During the contraction of skeletal muscle tissue, the actin filaments slide inwards
between the myosin filaments. Mitochondria provide the energy for this to take place.
This action causes a shortening of the sacromeres (Z-lines move closer together),
which in turn causes the whole muscle fibre to contract. This can bring about a
shortening of the entire muscle such as the biceps, depending on the number of muscles
fibres that were stimulated. The contraction of skeletal muscle tissue is very quick and
forceful.
Functions of Skeletal Muscle Tissue
o Skeletal muscles function in pairs to bring about the co-ordinated movements of the
limbs, trunk, jaws, eyeballs, etc.
o Skeletal muscles are directly involved in the breathing process.

Skeletal Muscle Tissue
Cardiac (Heart) Muscle Tissue.
This is a unique tissue found only in the walls of the heart. Cardiac (Heart) Muscle
Tissue shows some of the characteristics of smooth muscle and some of skeletal
muscle tissue. Its fibres , like those of skeletal muscle, have cross-striations and
contain numerous nuclei. However, like smooth muscle tissue, it is involuntary.
Cardiac muscle differ from striated muscle in the following aspects: they are shorter,
the striations are not so obvious, the sarcolemma is thinner and not clearly discernible,
there is only one nucleus present in the centre of each cardiac fibre and adjacent fibres
branch but are linked to each other by so-called muscle bridges. The spaces between
different fibres are filled with areolar connective tissue which contains blood capillaries
to supply the tissue with the oxygen and nutrients.
Functions of Cardiac (Heart) Muscle Tissue
o Cardiac muscle tissue plays the most important role in the contraction of the atria and
ventricles of the heart.
o It causes the rhythmical beating of the heart, circulating the blood and its contents
throughout the body as a consequence.

Connective tissue
Structure
Connective tissues function primarily to support the body and to bind or connect together all
types of tissue. This tissue also provide a mechanical framework (the skeleton) which plays an
important role in locomotion. Unlike epithelial tissue, connective tissue is characterised by the
large amounts of intercellular substance (also called ground substance or the matrix) that it
contains.
Connective tissue are relatively few cells which are widely seperated from each other. These
living cells are responsible for secreting the large amounts of intercellular ground substance
(matrix). The matrix is a non-living material which may be liquid (eg. blood), semi-solid (eg.
connective tissue) or solid (eg. bone). Embedded in the matrix are a variety of connecting and
supporting fibres, eg. collagen fibres and elastic fibres.
Classification of the basic connective tissue depends on the predominant fibre type present in
each. Connective tissue can be divided into four main types.
Vascular Tissue

There are two types of vascular tissue: xylem and phloem
The xylem is principally a water transport tissue. It moves water and material dissolved in water
from the roots to the leaves.
The xylem is composed of two tracheary elements.
Tracheary elements must die first before they assume their ultimate function of transporting
water and dissolved materials.
The xylem is composed of two tracheary elements: vessel elements and tracheids.
Tracheids
found in gymnosperms
Tracheids have a tapered cylindrical structure.
There are holes in the cell wall where cells
make contact.
This allows for material to flow between cells.
Vessel Elements
found in angiosperms
Vessel elements are stacked together to form a
conducting tissue. They are the most evolved
and look like hollow cylinders.
Fluid moves through vessel elements.
The phloem consists primarily of living cells. A characteristic cell of the phloem is the sieve
tube member.
Sieve tube members often transport food.

Sieve Plates
Sieve plates appear when enzymes break up the ends of the tubes and connect the contents of
neighboring cells.
The phloem often has companion cells with it. These cells aid in transport.