Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life

Overview: A Chemical Connection to Biology

Biology is a multidisciplinary science
Living organisms are subject to basic laws of physics and chemistry
Concept 2.1: Matter consists of chemical elements in pure
form and in combinations called compounds
Organisms are composed of matter
Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass
Elements and Compounds
Matter is made up of elements
An element is a substance that cannot be broken down to other
substances by chemical reactions
A compound__is a substance consisting of two or more elements in
a fxed ratio
A compound has characteristics dierent from those of its elements
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The Elements of Life
About "%&"'( of the )" elements are essential to life
*arbon+ hydrogen+ oxygen+ and nitrogen make up ),( of living
matter
Most of the remaining -( consists of calcium+ phosphorus+
potassium+ and sulfur
trace__elements are those re.uired by an organism in minute
.uantities
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Concept 2.2: An elements properties depend on the
structure of its atoms
1ach element consists of uni.ue atoms
An atom is the smallest unit of matter that still retains the
properties of an element
Subatomic articles
Atoms are composed of subatomic particles
2elevant subatomic particles include
o ________________ 3no electrical charge4
o ________________ 3positive charge4
o ________________ 3negative charge4
5eutrons and protons form the atomic ________________
1lectrons form a cloud around the nucleus
5eutron mass and proton mass are almost identical and are
measured in ________
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Atomic !umber and Atomic "ass
Atoms of the various elements dier in number of subatomic
particles
An element6s atomic ________________is the number of protons in its
nucleus
An element6s ________________number is the sum of protons plus
neutrons in the nucleus
Atomic ________________+ the atom6s total mass+ can be
approximated by the mass number
#sotopes
All atoms of an element have the same number of protons but may
dier in number of neutrons
________________are two atoms of an element that dier in number
of neutrons
________________isotopes decay spontaneously+ giving o particles
and energy
7ome applications of radioactive isotopes in biological research are
o 8ating fossils
o /racing atoms through metabolic processes
o 8iagnosing medical disorders
The Energy Levels of Electrons
Ener! is the capacity to cause change
"otential ener! is the energy that matter has because of its
location or structure
/he electrons of an atom dier in their amounts of potential energy
An electron6s state of potential energy is called its energy level+ or
________________ ___________
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Electron $istribution and Chemical roperties
/he chemical behavior of an atom is determined by the distribution
of electrons in electron shells
/he periodic table of the elements shows the electron distribution
for each element
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________________electrons are those in the outermost shell+ or
#alence shell
/he chemical behavior of an atom is mostly determined by the
valence electrons
1lements with a full valence shell are chemically inert
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Concept 2.$: The formation and function of molecules depend on
chemical bondin bet%een atoms
Atoms with incomplete valence shells can share or transfer valence
electrons with certain other atoms
/hese interactions usually result in atoms staying close together+
held by attractions called chemical ________________
Covalent Bonds
A ________________bond is the sharing of a pair of valence electrons
by two atoms
:n a covalent bond+ the shared electrons count as part of each
atom6s valence shell
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A ________________consists of two or more atoms held together by
covalent bonds
A single covalent bond+ or sinle bond+ is the sharing of one pair
of valence electrons
A double covalent bond+ or double bond+ is the sharing of two
pairs of valence electrons
/he notation used to represent atoms and bonding is called a
structural formula
o
!or example+ <=<
/his can be abbreviated further with a molecular formula
o
!or example+ <"
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*ovalent bonds can form between atoms of the same element or
atoms of dierent elements
A compound is a combination of two or more dierent elements
Bonding capacity is called the atom6s ________________
Atoms in a molecule attract electrons to varying degrees
________________is an atom6s attraction for the electrons in a
covalent bond
/he more electronegative an atom+ the more strongly it pulls shared
electrons toward itself
:n a ________________co#alent bond+ the atoms share the electron
e.ually
:n a ________________co#alent bond+ one atom is more
electronegative+ and the atoms do not share the electron e.ually
>ne.ual sharing of electrons causes a partial positive or negative
charge for each atom or molecul1
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#onic Bonds
Atoms sometimes strip electrons from their bonding partners
An example is the transfer of an electron from sodium to chlorine
After the transfer of an electron+ both atoms have charges
A charged atom 3or molecule4 is called an ________
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A ________________is a positively charged ion
An ________________is a negatively charged ion
An ionic ________________is an attraction between an anion and a
cation
*ompounds formed by ionic bonds are called ionic compounds+ or
salts
7alts+ such as sodium chloride 3table salt4+ are often found in
nature as crystals
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%ea& Chemical Bonds
Most of the strongest bonds in organisms are covalent bonds that
form a cell6s molecules
?eak chemical bonds+ such as ionic bonds and hydrogen bonds+ are
also important
?eak chemical bonds reinforce shapes of large molecules and help
molecules adhere to each other
<ydrogen Bonds
A ________________bond forms when a hydrogen atom covalently
bonded to one electronegative atom is also attracted to another
electronegative atom
:n living cells+ the electronegative partners are usually oxygen or
nitrogen atoms
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"olecular Shape and 'unction
A molecule6s shape is usually very important to its function
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Biological molecules recogniAe and interact with each other with a
specifcity based on molecular shape
Molecules with similar shapes can have similar biological eects
!igure "#09
Concept 2.&: Chemical reactions ma'e and brea' chemical
bonds
Chemical ________________are the making and breaking of chemical
bonds
/he starting molecules of a chemical reaction are called
________________
/he fnal molecules of a chemical reaction are called
________________
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Bhotosynthesis is an important chemical reaction
7unlight powers the conversion of carbon dioxide and water to
glucose and oxygen
, *O" C , <"% D *,<0"O, C , O"
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All chemical reactions are reversibleE products of the forward
reaction become reactants for the reverse reaction
Chemical ________________is reached when the forward and reverse
reaction rates are e.ual