What Is The Status of Environmental Refugees' Under International and Australian Law?

InternshipPaper:Whatisthestatusofenvironmentalrefugeeunderinternationaland
Australianlaw?BrookeHorne,CivilLibertiesACT
1
CLA CivilLibertiesAustralia www.claact.org.au
ANU/CLAInternshipProgram,FacultyofLaw,2006:studentBrookeHorne
Whatisthestatusofenvironmentalrefugeesunder
internationalandAustralianlaw?
1.Introduction
Acontinualriseintheincreaseofmigrationcausedbyenvironmentalreasonshasled
academics,lawyersandgovernmentstoidentifyanewcategoryofdisplacedpeople
theenvironmentalrefugee.Withevidencesuggestingthatover50million
environmentalrefugeesarecreatedeachyear,itisevidentthatthisgroupofpeople
representsagrowingcauseofconcerntopolicymakersatanationalandinternational
level.Mostproblematicistheseeminglyinexistentdomesticandinternational
protectionaffordedtovictimsofenvironmentalevents.Thecurrentinternational
refugeemechanisms,createdtosuittheneedsofpostWorldWarIIEurope,areoutof
dateasarethedomesticlawsofmanytreatyparties,includingAustralia.
Consequentlyinternationallaw,initscurrentform,nolongerofferssufficient
protectiontoacategoryofdisplacedpeoplewhichoutnumbersthosedisplacedbywar
andotherconflict.
Remedyingthisproblem,however,isfraughtwithdifficulties.Firstly,definingwhois
anenvironmental refugeeisacomplexprocessasanumberofvariablefactorsmay
contributetothereasonsthatpeoplechooseorareforcedtomigrate.Secondly,ifa
definitionisagreedupon,determininghowthiscategoryofpeopleisbestprotected
willinevitablyleadtointernationaldebateoverissuesofsovereignty,securityand
responsibility.Finally,intheeventthatnoprotectionisextendedtoenvironmental
refugees,historyhasdemonstratedthatthecreationofabindinginternationaltreatyis
nosmallfeat,especiallywhenitconcernssuchacontentioustopic.
Thispaperaimstoidentifywhatanenvironmentalrefugeeis,iftheyareprotected
underthecurrentinternationalrefugeemechanismsandifthatprotectionextendsto
Australiandomesticlaw.Furthermore,asolutiontotheproblemwillbesuggestedto
ensurethatthedomesticandinternationalcommunityiscapableofprotectingthe
rightsofpeoplefacedwithdisplacementduetoenvironmentalreasons.
2
2.Definition
Defininganenvironmentalrefugeeisacomplexscientifictaskthathasprofound
legalconsequences.Thisisevidencedbythedifferentoutcomesreachedwhenthe
numerousdefinitionssuggestedbylegalcommentatorsaretestedagainstthepresent
internationalrefugeemechanisms.Notonlymustthedefinitionbebroadenoughto
encompassthevastnumberofpeopleandcircumstanceswhichmaypotentiallyfall
withinthiscategory,butalsosufficientlycertainsothattheprocessesofidentification
andclassificationarelegallyviable.Oneofthebroaderdefinitions,putforwardby
commentatorsMyersandKent,suggestedanenvironmentalrefugeetobesimply
personswhonolongergainasecurelivelihoodintheirtraditionalhomelands
becauseofwhatareprimarilyenvironmentalfactorsofunusualscope
1
.Anarrower
definition,fromEssamElHinnawi,definedenvironmentalrefugeesasthosepeople
whohavebeenforcedtoleavetheirtraditionalhabitat,temporarilyorpermanently,
becauseofamarkedenvironmentaldisruption(natural and/ortriggeredbypeople)
thatjeopardizedtheirexistenceand/orseriouslyaffectedtheirqualityoflife.
2
.
AstriSuhrkefurtherrefinedthedefinitionasshedistinguishedbetweenenvironmental
migrantsandenvironmentalrefugeesandstatesthatmigrantsmakeavoluntary
rationalchoicetoleavetheircountrywhereasrefugeesarecompelledtofleeby
sudden,drasticenvironmentalchangethatcannotbereversed
3
.
Thesedefinitionsdemonstratethreecriticalconceptsforthedefinitionofan
environmentalrefugeedisplacement,anenvironmentalevent,andimpactupon
people.Difficultyariseswhentheseconceptsarefurtherdevelopedaseachissuemay
takeonanumberofvariationswhichdrasticallyaffectwhichpeoplemaybeprotected
asanenvironmentalrefugee.Theabilitytoclearlyidentifywhodoesandwhodoes
notfillthecriteriaisessentialifanydomesticorinternationalprotectionistobe
affordedtothesepeople.Consequently,elucidationofexactlywhateachofthese
termsmeansisessential.Doesdisplacementonlyconcernthosepeoplewhohave
1
NormanMyersandJ.Kent, EnvironmentalExodus:anEmergentCrisisintheGlobalArena,The
ClimateInstitute,199518
2
EssamElHinnawi,TheEnvironmentalimpactsofproductionanduseofenergy, UnitedNations
EnvironmentalProgramme,19814
3
AstriSuhrkeandA.Visentin, TheEnvironmentalRefugee:ANewApproach,ECODECISION1991
7374
3
crossedinternationalbordersorwillinternallydisplacedpeoplealsoclassify?Canan
environmentaleventbebothnaturalandmanmade?Anddoesitneedtobequickand
unexpected,suchasanearthquakeorcanitbearesultofaprolongedperiodof
abnormalclimatechange,suchasdesertification?Finally,whatistheextentofthe
impactuponpeople?Willitonlyincludepeopleforcedtoleavetheirhomesbecause
thelandnolongerexists,suchasintheeventofrisingsealevels,orwillalossof
livelihoodbesufficient?
InastatementwhichaddresseddisplacedpersonsmoregenerallytheUnitedNations
SecretaryGeneralsrepresentativefordisplacedpersons,FrancisMDeng,proposed
thefollowingdefinition.Displacedpersonsarepersonsorgroupsofpersonswho
havebeenforcedorobligedtofleeortoleavetheirhomesorplacesofhabitual
residence,inparticularasaresultoforinordertoavoidtheeffectsofarmedconflicts,
situationsofgeneralisedconflicts,situationsofgeneralisedviolence,violationsof
humanrightsornaturalormanmadedisasters,andwhohavenotcrossedan
internationallyrecognisedStateborder.
4
Anenvironmentalrefugeewouldclearly
beincorporatedbythisdefinitionbutthereisnotauthorityinanyinternational
conventionsthatwouldafforditanylegalsignificance.Underinternationallaw,
displacedpersonsdonotformajudicialcategory.Thereforethereislittlebenefitin
affordingpeopleaffectedbyenvironmentaldegradationordestructionofthestatusof
displacedpersons.Itonlyservesasadescriptiveterm,notasastatuswhichconfers
obligationsonStates.
5
Explorationofeachdefinitionalissueisoutsidetheconfinesofthispaper.Therefore
thedefinitionproposedbytheInternationalOrganisationforMigrationandRefugee
PolicyCentrewillformthebasisfromwhichtheproblem,consequencesand
proposedsolutionsarebased.Thedefinitionisbothbroadenoughtoofferprotection
topeopleinawiderangeofcircumstances,whilemaintainingalevelofcertainty
whichmakesidentificationpossible.Itdefinesenvironmentalrefugeesaspersons
whoaredisplacedwithintheirowncountryofhabitualresidenceorwhohavecrossed
aninternationalborderandforwhomenvironmentaldegradation,deteriorationor
4
UnitedNationOfficefortheCoordinationofHumanitarianAffairs,GuidingPrinciplesonInternal
Displacement,at1,UNDoc.E/CN.4/1998/53/Add.2(1998).
5
DavidKeane,TheEnvironmentalCausesandConsequencesofMigration:ASearchfortheMeaning
ofEnvironmentalRefugees(2004)209 GeorgetownInternationalEnvironmentalLawReview 215
4
destructionisamajorcauseoftheirdisplacement,althoughnotnecessarilythesole
one
6
.
3.Whatcreatesanenvironmentalrefugee?
Migrationanddisplacementcausedbyenvironmentalfactorsisanissuethathas
effectedtheglobalpopulationsinceitsexistence.Naturaldisasters,suchas
earthquakesandfloodshave,andcontinuetoforcepeoplefromtheirhomes.
7
Man
madedisasters,suchaswarandindustrialaccidents,havealsoplayedasignificant
roleindisplacingpeople.Beforelookingattheinternationallegalstructureitis
necessarytolookatthecausesofenvironmentallydisplacedperson.Aswillbe
demonstratedlater,confrontingtheseissuesisessentialinofferingcomplete
protectionforenvironmentalrefugees.Whilethecausesfordisplacementareoften
complexandunabletobeattributedtoonefactor,Keanehashighlightedthe
consensusamongscholarsonthefourbroadcausesofenvironmentaldisplacement
naturaldisasters,longtermenvironmentaldegradation,industrialaccidentsandwar.
8
Duetotheconstraintsofthispaperonlytwoofthesecauseswillbelookedatindetail.
3.1NaturalDisasters
Anaturaldisasterreferstoeventssuchasvolcaniceruptions,droughts,earthquakes
andallothertypesofdisastergeneratedbyanunstablenaturalenvironment
9
.A
reportproducedbytheInternationalRedCrossfoundthatnaturaldisastersaffected
144millionpeopleperyearandcontributedtothedisplacementofmorepersons
globallythanwarsorotherconflicts.
10
Thesestatisticsdemonstratethatthevictimsof
naturaldisastersareasignificantgroupworthyofinternationalattention.While
naturaldisastersdonotusuallydisplacepeopleonapermanentbasis,thefindingsof
6
Symposium,EnvironmentallyInducedPopulationDisplacementsandEnvironmentalimpacts
ResultingfromMassMigrations,InternationalOrganisationforMigrationandRefugeePolicyCentre,
1996
7
8
9
10
WorldDisastersReport20,InternationalFederationoftheRedCrossandRedCrescentSocieties
1999
5
scientistssuchasTimFlanneryandmembersoftheGeoscienceDivisionofthe
MunichReinsuranceGroup(MRG)havecreatedasenseofurgencyinrelationto
bothdealingwiththeeffectofnaturaldisastersaswellasfindingsolutionsfortheir
cause.
11
MembersoftheMRGhaveconcludedthatinrecentyearsnaturaldisasters
haveincreasedsignificantlywhileFlanneryhassuggestedthatin50yearstherewill
benoclimaticeventthatisnotthedirectresultofhumanactivity.
12
Furtheringtheurgencytorecogniseenvironmentalrefugeesasalegitimategroupis
theevidencethatnaturaldisastersdisproportionatelyaffectAfrica,AsiaandSouth
America.
13
ItwasnotedintheWorldDisastersReportthatninetysixpercentofall
deathsfromnaturaldisastersoccurindevelopingcountries
14
.Thesefindingshave
enormousconsequencesfortheinternationalcommunityasthegovernmentsof
developingnationswillbeinlessofapositiontoprovidetheircitizenswithaidand
protection.Consequentlythesepeoplewilllooktotheinternationalcommunity.With
predictionsthateightypercentoftheworldspopulationwillliveindeveloping
countriesbytheyear2025,thepressureisalreadyontheinternationalcommunityto
actnow.
15
3.2IndustrialAccidents
Industrialaccidentshaveresultedinthedisplacementofthousandsofpeople.A
chemicalincidentdisplacedover200,000peopleinBhopal,Indiawhileanuclear
accidentdisplaced10,000peopleinThreeMileIslandintheUnitedStates.
16
HoweverthemostinfamousincidentoccurredinChernobyl,Ukrainewhenan
11
TimFlannery,TheWeatherMakers,OxfordPress2005andMunichReinsuranceGroup,Topic2000:
NaturalCatastrophesTheCurrentPosition199962
12
TimFlannery,TheWeatherMakers,OxfordPress2005andMunichReinsuranceGroup,Topic2000:
NaturalCatastrophesTheCurrentPosition199962
13
DavidKeane,TheEnvironmentalCausesandConsequencesofMigration:ASearchforthe
MeaningofEnvironmentalRefugees(2004)209GeorgetownInternationalEnvironmentalLaw
Review 211
14
WorldDisastersReport20,InternationalFederationoftheRedCrossandRedCrescentSocieties
1999
15
Review 211
16
Review 212
6
explosiondestroyedanuclearreactorreleasingradiationintotheenvironment.
17
The
resultwastheworsttechnologicaldisasterinhistory.Theexplosionhadadevastating
effectonthesocialandeconomiclifeofUkraineanditsneighbouringcountries,but
theimpactoftheexplosionstranscendednationalborderstobecomeasymbolof
globaldisasterandacommoncauseofconcernfortheentireworld.
18
Thousandsof
peoplebecamerefugeesasaresultoftheChernobylaccident.
19
Unlikerefugeesin
otheremergencies,manypeopledisplacedbyChernobylmaynotbeabletoreturnto
theirhomesbecausetheareacontinuestobecontaminatedbyradionuclides.A
decadeaftertheaccidenta30kmzonearoundChernobylremainedlargely
uninhabited.MostofthevictimsofChernobylfledtootherpartsoftheSovietUnion.
Buttheywerescatteredwidely,andwereasimilaraccidenttooccuragainwithinthe
newlydisbandedSovietStates,itiscertainthatvictimswouldcrossnationalborders
insearchofsafety.
20
4.Definitionofarefugeeundercurrentinternationallaw
The1951GenevaConventionrelatingtotheStatusofRefugeeswasthefirst
internationalinstrumenttocodifyageneraldefinitionofwhowastobeconsidereda
refugee
21
.Thosestateswhosignedtheagreementeffectivelyacceptedthatarefugee
wastobedefinedasanypersonwhoowingtoawellfoundedfearofbeing
persecutedforreasonsofrace,religion,nationality,membershipinaparticularsocial
grouporpoliticalopinion,isoutsidethecountryofhisnationalityandisunableor,
owingtosuchfear,unwillingtoavailhimselfoftheprotectionofthatcountryorwho,
nothavinganationalityandbeingoutsidethecountryofhisformerhabitualresidence
asaresultofsuchevents,isunable,orowingtosuchfear,isunwillingtoreturnto
it
22
.TheConventionwasthensupplementedwiththe1967Protocolrelatingtothe
17
EllenBoberMoynagh,TheLegacyofChernobyl:ItsSignificancefor[the]UkraineandtheWorld
(1994) 709EnvironmentalAffairsLawReview 71516
18
EllenBoberMoynagh,TheLegacyofChernobyl:ItsSignificancefor[the]UkraineandtheWorld
19
EllenBoberMoynagh,The LegacyofChernobyl:ItsSignificancefor[the]UkraineandtheWorld
20
JeanheeHong. Refugeesofthe21
st
Century:EnvironmentalInjustice,CornellJournalofLawand
PublicPolicy2001333
21
HandbookonProceduresandCriteriaforDeterminingRefugeeStatusUnderthe1951Convention
andthe1967ProtocolRelatingtotheStatusofRefugees,OfficeoftheUnitedNationsHigh
CommissionforRefugees,UNDoc.HCR/1P/4/Eng.Rev.2(1979).
22
Article1A(2)1951ConventionRelatingtotheStatusofRefugees
7
statusofRefugees,whichincorporatedallelementsoftheConventionsdefinitionof
refugeeexcepttherequirementthattheeventsgivingrisetodisplacementhave
occurredbeforeJanuary1,1951.
Fromthisdefinitionfourprincipleelementsmaybeextracted.Firstly,thepersonmust
beoutsidetheircountryoforiginandsecondly,theymustbeunwillingorunableto
availthemselvesoftheprotectionoftheircountryorreturnthere.Thirdlysuch
inabilityorunwillingnessmustbeattributabletoawellfoundedfearofbeing
persecutedandthepersecutionfearedmustbebasedonreasonsofrace,religion
nationality,membershipofaparticularsocialgroup,orpoliticalopinion.
23
Primafaciethecurrentlegaldefinitionofrefugeeexcludesthosefleeing
environmentallyhazardousconditionscausedbynaturalormanmadeenvironmental
disasters.
24
Thismaybeattributedtotheemphasisonpersecutionwhicheffectively
eliminatesanypossibilityofsuchacategorybeingaccepted.Commentatorssuchas
DavidKeane,havesuggestedthatbecausetheConventionwasnotdraftedwith
environmentalrefugeesinmind,itcannotbereasonablyinterpretedinmoderntimes
toincludethoseperson.
25
ThispositionwassupportedbyKirbyJin ApplicantAv
MIEAwhenhecommentedthatthedraftersoftheConventionwouldnothave
includedcategoriesofpersecutionhadtheyintendedrefugeestobedefinedas
peoplewhofearedpersecutionforanyreason
26
.
5.CanEnvironmentalRefugeesseekprotectionunderthecurrentrefugee
structure?
WhiletherefugeedefinitioncontainedinArt1A(2)doesnotseemtoencompass
environmentalrefugees,DavidKeanehassuggestedthatitmaybepossibleto
23
Review 216
24
st
PublicPolicy2001323
25
Review 210
26
ApplicantAvMIEA[1997]HCA4
8
extendthe1951definitionalonghumanrightslines.
27
Insupportofthisargumentis
JessicaB,CooperscommentswhichimplythattheRefugeeConventionrecognises
thatrefugeestatusresultsfromthedenialofhumanrights.
28
Asthefivefreedoms
containedinthedefinitionareallrightssetforthintheUniversalDeclaration of
HumanRights,theRefugeeConventionmayalsorecognisestherighttoseeksafety,
ascontainedinArticle14(1)oftheUniversalDeclaration.
29
BoththeInternational
CovenantforCivilandPoliticalRightsandtheInternationalConventionfor
EconomicandSocialRightsacknowledgetheinherentrightofallpeoplestoenjoy
andutilizefullyandfreelytheirnaturalwealthandresourcesandinnocasemaya
peoplebedeprivedofitsownmeansofsubsistence.
30
Keanessolutiontothe
problemofenvironmentallydisplacedpersons,therefore,wouldbetoextendthe1951
definitioncontainedintheRefugeeConventioninlinewiththosedevelopmentsin
internationalhumanrightslaw.
31
However,suchanextensionwouldmeetsevere
oppositionfromstatesforanumberofreasons.
Firstly,asMasterspointsout,
32
expandingthedefinitionwouldleadtoadevaluation
ofthecurrentprotectionforrefugees.Thisisbecausemigrationduetoenvironmental
factors,israrelyifever,aresultofgovernmentoppression.Secondly,forreasons
alreadyoutlined,thevastmajorityofenvironmentallydisplacedpersonsareinternally
displacedbecausetheyarenotfleeingstatepersecution,eliminatingthemfrom
protectionunderArt1oftheRefugeeConvention.Thirdly,onlyalimitedexpansion
ofthedefinitionwouldbepossiblegiventheenormousnumberofenvironmentally
displacedpersons.
33
27
Review 216
28
JessicaB.CooperEnvironmentalRefugees:MeetingtheRequirementsoftheRefugeeDefinition,
(1996)480 NewYorkUniversityEnvironmentalLawJournal 6
29
UniversalDeclarationofHumanRights,GeneralAssemblyresolution217AU.NArt14(1),stating,
[e]veryonehastherighttoseekandenjoyinothercountriesasylumfrompersecution.
30
InternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRightsArt47,999U.N.T.S171,185International
CovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRightsArt1993U.N.T.S3,10.
31
Review 216
32
SuzetteBrooksMasters,EnvironmentallyInducedMigration:BeyondaCultureofReaction(2001)
GeorgetownImmigrationLawJournal14855
33
MeaningofEnvironmentalRefugees(2004)209GeorgetownInternational EnvironmentalLaw
Review 216
9
Hongtakesthispointfurthersuggestinganyreinterpretationorrevisingoftherefugee
definitiontoincludeallenvironmentally displacedpersonswholacktheprotectionof
theirstateswouldopenthedoortoafloodofrefugeesfarbeyondwhatthe
internationalcommunityisabletomanage.
34
Suchaninterpretation,therefore,
wouldhavetobelimitedbyspecificrequirementsoutlinedinthedefinitions.These
mayincludeadifferentiationbetweenthedifferenttypesofenvironmentalevent,such
asmanmadeornatural,andtheexistenceofspecificcircumstancesrenderingthe
applicantsunabletoavailthemselvesoftheirgovernmentsprotectionwithina
designatedperiodoftime.
35
AnotherpointofoppositioncomesfromFalstrominresponsetoJessicaCoopers
comments(whichwereusedtosupportKeanesargumentsforanextensionofthe
currentRefugeeconventionalonghumanitarianlines).Cooperarguedthat
[e]xpandingtheestablishedrefugeedefinitiontoencompassenvironmentalrefugees
mayrequirenomorethananeasyextensionofhumanrightspolicy.Sincethe1951
refugeedefinitionisheavilyimbuedwithhumanrightsnotions,andenvironmental
refugeesarenolessentitledtotheirbasicrightsandneedsthantheirtraditional
counterparts,usinghumanrightsconceptstoexpandtherefugeedefinitionhasnatural
appeal.
36
Althoughthissolutionmayhavenaturalappeal,Falstromhighlightsthat,the
protectionsofferedtorefugeesunderthe1951refugeeconventionareveryspecific,
andcurrentinternationalhumanrightsandenvironmentaldocumentsdonotofferany
similarprotectionstoenvironmentallydisplacedpersons.
37
Interpretingthecurrent
definitionofrefugeetocoverenvironmentallydisplacedpersons,therefore,isnot
possiblebasedonthewordingofthedefinitionasitcurrentlystandsininternational
law.Furthermore,asthesolutiontotheprobleminvolveslookingatcausesaswellas
34
st
PublicPolicy2001340
35
st
Public Policy2001340
36
JessicaB.CooperEnvironmentalRefugees:MeetingtheRequirementsoftheRefugeeDefinition,
(1996)480 NewYorkUniversityEnvironmentalLawJournal 6
37
DanaZartnerFalsrom,StemmingtheFlowofEnvironmentalDisplacement:Creating aConvention
toProtectPersonsandPreservetheEnvironment(2001) ColoradoJournalofInternationalLawand
Policy121
10
theeffects,revisingthedefinitiontospecificallyincludeaphraseprotecting
environmentallydisplacedpersonsisnottheanswereither.
38
Thesolutionmay
requirelookingfurtherthansolelywithintheconfinesofthecurrentrefugee
mechanismstoensureallofthekeyissuessurroundingenvironmentalrefugeesare
remedied.
6.WhatisthepositioninAustralia?
Thecodificationoftherefugeedefinitionhasprovidedthebasefromwhichmany
domesticlawsofthetreaty partieshavebeenestablished.Asasignatorytoboththe
1951Conventionandthe1967Protocol,Australiaisamongthetreatypartiesandhas
subsequentlycodifieditsinternationalrefugeeobligationsintheMigrationAct
1958.
39
Ashasbeenestablishedthereisnodirectevidencetosuggestthatan
environmentalrefugeewillbeaffordedthesamerightsasthosetraditionallyprotected
bytheconvention.However,itisnecessarytodeterminewhetherapplyingan
environmentalrefugeescircumstancesdirectlytoAustraliandomesticlawwould
affordthemanyfurtherordifferentprotection.
TheHandbookonProceduresandCriteriaforDeterminingRefugeeStatus
40
,issued
bytheUNHCRasaguidetogovernmentsindeterminingrefugeestatusintheirstates,
offerssomeinterpretiveguidancetoAustraliancourts.
41
AccordingtotheHandbook
threeprincipalscanbeestablished.UndertheConventionprotectionwillonlybe
offeredtopersonswhoarefirstlyinvoluntarilydisplacedfromtheirhomelandsand
unabletoreturn
42
,secondlydisplacementmustbeduepersecution,orfearof
persecutionbasedonrace,religion,nationality,politicalopinion,ormembershipina
38
DanaZartnerFalsrom,StemmingtheFlowofEnvironmentalDisplacement:CreatingaConvention
Policy121
39
JohnVrachnasetal, MigrationandRefugeeLaw:PrinciplesandPracticeinAustralia (1
st
ed,2005)
178
40
HandbookonProceduresandCriteriaforDeterminingRefugeeStatusUnderthe1951Convention
andthe1967ProtocolRelatingtotheStatusofRefugees,OfficeoftheUnitedNationsHigh
CommissionforRefugees,UNDoc.HCR/1P/4/Eng.Rev.2(1979).
41
st
PublicPolicy2001327
42
st
PublicPolicy2001327
11
particularsocialgroup.Finally,thispersecutionmustleadthemtobeinneedand
entitledtointernationalprotection.
TheapplicationoftheseprincipleswerehighlightedbyGummowJin ApplicantAv
MIEA
43
whenhestatedthatwhilstasamatterofordinaryusage,arefugeemightbe
onewhoseflighthasbeenfrominvasion,earthquake,flood,famineorpestilence,the
[Convention]definitionisnotconcernedwithsuchpeople.Theguidancegivenby
thehandbookanditsinterpretationindomesticlaweffectivelyexcludesan
environmentalrefugeebeingaffordedprotectionunderAustraliandomesticlaw.
TheMigrationAct1958alsosetsfurtherlimitationsontheapplicationoftherefugee
convention.
44
Section91R(1)statesthatthepersecutionasdefinedbythedefinition
willonlybeestablishedifthereasonforthatpersecutionistheessentialand
significantreason,orthosereasonsaretheessentialandsignificantreasons
45
.This
sectionhastheeffectofmakingitevenmoredifficultforpeopleseekingprotectionas
therequirementforpersecutionmustnowbetheprimaryreasonforprotection,rather
thanacontributoryfactorwhichwouldsatisfytheConventiondefinition.
Theinsertionofsection91R(1)isevidenceofthepoliticalandeconomiclimitations
facedbygovernmentswhenconfrontedwithrefugeeprotection.TheExplanatory
Memorandum
46
forthisamendmentstatesthatitspurposewastostopatrendby
Australiancourtstointerpretpersecutionmorewidelythanthegovernment
consideredappropriate
47
.Afurtherexampleofthepoliticsinvolvedwithrefugee
protectionisthelimitationonnumbersofRefugeeandHumanitarian(ClassXB)visas.
Somecommentatorshaveseenthisactionasbasingrefugeeprotectionon
governmentpolicy[ratherthan]onthecircumstancesofanindividualapplicant
48
.
Thebalancebetweencomplyingwithinternationalobligationsandmaintaining,what
theGovernmentbelievestobeaneffectivemigrationpolicy,isoftenadifficulttask.
Aswillbeseenlater,inthediscussionwhichrelatesdirectlytotheAustralianposition
43
[1997]HCA4
44
st
ed,2005)
191
45
Section91R(1)MigrationAct1958.
46
RevisedExplanatoryMemorandum,MigrationLegislationAmendmentBill(no.6)2001(Cth)
47
st
ed,2005)
191
48
st
ed,2005)
184
12
onenvironmentalrefugees,issuesconcerningrefugeeprotectiongofarbeyondtheir
originalpurposeandoftengetlostinthepoliticssurroundingtheissuewithout
addressingthehumanitarianproblem.
7.Willthedefinitionprotectenvironmentalrefugees?
Giventhedefinitionsoutlinedabove,stemmingfromaninternationaldocumentthat
hasbeeninexistenceforfiftyyears,itisdifficulttoconceivehowthetermrefugee
canbeexpandedtofitthosewhohavelefttheirhomesduetoenvironmentalreasons.
Apersonmightbeforcedtoleavehomeformanyreasons,onlysomeenvironmental,
whichwouldqualifythepersonasarefugee.Theremustbeastrongcasuallink
betweentheparticularactsthatcausethepersontoleavehisorherhomeandthe
personsfearofreturning.However,inthemajorityofsituationswhere
environmentalsituationsareinvolved,itisimpossibletodemonstratealinkbetweena
specificactioncausingthemigrationandaspecificcharacteristicofthepersons
migrating(race,religion,nationality,publicopinion,ormembershipinaparticular
socialgroup).Inotherwords,environmentallydisplacedpersonscannotbeprotected
undertheexistingrefugeelaw.
CommentsbytheUNHCRthatstatedthatthoseindividualsdisplacedfromtheir
homesforenvironmentalreasonsarenotconsideredrefugees,isfurtherevidenceof
thispoint.
49
Astheinternationalbodychargedwithmonitoring,classifying,assisting
andprotectingrefugees
50
,theUNHCRhasdeterminedthat,althoughmanypersons
displacedforenvironmentalreasonscrossinternationalborders,theydonotmeetthe
traditionalcriteriaforrefugeeclassification,arethereforenotsubjecttoautomatic
protectionsundertherefugeeconventionandanycorrespondingdomesticlaws
51
.
Environmentalrefugeesusuallylooktotheirgovernmentsasthefirstcallfor
protectionandaidintheeventofanenvironmentaldisaster.TheUNHCR,therefore,
49
UnitedNationsHighCommissionerforRefugees,TheStateoftheWorldsRefugees,at
http://www.unhcr.ch/refworld/pub/state/97/box1_2.htm asatMonday30January.
50
toProtectPersonsandPreservetheEnvironment(2001) ColoradoJournal ofInternationalLawand
Policy121
51
UnitedNationsHighCommissionerforrefugees,TheStateoftheWorldsRefugees,at
http://www.unhcr.ch/refworld/pub/state/97/box1_2.htm asatMonday30January.
13
canmakeadistinctionbynotingthatrefugeeslacktheprotectionoftheirstateand
thereforelooktotheinternationalcommunitytoprovidethemwithsecurity.
52
ConsideringthedefinitioncontainedintheRefugeeConvention,thecommentsofthe
UNHCRandopinionsofcommentatorssuchasHong,FalstromandKeanethereisa
strongargumentthatenvironmentally displacedpersonsdonotmeettherequired
criteriaestablishedinthedefinitionofrefugeeintheRefugeeConvention
53
.Dueto
thislackofprotection,andconsideringtherisingnumbersofenvironmental
refugeesitisunderstandablethatpeopleinthiscategoryarefearful.However,this
fearwouldnotmeettherequirementsofgovernmentpersecutionintheRefugee
ConventionorundertheAustralianMigrationAct1958.
Inordertoensureadequateprotectiontherequirementsforclassificationunderthe
RefugeeConvention,andtheMigrationAct1958,areveryhigh.Bybeingsothe
internationalcommunitymaytakecomfortthatprotectionisavailableonlyforthose
whotrulyneedit.However,thelackofprotectionaffordedtoenvironmentalrefugees
hashighlightedmajorinadequacieswiththecurrentinternationalrefugeestructure.
SinceitscreationtheConventionhadremainedvirtuallyuntouchedandmaynowbe
seenasoutoftouchwithmoderndayproblems.
54
Thatsaid,basichumanrightsare
stillamajorfocusofinternationallawandthehundredsofthousandsofpeoplewho
areforcedtoleavetheirhomesduewhollyorinparttoenvironmentalreasonsare
deservingofitsprotection.
8.Whatisthesolution?
Thelackofprotectionforenvironmental refugeesunderthecurrentRefugee
Conventiondoesnotnecessarilydiminishallhope.Thecurrentinternational
mechanismsforprotectionhaveprovedoutdatedandineffectiveinmeetingtheneeds
52
Policy121
53
DanaZartnerFalsrom,Stemming theFlowofEnvironmentalDisplacement:CreatingaConvention
Policy121
54
st
PublicPolicy2001327
14
ofmanymodernrefugees,includingenvironmentallydisplacedpeople,therefore,a
solutionistodevelopaconventionwhichdirectlytargetsthecausesandalleviatesthe
effectsofenvironmentaldisasterswhichleadtodisplacement.
55
WiththeframeworkoftheConventionAgainstTortureandotherCruel,Inhumane
andDegradingTreatmentorPunishment(1985)
56
inmind,Falstromhassuggested
thatatreatycouldbedraftedofferingbothtemporaryprotectionsforthosedisplaced
duetoenvironmentalproblems,andrequiringthestatepartiestoworktowards
ensuringthatsimilartypesofenvironmentalproblemsdonotrecur.
57
8.1TortureConvention
ThebalancestruckbetweentheaffirmativeobligationsforsignatoryStatesandthe
rightsthatitgrantstoindividuals,makesthetortureconventiontheidealtreatyfrom
whichtomodelasolutionforenvironmentalrefugees.Forexample,article3ofthe
ConventionAgainstTortureprohibitsaStatepartyfromreturninganyindividualtoa
Statewhereitislikelyheorshewillsuffertorture.
58
Thisprovisionwasalandmark
eventininternationalhumanrights,offeringprotectionfarbeyondthoseofferedin
previoushumanrightsdocuments.Underarticle3oftheConventionAgainstTorture,
apersoncannotbereturnedifheorshefearstorture,regardlessofwhetherheorshe
hascommittedacrimeorenteredacountryillegally.
59
Moreimportantlythereisno
requirementthatprotectionbebasedonrace,religion,nationality,membershipina
particularsocialgroup,orpoliticalopinion.Apersononlyhastoprove,toa
substantialdegree,thatheorshefearstorturethereisnotaffirmativerequirement
55
Policy121
56
ConventionAgainstTorture,andOtherCruelInhumane,andDegradingPunishment,openedfor
signatureFeb4,1985S.TreatyDOC.NO.10020(1988).1465U.N.T.S85.
57
Policy121
58
ConventionAgainstTorturearticle3:NoStatepartyshallexpel,returnorextraditeapersonto
anotherStatewheretherearesubstantialgrounds forbelievingthathewouldbeindangerofbeing
subjectedtotorture.(2)Forthepurposesofdeterminingwhethertherearesuchgrounds,thecompetent
authoritiesshalltakeintoaccountallrelevantconsiderationsincluding,whereapplicable,theexistence
intheStateconcernedofaconsistentpatternofgross,flagrantormassviolationsofhumanrights.
59
ConventionAgainstTortureArt3
15
thatheorshewillhaveawellfoundedfearoftortureonaccountofoneofthefive
groundsnecessaryforrefugees.
60
Tobalancethisextraprotection,however,apersonwhoobtainsprotectionunderthe
ConventionAgainstTortureisnotabsolutelyguaranteedtherighttoremaininthe
countryinwhichheorsheseeksprotection.Theprotectionofferedistemporary
protection,lastingonlyaslongasthethreatoftorture.
61
AlsoarequirementoftheConventionAgainstTorturearetheaffirmativeactsfrom
statepartiestotheConvention.Article2,forexamplerequiresstatepartiestotake
legislative,administrative,judicial,orothermeasurestopreventactsoftorture
withinitsterritory
62
.Article4requiresthestatepartiestomakeallactsoftorture
offencesunderthestatesdomesticcriminallaw.
63
Article12requiresapromptand
impartialinvestigationofanypossibleactsoftorture
64
,andarticle14requiresstates
toensurethatvictimsoftorturehaveadequatemeansofredress.
65
Additionally,the
ConventionAgainstTorturerequiresstatestoundertakeeducationalandtraining
initiativestoensurethattorturousactsarenotbeingcommittedbyindividualswithin
itsterritory.
66
Theseprovisions,combinedwiththeextensivereportingrequirementsand
investigatingauthoritygrantedtotheConventionbody
67
,provideauniqueframework
thatprotectsindividualsfromtortureandrequiresstatepartiestoensurethatthe
provisionsoftheconventionareadequatelysupportedbythestatesdomesticlegal
structure.Furthermore,theseprovisionsprovideassurancethatthestatesareworking
toeducateandinformthoseindividualslikelytocommitsactsoftortureunderthe
Conventionthatthosetypesofactsareinviolationofbothdomesticandinternational
law.
60
61
62
63
ConventionAgainstTortureArt4(1)
64
65
ConventionAgainstTortureArt14(1)
66
ConventionAgainstTortureArt10 12
67
ConventionAgainstTortureArt18 24
16
Thishasproventobeaneffectivecombinationofprovisions,astheCATisoneofthe
mostwidelyratifiedandwidelyimplementedtreatiesininternationalhumanrights
law.
9.ANewTreaty
ConsideringthestructureoftheConventionAgainstTorture,itmaybepossibleto
createanewConventionontheProtectionofEnvironmentallyDisplacedpersons.
68
Tocreatesuchatreatyanumberofhurdlesmustbeovercome.Firstly,the
internationalcommunitymustrecognisethatenvironmentalrefugeesareinneedof
internationalprotection.Thesuccessofsuchatreatydependsontherecognitionin
internationallawthatenvironmentallydisplacedpersonsneedprotection.Secondly,
therootcausesoftheenvironmentaldegradationmustbeaddressed.Inthisway
attemptsmaybemadetoalleviategrowingnumbersofenvironmentalrefugeesas
Stateswouldbeforcedtoaddresstherootcauses.Ifthiscanbeachievedthenthe
internationalcommunitywillalreadybewellonitswaytosolvingtheovercomingthe
secondhurdleprotectingtheenvironmentalrefugees.Theconventionwouldfirst
defineenvironmentallydisplacedpersonsandthetypesofenvironmental destruction
thatconstituteabasisforclassificationunderthisconvention.Asseenabovecreating
adefinitiontoencompassallpeopledisplacedduetoenvironmentalfactorsisa
difficultprocessparticularlybecausethisrequiresanidentificationof thecausesfor
theirdisplacement.Theexperienceoftheinternationalcommunityisthatexhaustive
listsmayfailtocountalltypesofenvironmentaldisasters,consequentlydenying
protectiontopeopleinlegitimateneedofinternationalprotection.On theotherhand
environmentallydisplacedpeopleneedtobereadilyidentifiable,soasprotectionis
onlyaffordedtothoseinrealneed.
SimilartotheConventionAgainstTorture,theConventionwouldalsospecifically
requirestatepartiestotakelegislative,administrative,judicialoranyothernecessary
actiontoprotectthesepeoplewhoarriveintheirterritorybecauseofan
68
Policy121
17
environmentalproblemthatfallswithinthedefinition.Falstromhassuggestedthat
thelanguageofthisprovisionmayreadasfollows:
Nostatepartyshallexpel,returnorextraditeanenvironmentallydisplaced
persontoanystatewheretherearesubstantialgroundsforbelievingthathe
orshewouldbeindangerduetooneoftheenvironmentalproblemslistedin
theConvention.
69
LiketheCAT,thislanguagedoesnotprovideanyrightofpermanentresidencyinthe
receivingstate.StateswouldbeobligedundertheConventiontoofferinterim
protectiontothosewhoarriveattheirborders,butoncethebasisfortheirprotection
hasended,theStatemayreexaminethecaseandreturnthepersontohisorherhome
ifitisdeemedsafe.Thissolutionavoidsoneoftheproblemsposedbytheproponents
forincludingenvironmentallydisplacedpersonsunderexistingrefugeeprotections:
Statesaremorelikelytoassistvictimsofenvironmentaldegradationanddisasterifit
isseenasatemporaryprotection,ratherthanapermanentresettlement.Whilemaking
theacceptanceofsuchatreatymoreattractivetoStateparties,thelimitedobligations
requiredofthestatesmayhavewiderreachingsocialimplications.Thenatureof
environmentaldisasters,bothmanmadeandnatural,maymeanthatthecountryor
regionfromwhichtherefugeeisfleeingmaynotbeabletobereinhabited.Takingthe
Chernobylexamplethefalloutperiodfornuclearactivityisthirtyyears,equaltoan
entiregeneration.Isitfeasibletosendsomebodybacktoacountryafterthisamount
oftimeandifnotwhatshouldthelimitbe.Ifarefugeehashadtimetocreaterootsin
thereceivingcountrybyeithermarryingorhavingchildren,isitfairandintheperson
bestinteresttosendthemhomeaftertheeffectsofthedisasterhavesubsided?While
theseissuesfalloutsidetheconfinesofthispapertheyarefactorswhichneedtobe
consideredfortheeffectiveimplementationofanewConvention.
AddressingtherootcauseofthemigrationenablestheproposedConventiononthe
ProtectionofEnvironmentallyDisplacedPersonstogofurtherthanthesuggestionsof
thoseadvocatingforacceptancewithinthepresentrefugeestructure.Likethe
69
Policy121
18
ConventionAgainstTorture,thenewConventionshouldincorporateextensive
provisionsoutliningstateresponsibilitytofind,correctandpreventoccurrencesofthe
environmentaldegradationanddestructionthatforcepeopletomigrate.Eachparty
couldberequiredtoprovideeducationandinformationtoindividual,corporations
andgovernmentsonhowtomakelessofanenvironmentalimpact.Finally,thenew
Conventionwouldestablishanoversightbody,reportingmechanisms,dispute
resolutionprocedures,andsanctionprovisionstoencourageactivecompliancebyall
stateparties.
10.AustraliasContributiontoFixingtheProblem
Aswellasplayinganactivepartintheimplementationofaninternationalconvention,
thereareanumberofeffortsthatcanbemadeonadomesticleveltobothalleviatethe
causesofenvironmentaldisplacementandofferprotectiontothosepeoplealready
affected.AsaleaderintheAsiaPacificregion,andconsideringthatsomeofthe
mostvulnerablepeopletoclimatechangearesomeourclosestneighbours,thePacific
IslandswouldbethemostobviousfocusofAustraliasattention.Whilethisfocus
doesnotaimtodiscriminateagainstvulnerablepeopleinotherareas,itsetsan
exampleforotherregionalleadersandrecognisestheeconomiclimitations
constrainingindividualstates.
InJanuary2006theAustralianLaborPartyreleasedapolicydiscussionpaperon
climatechangeinthePacific.ThepaperproposedaPacificClimateChange
Strategywhichwouldadoptsevenkeyelementsthataimed,amongotherthings,to
assistmigrationforenvironmentallydisplacedpeople.
70
Aspartofthisassistanceit
wasproposedthatAustraliashouldofferresourcestoaidintracountryevacuationand
ifnohabitablelandremainstothenoffertrainingsothattheevacueescanmeetthe
skilledmigrationrequirementsinanumberofcountries
71
.Advantagesofthe
strategiessuchasthisaretwofold.Firstly,theyallowenvironmentallydisplaced
peopletoseekprotection,andsecondly,intheeventthattheyarenotgivenrefugee
70
BobSercombeMPandAnthonyAlbaneseMP,Ourdrowningneighbours,LaborsPolicy
DiscussionPaperonClimateChangeinthePacific,AustralianLaborParty,20062
71
19
statusintheirownright,itmakesmigrationunderthecurrentsystemsofmany
countriesmoreaccessible.Thediscussionpaperalsoaddressesthebroaderconcerns
ofminimisingcarbonemissionwhichleadtoclimatechangeaswellasestablishing
aninternationalcoalitiontoacceptclimaterefugees
72
.
Recognisingtheseissuesatadomesticlevelandactingtowardsachievablesolutions,
isthefirststepinprogressingthisissue.However,thisdiscourseshouldnotcloudthe
factthatAustraliaappearstolagfarbehindmanyothernationswhoaremakinghuge
gainsforenvironmentalandhumanitarianprotection.Inresponsetothediscussion
papertheAustralianGovernmentemphaticallyrejectedanewimmigrationcategory
forenvironmentalrefugees.
73
SuchareformwouldrequireamendingtheMigration
Act1958tocreateahumanitarianvisaforsuchacategory.
SucheffortshavealreadybeenmadebytheNewZealandGovernmentwhichhas
createdabilateralagreementwithPacificIslandnationstoacceptanannualquotaof
its(Tuvalu)citizensasrefugees
74
.Bydoingso,NewZealandhaseffectively
legalisedanenvironmental refugeeunderitsdomesticlawformigrationpurposes.
Canada,whiletakingadifferentapproach,hasalsotakenactivestepstoalleviatethe
problembyprovidingfundingforarelocationprogramforthecitizensofVanuatu.
75
Asaninfluentialleaderon alocalregionalandgloballevel,Australiacouldfollow
theleadofCanadaandNewZealandtotakeproactivestepstoprotectenvironmental
refugees.Ratherthanbeingreactionary,theglobalexamplehasshownthatany
actionstoaddressthisproblem,mustaddressboththecauseandconsequenceofthis
problem.Consequently,Australiamustmakeprogressinboththeenvironmentaland
humanitarianfields.
72
73
Governmentrebuffsclimaterefugeeproposal,YahooNews
<http://au.news.yahoo.com/060105/21/xgpt.htmlat5January2006.
74
AlexKirby,PacificIslandersfleerisingseas,BBCNews
<http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/1581457.stmat31January2006.
75
AlexKirby,PacificIslandersfleerisingseas,BBCNews
<http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/1581457.stmat31January2006.
20
11.Conclusion
Whiletheinternationallegalcommunityhasmadehugeadvancesinthefieldof
humanrightsandrefugeeprotection,theissueofenvironmentalrefugees
demonstratesthatitissillfacedwithsignificantchallenges.AsaleaderintheAsia
Pacific,anareathatisparticularlyaffectedbythisproblem,Australiaisinaposition
tomakealargecontributiontothesolutionofthisissue.Whilethecurrentrefugee
structuremaynotcopewithsuchaburden,itiswithintheinternationalcommunitys
powertoestablishanewConventionthatwouldextendbasichumanrights
protectionstopeoplewhohavebeendisplacedbyenvironmentalevents.
Historyhasdemonstratedthatthecreationofabindingandeffectiveinternational
conventionisnosmallfeat.Aswithmostinternationalissues,creatingatreatyforthe
protectionofenvironmentalrefugeesencompassesawiderangeofissuesthatgowell
beyondtheprotectionofpeopleandtheeliminationofthecausesoftheir
displacement.However,thegrowingnumberofenvironmentalrefugeeshasmade
thisanissuewhich,incomingyears,willbehardtoignore.Byadoptinganew
Convention,theinternationalcommunitywillprotecthumanrightsandsignificantly
reducetheenvironmentaleventswhichleadtomigrationanddisplacement.
Furthermore,suchaconventionwoulddemonstratethattheinternationalcommunity
iswillingtoadvancerefugeeprotectionsthathaveremainedstagnantforoverhalfa
century.
21
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CLA CivilLibertiesAustralia www.claact.org.au
CivilLibertiesAustralia(ACT)Inc.A04043

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