06EC756 -

Digital Image Processing

A picture is worth a thousand words
Siddiq Iqbal
Department of TCE
BMSIT
Raghaendra S
Department of ECE
BMSIT
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Text Book:
!" #Digital Image $rocessing%& Rafael C"'on(ale( and Richard E" )oods&
$earson Education& *++!& *nd edition"
Reference Books:
#,undamentals of Digital Image $rocessing%& Anil -" .ain& $earson Edun& *++!"
#Digital Image $rocessing and Anal/sis%& B" Chanda and D" Dutta Ma0umdar& $1I& *++2"

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Unit1 : Contents

Introduction: What is Digital Image

Processing ?

Fundamental steps in Digital Image

Processing

Components of an Image processing

system

Elements of Visual Perception

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!"ecti#es

Define the scope of Image Processing

Principal areas of application

Principal approaches

Components of a DIP system

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What is an Image?
$ t%o&dimensional function' f()' y*' %here )
and y are spatial (plane* coordinates' and the
amplitude of f at any pair of coordinates ()' y*
is called the intensity or gray le#el of the
image at that point+

,D function

-patial coordinates

$mplitude . Intensity or gray le#el

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Digital Image
When x, y' and the amplitude #alues of f are all
finite, discrete /uantities' %e call the image a
digital image+
Digital Image Processing
0he field of processing digital images !y means
of a digital computer+
Pixels
Finite elements %hich compose a digital image'
%ith a particular location and #alue+
1picture&element 1image&elements 1pels
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EM Vision
Imaging machines co#er almost the entire E2
spectrum' ranging from gamma to radio %a#es
$ %ide range of applications and ena!les
numerous e)citing possi!ilities
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Digital Image Processing:

Concerns %ith the transformation of an image to a
digital format 3 its processing !y a computer or !y
dedicated 45W6 !oth i5p 3 o5p are digital images

Digital Image Analysis:

Concerns %ith the description 3 recognition of the
image contents 7 i5p is a digital image' the o5p is a
sym!olic description

Computer Vision:
Uses digital electronics to emulate human #ision'
including learning' ma8ing inferences' 3 ta8ing
actions
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-e#eral fields deal %ith images
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Principal application areas
1+ Impro#ement of pictorial information for human interpretation
,+ Processing of image data for storage' transmission' 3
representation for autonomous machine perception

Eg: Categori9e !y image sources

:adiation from the Electromagnetic spectrum

$coustic

Ultrasonic

Electronic (in the form of electron !eams used in electron

microscopy*

Computer (synthetic images used for modeling 3

#isuali9ation*
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; types of computeri9ed processes
! "o#&le#el : Input 3 output are images

Primiti#e operations such as image preprocessing

to reduce noise' contrast enhancement 3 image
sharpening
! Mi$&le#el : Input may !e images' output could !e
attri!utes e)tracted from those images

-egmentation

Description of o!"ects

Classification of indi#idual o!"ects

1+ %ig&&le#el :

Image analysis
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Fundamental steps in Digital Image Processing
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Image $c/uisition:

$n image is captured !y a sensor (such as a

monochrome or color 0V camera* 3 digiti9ed

If the 5P of the camera or sensor is not already in

digital form' an $DC con#erter digiti9es it

0o !ring out detail that is o!scured' or simply to

highlight certain features of interest in an image
Image Enhancement:
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Image :estoration

Impro#ing the appearance of an image

0end to !e !ased on mathematical or pro!a!ilistic

models of image degradation

<aining in importance !ecause of the significant

increase in the use of digital images o#er the
Internet
Colour Image Processing
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Wa#elets

Foundation for representing images in #arious degrees

of resolution

Used in image data compression 3 pyramidal

representation (images are su!di#ided successi#ely
into smaller :egions*

:educing the storage space re/uired to sa#e an image

or the =W re/uired to transmit it

E)+ >PE< (>oint Photographic E)perts <roup* image

compression standard
Compression
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2orphological processing

Deals %ith 0ools for e)tracting image components that

are useful in the representation 3 description of shape
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-egmentation

Partitions an image into its constituent parts or

o!"ects

$utonomous segmentation is one of the most difficult

tas8s in DIP

$ rugged segmentation procedure !rings the process

a long %ay to%ard successful solution of imaging
pro!lems that re/uire o!"ects to !e identified
indi#idually

5P of the segmentation stage is ra% pi)el data'

constituting either the !oundary of a region or all the
points in the region itself
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:epresentation 3 Description

Con#erts the ra% data from segmentation to a form

suita!le for computer processing

:epresentation ma8e a decision %hether the data should !e

represented as a !oundary or as a complete region
1+ =oundary representation focus on e)ternal shape
characteristics' such as corners 3 inflections
,+ :egion representation focus on internal properties' such
as te)ture or s8eleton shape

Description(feature selection*' deals %ith e)tracting attri!utes

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:ecognition 3 Interpretation

:ecognition the process that assigns a la!el to

an o!"ect !ased on the information pro#ided !y its
descriptors

Interpretation assigning meaning to an ensem!le

of recogni9ed o!"ects

$ pro!lem domain detailing regions of an image %here

the information of interest is 8no%n to !e located

4elp to limit the search

?no%ledge =ase
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Image acquisition: 0his is carried out !y sensors+

-ensing in#ol#es , elements' namely

P&ysical $e'ice that is sensiti#e to the energy

radiated !y the o!"ect %e %ish to image

Digiti(er that con#erts the o5p of the physical sensing

de#ice into digital form

Specialized image processing hardware consists of

a digiti9er 3 an $AU used for performing arithmetic or
logical operations on the image+
$lso called front-end subsystem : Speed!

Computer is used for performing off line image

processing tas8s+ Computer can range from a general PC
to a super computer

Software for image processing consists of speciali9ed

modules that perform specific tas8s on the image' %ith
options for users to write code.
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Software for image processing consists of speciali9ed

modules that perform specific tas8s on the image
$ %ell&designed pac8age also includes the capa!ility for
the user to %rite code that' as a minimum'
-ophisticated soft%are pac8ages allo% the integration of
those modules and general&purpose soft%are commands
from at least one computer language+

Mass )torage is essential in image processing

applications
)&ort *erm )torage: re/uired during processing+ Frame =uffers that
can store 1 or , images at a time 3 allo%s image 9ooming' scrolling 3
panning are used
+n "ine )torage: for fast recall+ 2agnetic dis8s or optical media
storage is used
Arc&i'al )torage: for infre/uent access+ 2agnetic tapes 3 optical
dis8s are used
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Image Displays consists of monitors; they are dri#en

!y o5ps of image 3 graphic display cards+ -ometimes
stereo displays

%ar$copy de#ices for recording images include laser

printers' film cameras' heat sensiti#e de#ices' in8"et
units and digital units such as optical 3 CD:2 dis8s

,et#or-ing is #ital function' !ecause it is necessary

to transmit images+ During transmission =W is the 8ey
factor to !e considered
-ituation getting !etter %ith FC and !road!and
communications
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Elements of 3isual $erception
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4uman perception #s 2athematical
assertion
o
DIP is !uilt on a foundation of mathematical and
pro!a!ilistic formulations
o
@onetheless' human intuition and analysis play a
central role in the choice of one techni/ue #ersus
another
o
It is ultimately !ased on su!"ecti#e' #isual
"udgments
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-ome rudimentary aspects of human
#ision
o
2echanics and parameters related to ho% images
are formed in the eye
o
Physical limitations of human #ision
o
Comparing human and electronic imaging in terms
of resolution and a!ility to adapt to changes

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-tructure of the 4uman Eye
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-tructure of human eye
o
It is nearly a sphere' %ith an a#erage diameter of
appro)imately ,C mm+
o
0hree mem!ranes enclose the eye: t&e cornea
and sclera outer co#er6 the c&oroi$ and the the
retina+
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Cornea and -clera:
o
Cornea is a tough' transparent tissue that co#ers
the anterior surface of the eye
o
Continuous %ith the cornea' the sclera is an
opa/ue mem!rane that encloses the remainder of
the optic glo!e
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Choroid:
o
0he choroid lies directly !elo% the sclera+
o
0his mem!rane contains a net%or8 of !lood
#essels that ser#e as the ma"or source of nutrition
to the eye+
o
Choroid coat is hea#ily pigmented' and hence
helps to reduce the amount of extraneous light
entering the eye and the backscatter %ithin the
optical glo!e+
o
$nterior e)treme of the choroid is di#ided into the
ciliary body and the iris diaphragm.
o
Iris diaphragm contracts or e)pands to control the
amount of light that enters the eye
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Iris
o
0he central opening of the iris (the pupil* #aries in
diameter from appro)imately , to D mm+
o
0he front of the iris contains the #isi!le pigment of
the eye' %hereas the !ac8 contains a !lac8
pigment+
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Aens
2ade up of concentric layers of fi!rous cells and is
suspended !y fi!ers that attach to the ciliary !ody
o
Contains EC to FCG %ater' a!out EG fat' and more
protein than any other tissue in the eye+
o
Colored !y a slightly yello% pigmentation that
increases %ith age
o
$!sor!s appro)imately DG of the #isi!le light
spectrum' %ith relati#ely higher a!sorption at
shorter %a#elengths
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:etina
Aines the inside of the %allHs entire posterior
portion+
o
When the eye is properly focused' light from an
o!"ect outside the eye is imaged on the retina
o
Pattern #ision is afforded !y the distri!ution of
discrete light receptors o#er the surface of the
retina
o
0here are t%o classes of receptors: cones and
rods+
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Cone Cells
0he cones in each eye num!er !et%een E and F
million+
o
0hey are located primarily in the central portion of
the retina' called the fo#ea' and are highly
sensiti#e to color
o
4umans can resol#e fine details %ith these cones
largely !ecause each one is connected to its o%n
ner#e end+
o
2uscles controlling the eye rotate the eye!all until
the image of an o!"ect of interest falls on the
fo#ea+
o
Cone #ision is called photopic or bright-light vision+
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:od Cells
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:od Cells
-ome FI to 1IC million are distri!uted o#er the
retinal surface+
o
-e#eral rods are connected to a single ner#e end
reduce the amount of detail discerni!le !y these
receptors+
o
<i#e a general' o#erall picture of the field of #ie%+
o
0hey are not in#ol#ed in color #ision and are
sensiti#e to lo% le#els of illumination+
o
Scotopic or dim-light vision
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Cross section of the right eye
o
=lind spot the a!sence of receptors area
o
:eceptor density is measured in degrees from the fo#ea
o
Cones are most dense in the center of the retina (in the area of the
fo#ea*
o
:ods increase in density from the center out to appro)+ ,CJ off a)is 3
then decrease in density out to the e)treme periphery of the retina
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Comparison of ra% resol#ing po%er
!5% human eye and a CCD sensor
camera
o
Fo#ea as a s/uare sensor array of si9e 1+I mmK1+I
mm &L1IC'CCC elements per mmM,
o
Cones in the region of highest acuity in the eye is
a!out ;;F'CCC elements N&L no larger than I
mmKI mm CCD sensor
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Image Formation in the Eye
o
Principal difference !5% the lens o. t&e eye 3 an ordinary optical
lens is that the former is .lexi/le
o
:adius of cur#ature the anterior surface L its posterior surface
o
-hape is controlled !y tension in the fi!ers of the ciliary !ody
o
Focus
o
n $istant o!"ects' the controlling muscles cause the lens to !e
relati#ely .lattene$
o
these muscles allo% the lens to !ecome t&ic-er in order to
focus on o!"ects near the eye
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o
When the eye focuses on an o!"ect .art&er a%ay
than a!out ;m' the lens e)hi!its its lo#est
refracti#e po%er
o
When the eye focuses on a near/y o!"ect' the lens
is most strongly refracti#e
o
0his information ma8es it easy to calculate the si9e
of the retinal image of any o!"ect
o
1I51CCOh51F or hO,+II mm
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=rightness adaptation 3 discrimination
o
0he eye can adapt to an
enormous range (in the order
of 1CM1C* of light intensity'
from scotopic threshold to
the glare limit
o
-u!"ecti#e !rightness (i+e+
percei#ed intensity* is a log
function of the light intensity
incident on the eye
o
In p&otopic #ision alone' the
range is a!out 1CME
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o
0rig&tness a$aptation : Visual
system cannot operate o#er such a
huge range simultaneously6 instead' it
changes its overall sensitivity
o
E+g+: if the eye is adapted to
!rightness le#el =
a
' the short
intersecting cur#e represents the
range of su!"ecti#e !rightness
percei#ed !y the eye+ 0he range is
rather restricted' i+e+ !elo% le#el =
!
all
stimuli are percei#ed as !lac8
o
0he upper part of the cur#e (dashed*
is not restricted' !ut %hen e)tended
too far it looses its meaning as it
raises the adaptation le#el higher than
=
a
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We!er ratio: Contrast sensiti#ity

$!ility of the eye to discriminate !5%

changes in !rightness at any specific
adaptation le#el

Aoo8 at a flat' uniformly illuminated large

area' e+g+ a large opa/ue glass illuminated
from !ehind !y a light source %ith intensity I

$dd an increment of illumination PIc' in the

form of a short duration flash as a circle in
the middle+ Vary PIc 3 o!ser#e the result+
0he results should mo#e from Qno
percei#a!le changeQ to Qpercei#ed changeQ+
Experiment for Brightness discrimination
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We!er :atio: Contrast -ensiti#ity
o
0he /uantity PIc' %here PIc is the increment of
illumination discrimina!le ICG of the time %ith
!ac8ground illumination I' is called the We!er ratio
<ood !rightness discrimination PIc5I is small
Bad brightness discrimination 4Ic5I is large
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ContdR

=rightness discrimination is poor

(the We!er ratio is large* at lo%
le#els of illumination 3 impro#es
significantly (the ratio
decreases* as !ac8ground
illumination increases

It is difficult to distinguish the

discrimination %hen it is !right
area !ut easier %hen the
discrimination is on a dar8 area

, !ranches illustrate the fact

that at lo% le#els of illumination
#ision is carried out !y the rods'
%hereas at high le#els' cones
are at %or8
Poor
Good
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=rightness V- Function of intensity

=rightness is not a simple

function of intensity

Visual system tends to

undershoot or o#ershoot
around the !oundary of regions
of different intensities

0he intensity of the stripes is

constant !ut %e actually
percei#e a !rightness pattern
is strongly scalloped near the
!oundaries
Mach band pattern
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ContdR

=rightness pattern
percei#ed is a dar8er
stripe in region D 3 a
!righter one in the region
= %hereas actually the
region from D to = has the
same intensity
Is it the same leel of dar6ness around area D 7 B 8
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-imultaneous contrast

$ll the small s/uares ha#e e)actly the same intensity'

!ut they appear to the eye progressi#ely dar8er as the
!ac8ground !ecomes !righter

:egionHs percei#ed !rightness does not depend simply

on its intensity
)hich small square is the dar6est one 8
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4uman Perception Phenomena
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1e.erneces :
2Digital Image Processing34 1a.ael C!5on(ale( an$ 1ic&ar$ E! 6oo$s4
$earson Education& *++!& *nd edition"
6i-ipe$ia o. course7