Error in Measurement: Chapter Objectives

TEL0083/TEL1043 Instrumentation & Measurement BTEE/DEEE
ERROR IN
MEASUREMENT
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
In this chapter, student should be able to:
1. Define terms related to the error in measurements.
2. Use basic concept of measurement in error analysis.
3. Perform basic statistic analysis calculations.
2.1 ERROR IN MEASUREMENT
What is an error?
Error is defined as the degree to hich a measurement conforms to the e!pected
"alue. It can be e!pressed in terms of absolute or as a percent error.
Absolute Error may be defined as the differences beteen the e!pected "alue of the
"ariable and the measured "alue of the "ariable.
n n
X Y e =
#here,
= e absolute error

=
n
Y
e!pected "alue

=
n
X
measured "alue
Percent Error is e!pressed as the percent ratio of absolute error to e!pected "alue. If
e ish to e!press the error as a percentage, e can rite that:
PE$%E&' E$$($ )
% 100
lue Expecte!a
ror "#soluteEr
PE$%E&' E$$($ )
% 100
n
Y
e
It is fre*uently more desirable to e!press measurement in terms of relative accuracy,
rather than error.
$elati"e +ccuracy, A )
n
n n
Y
X Y
1
#here + is the relati"e accuracy
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Monograph by Adzliza 1
2
+ccuracy can be e!pressed as percent of accuracy, a, is:
100 % 100 "x or $ercentErr a = =
Example 2!"
'he e!pected "alue of the "oltage across a resistor is ,-./ hoe"er, measurement
yields a "alue of 01 .. %alculate:
a. 'he absolute error
b. 'he percent of error
c. 'he relati"e accuracy
d. 'he percent of accuracy
2.2 ACCURACY
&o measurement can be made ith perfect accuracy. It is then important to find out hat
the accuracy is and ho precise the readings are. Accuracy refers to the degree of
closeness or conformity to the true "alue of the *uantity under measurement.
Precision refers to the degree of agreement ith a group of measurement or
instruments. (r precision is a measure of the degree to hich successi"e
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measurements differ from one another. Precision can be e!pressed in a mathematical
sense as:

n
n n
X
X X
ecision

=1 Pr

If a measurement is accurate, it must also be precise/ that is, accuracy implies
precision. 'he precision of a measurement is a *uantitati"e or numerical indication of the
closeness ith hich a repeated set of measurements of the same "ariable agrees ith
the a"erage of the set of measurement.
Example 22"
'he folloing set of ten measurements as recorded in the laboratory. %alculate the
precision of the fourth measurement.
2easurement
number
2easurement .alue
n
X
3.olts4
1 98
2 102
3 101
4 97
5 100
6 103
7 98
8 106
9 107
10 99
2.3 TYPES OF ERROR
+ measurement of a *uantity can ne"er be made ith perfect accuracy. 'his is because
it may in"ol"e a human operator or of an instrument is used, then the instrument has its
limitation no matter ho precise it may be. 5o it is important to find out hat the
accuracy is and ho different errors ha"e entered into the measurement.
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+ study of errors is a step in finding ays to reduce them and so allos the
accuracy of the final test results to be determined. Errors are generally categori6ed
under the folloing three ma7or types:
1. 8ross Errors
2. 5ystematic Errors
3. $andom Errors
2.3.1 Gross Errors
'his class of errors is generally caused by the fault of the person using the
instrument, incorrect recording of e!perimental data, incorrect ad7ustment and
improper application of instruments and computational mista9es.
+s long as human beings are in"ol"ed, some gross errors ill definitely be
committed. +lthough compute elimination of gross errors is probably impossible,
one should try to a"oid them. 'he folloing actions may be necessary to reduce
the effects of gross errors:
1. 8reat care should be ta9en in reading and recording the data.
2. Different e!periments should ta9e to or more readings of the same
measured *uantity.
2.3.2 Systematic Errors
5ystematical errors are due to problems ith instruments, en"ironmental effects,
or obser"ational errors. 'hese errors occur if se"eral measurements are made of
the same *uantity under the same condition. 'his can be di"ided into three
categories that are:
2.3.2.1 Instrument errors.
'he errors arise due to three main reasons:
a. Inherent shortcoming in the instruments 3maybe caused by the construction,
calibration or operation of mechanical structure in the instruments4.
b. 2isuse of the instruments. :or e!ample, these may be caused by failure to
ad7ust 6ero of the instruments.
c. ;oading effect of the instruments.
'hese errors can be eliminated or at least reduced by using the folloing
methods:
< 'he procedure of measurement must be carefully planned
< %orrection factors should be applied after detection of these errors
< $e<calibration the instrument carefully
< Use the instrument intelligently
2.3.2.2 (bser"ational errors.
(bser"ational errors are those errors introduce by the obser"er. 'he to most
common obser"ational errors arise due to to main reasons:
a. 'ype of instrument display, hether it is analog or digital
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b. Paralla! 3eye should be directly in<pine ith the measurement point4.
'hese errors can be eliminated completely by using digital display instruments.
2.3.2.3 En"ironmental errors.
En"ironmental conditions in hich instruments are used may cause errors.
'hese types of errors arise due to condition e!ternal to the measuring de"ice
such as the area surrounding the instrument. 'hese conditions may be caused
by the changes in pressure, humidity, dust, "ibration or e!ternal magnetic or
electrostatic fields.
'hese errors can be eliminated or reduced b using correcti"e measure such as:
< 9eep the condition as contact as possible
< use instrument, hich is immune to these effects
< employ techni*ues hich eliminate these disturbances
2.3.2.0 5implification errors.
'hese errors arise due to simplification of a formula. :or e!ample:
If D is too small, then the formula can be simplified to + ) = > %.
'here ill be a slight difference in the result of the first and the second e*uation.
In a high accuracy re*uirement, a formula should not be simplified to a"oid this
type of errors.
2.3.3 Random Errors
'hese errors are due to un9non causes and occur e"en hen all systematic
errors ha"e been accounted for. In some e!periments, the results sho "ariation
from one reading to another/ e"en after all systematical and gross errors ha"e
been accounted for.
5ince the sources of these errors are not 9non, then the elimination or
reduction of these, an error is not possible. #hen these types of errors occur, the
best ay to offset the errors is by increasing the number of readings and use
statistical means to obtain the appro!imation of the true "alues of the *uantity
under measurement.
2.4 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS IN MEASUREMENT
;et us assume that the influences of any parameters 3beyond our control4 act in a
random manner. 'his fact allos us to ma9e a statistical determination of the *uality of
our e!perimental data.
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'he e"aluation based on a statistical analysis allos us to obtain such
information as the mean value, avera#e $eviation and %tan$ar$ $eviation of our
data. 5uch information allos us to ma9e *uantitati"e 7udgments on the "ariations or
error in our data.
2.4.1 Mean value / Arithmetic mean
+n a"erage data is a typical "alue lie centrally ithin the data hen arranged
accordingly to magnitude. 'he most fre*uent used a"erage is the arithmetic
mean, x hich is the sum of a set of numbers di"ided by total number of pieces
of data.
'hus, the arithmetic mean of set of numbers,
n
x x x ,....., ,
2 1
is denoted by x
and defined as:
n
x x x x
x
n
+ + + +
=
....
3 2 1
2.4.2 Deviation
De"iation is the difference beteen each piece of test data and the arithmetic
mean. 'he de"iation of
n
x x x ,....., ,
2 1
from their arithmetic mean x is denoted
by
n
, ,
2 1
and defined as:
x x =
1 1
x x =
2 2
??.
??.
x x
n n
=
&ote" 'he algebraic sum of the de"iations of a set of numbers from their
arithmetic mean is @E$(A
2.4.3 Averae Deviation
'he degree to hich numerical data spread about the a"erage "alue is called
"ariation or dispersion of the data. (ne measure of "ariation is the a"erage
de"iation. 'he a"erage de"iation may be used as an e!pression of precision of a
measuring instrument. + lo "alue of a"erage, de"iation indicates a precise
instrument.
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'he a"erage de"iation, D of a set of numbers is defined as the arithmetic sum of
the absolute "alues of indi"idual de"iations di"ided by the number of reading or:
n

D
n
+ + +
=
....
2 1

2.4.4 Standard Deviation
'he 5tandard de"iation, for a set of "alues is the degree to hich the "alues
"ary about a"erage "alue. 'he standard de"iation of a set of n numbers is,
n

n
2 2
2
2
1
... + + +
=
:or a small numbers of readings ( ) 30 < n , the denominator is fre*uently
e!pressed as n<1 to obtain a more accurate "alue for the standard de"iation.
1
...
2 2
2
2
1
+ + +
=
n

n
Example 2'"
:or the folloing data compute:
1 . 50
1
= x , 7 . 49
2
= x ,
6 . 49
3
= x
, 2 . 50
4
= x
a4 'he arithmetic mean
b4 De"iation of each "alue
c4 5um of the de"iations
d4 +"erage De"iation
e4 5tandard De"iation
2.5 LIMITING ERROR
2ost manufactures of measuring instruments state that an instrument is accurate ithin
a certain percentage of a full<scale reading. 'he limits of these de"iations from the
specified "alues are 9non as limiting errors or guarantee errors.
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If the reading is less than the full<scale, the limiting error ill increase. It is
therefore important to obtain the measurements as close as possible to full<scale.
Boe"er, limiting errors are not limited to full<scale deflection instruments only.
:or e!ample, the manufacture of a certain "oltmeter may specify the instrument
to be accurate ithin % 2 ith full<scale deflection. 'his specification is called limiting
error and means that a full<scale reading is guaranteed to be ithin the limits of 2C of a
perfectly accurate reading.
+nother e!ample, if the resistance of a resistor is gi"en as ,--- D 1-C, the
manufacturer guarantees that the resistance is beteen 0,-- and ,,-- 3limiting error is
1-C of ,--- i.e. ,--4.
Example 2("
+ 3-- . "oltmeter is specified to be accurate ithin % 2 at full scale. %alculate the
limiting error hen the instrument is used to measure a 12- . source.
Example 2)"
Determine the limiting errors for the three resistors ith the folloing ratings:
2.6 TOTAL MEASUREMENT SYSTEM ERRORS
+ measurement system often consists of se"eral separate components, each of hich is
sub7ect to systematic andEor random errors. 2echanisms ha"e no been presented for
*uantifying the errors arising from each of these sources and therefore the total error at
the output of each measurement system can be calculated.
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#hen to or more *uantities, each ha"ing a limiting error, are combined, it is
ad"antageous to be able to compute the limiting error of the combination. 'he limiting
error can be easily found by considering the relati"e increment of the function if the final
result is in the form of an algebraic e*uation.
+ll four mathematical operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and
di"ision may be performed on final result deri"ed from different instrumentsEtransducers
in a measurement system. +ppropriate techni*ues for "arious situations, hich arise, are
co"ered belo.
%&'&1 (uotient
+nd

%&'&% $rouct o) t*o +uantities
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%&'&3 ,um o) t*o +uantities
%&'&4 Di))erence o) t*o +uantities
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Example 2*"
Alternatively,
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Error in Measurement: Chapter Objectives

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TEL0083/TEL1043 Instrumentation & Measurement BTEE/DEEE

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