Expression for the Apparent Frequency-Doppler Effect

Source, observer and the medium, all in motion

Let S and O denote the initial positions of a source of sound and an observer. For the sake of simplicity, we shall assume
that the source, the observer and the medium are all moving along the positive direction.
Let the velocity of sound in still air be = v
The velocity of the source = a
The velocity of the observer = b
and the velocity of the medium wind blowing! = w
Let S
l
and O
l
represent the positions of the source and the observer after " second. #istance travelled in " second is nothing
but the velocity.
The waves produced by the source travel a distance S$ in " second, but as the wind is blowing with a velocity w, it carries
the wavefront from $ to $
l
where $ $
l
= w. The distance travelled by the waves relative to the source in " second.
%f f is the fre&uency of the waves produced by the source, then f waves are accommodated in a distance S
l
$
l
.
Since the observer recedes by a distance b in " second, the relative velocity of the waves with respect to the observer is v
' w ( b!. Therefore, the apparent fre&uency is given by the number of waves of wavelength l
l
contained within the above
distance.
Substituting for l
l
from e&uation i!, we get
This is the general e)pression for the apparent fre&uency of the sound when the source of sound, observer and the medium
are in motion, in the same direction.
Discussion of equation (1-38) for particular cases
Case (i)
Source moving toards a stationar! observer
Let us assume that the wind velocity is *ero. Then w = + and b = +. ,&uation "(-.! becomes
1
The apparent fre&uency will be greater than the actual fre&uency.
Case (ii)
Source moving aa! from a stationar! observer
$ssuming the wind velocity to be *ero, putting (a in the place of a and b = + in e&uation "(-.!, we get
The apparent fre&uency will be lesser than the actual fre&uency.
Case (iii)
"bserver moving aa! from a stationar! source
/utting w = + and a = + in e&uation "(-.!, we get
The apparent fre&uency will be lesser than the actual fre&uency.
Case (iv)
"bserver moving toards a stationar! source
/utting w = +, a = + and (b in the place of b in e&uation "(-.!, we get
The apparent fre&uency will be greater than the actual fre&uency.
Case (v)
"bserver and source moving in the same direction as sound in a
stationar! medium
/utting w = +, in e&uation "(-.!, we get
%f b 0 a, then v ( b! 1 v ( a! and f
l
1 f.
%f b 1 a, then v ( b! 0 v ( a! and f
l
0 f.
%f b = a, then f
l
= f.
Thus, for a passenger sitting in a train the fre&uency of the whistle of the train appears to be the same, when the train
moves, as when it was at rest.
Case (vi)
"bserver and source moving toards each other in a stationar!
medium
2ow the velocity of the observer is opposite to the velocity of sound, while that of the source is the same as that of sound. 3b3
is to be replaced by (b in e&uation "(-.!.
Case (vii)
"bserver and source moving aa! from each other in a
stationar! medium
4onsidering the direction of the velocity of sound reaching the observer as positive, a is negative and b is positive. Then
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The apparent fre&uency is less than the actual fre&uency.
Case (viii)
#ind bloing opposite to the direction of the velocit! of sound
%n this case, w is to be replaced by (w in e&uation "(-.!
Some Important Aspects of Doppler Effect
5hen a source moves towards a stationary observer the apparent fre&uency, according to
e&uation
5hen the observer moves towards a stationary source, the apparent fre&uency, according to
e&uation
%n both the cases, the apparent fre&uency is greater than the actual fre&uency. For comparing the apparent fre&uencies, let
us assume that a = b, in magnitude. Let the apparent fre&uencies in the two cases be denoted by f" and f6. Then
and
Since the denominator in the 78S of the above e&uation is less than ", f" 1 f6. Thus, the increase in the apparent fre&uency
is greater when the source approaches a stationary observer than, when the observer approaches a stationary source. %n
other words, #oppler effect in sound is 3asymmetric3. This asymmetry is not observed in #oppler effect in case of light. This
is due to the fact that the velocity of light is very high when compared to the velocity of the source or the observer.
%f the observer moves away from the source with a speed greater than the speed of sound, then the wave can
never 3catch up3 with the observer and the formula should not be applied. $nother problem arises when the source
moves with a velocity e)ceeding the velocity of sound. ,&uation "(-9! then, predicts a negative fre&uency. Since
this does not make any physical sense, a different interpretation has to be given. 4onsider the source moving from
the point $ to : in a time t with a velocity greater than v, the velocity of sound. :y the time the source reaches :,
the sound wave from $ will have covered a distance vt. The wavefront is shown by the largest circle in the figure.
These wavefronts become smaller and smaller in si*e until the *ero radius is reached at :. The envelope of these
wavefronts is a cone called the ;ach 4one! whose surface makes an angle & with the direction of motion of the
source. From the figure

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The ratio i.e., the ratio of the velocity of a body to the velocity of sound is called the ;ach number.
The conical envelope represents a very narrow region of high pressure called the 3shockwave3. Some e)amples of the
formation of the shockwaves are when
i! a supersonic aircraft flies across the sky
ii! a bullet is shot from a gun.
$ shockwave is a highly concentrated sound wave and is therefore, a pressure wave. %t is this wave of increased pressure
that produces a sound like a thunderclap or an e)plosion.
The #oppler effect can be observed in all kinds of waves so long as the speed of the source is small when
compared to the speed of the wave. The observed shift towards the red lower fre&uencies! in the spectra of some
stars indicate that the stars are moving away from the observers on the ,arth and gives support to the 3e)panding
universe3 concept.
Applications of Doppler Effect
The #oppler effect provides a convenient means of tracking a satellite that is emitting a radio signal of constant
fre&uency. The fre&uency of the signal received on the ,arth changes as the satellite is passing. %f the received
signal is combined with a constant signal generated in the receiver to give rise to beats, then the beat can have a
fre&uency that produces an audible note, whose pitch decreases as the satellite passes overhead.
The traffic police use a techni&ue based on #oppler principle to detect overspeeding of vehicles on highways. $n
electromagnetic wave is emitted by a source at the side of the road attached to a police car. The wave is reflected
by a moving vehicle, which thus, acts as a moving source. The reflected wave will have a #oppler shift in
fre&uency. ;easurement of the fre&uency shift using the phenomenon of beats, permits the measurement of the
speed of the vehicle.
The #oppler effect for light is important in astronomy. Two stars which revolve around one another are called
double stars or spectroscopic binaries. 5hen one is approaching the ,arth, the other will be receding and this
causes a split in the spectral lines, due to change in the fre&uency of the light emitted. The phenomenon of red shift
in the light from stars helps in understanding the theory of e)panding universe.
Reverberation
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The persistence of audible sound even after the source has ceased emitting sound is called reverberation.
%f the reverberation of a sound pulse persists so long as to prolong the sound while several successive pulses are produced,
the intelligibility will suffer, leading to poor acoustic conditions.
The time re&uired for the sound intensity watts per s&uare meter! to decrease by a factor of one million so that it reaches
the threshold of audibility is called the 3reverberation time3.
%f the reverberation time is too short, musical notes are isolated from one another and the music is 3thin3. %f, on the other
hand, the reverberation time is too long, the sounds from earlier notes clash with the notes being played. For a medium(
si*ed auditorium, the reverberation time should be of the order of " to 6s. Symphony hall in :oston, one of the finest concert
halls in the world, has a reverberation time of "..s when it is fully occupied.
The reverberation time depends on the volume of the concert hall and the nature of the reflecting surfaces. The larger the
volume, the longer it takes for sound traveling at appro)imately -<= ms
(",
to traverse the distances between the reflecting
walls. 5hen surfaces e)posed to sound waves are highly absorbent, the rate of energy absorption by all surfaces &uickly
becomes e&ual to the rate of energy production by all sources, thus the reverberation time becomes smaller.
The absorption coefficient 3a3 of a material is defined as the ratio of the absorbed acoustic intensity to that incident on it.
The absorption coefficient may vary from + no absorption! to "complete absorption!. The following table gives some typical
absorption coefficients of different materials. These are average values for the audible sound range at normal incidence. %n
general, the absorption coefficient varies with fre&uency, usually being greater for higher fre&uencies.
Material Absorbtion coefficient a
Open window
Marble
Painted wood
Carpets
Brick wall
Draperies(heavy)
Draperies(light)
Ordinary plaster
Concrete floor
Cushion
1!!
!!1
!!"
!1# to !$!
!!"
!#
!$
!!$
!!$
!$
Sabine's Formula
/rof. 5allace 4. Sabine ".>. ( "9"9! of 8arvard ?niversity investigated architectural acoustics scientifically, particularly
with reference to reverberation time. 8e deduced e)perimentally, that the reverberation time is@
directly proportional to the volume of the hall
inversely proportional to the effective absorbing surface area of the walls and the materials inside the hall
where, A is the volume of the hall, a is the absorption coefficient of an area $. %f the volume is measured in cubic feet and
area in s&uare feet, then the e)perimentally obtained value of the constant of proportionality, according to Sabine is +.+=.
Then,

%f there are different absorbing surfaces of area $", $6, $-, $<, etc., having absorption coefficients a", a6, a-, a< etc., then,
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%f the area is measured in s&uare meters and the volume in cubic meters, then Sabine3s formula can be written as@
%ncreasing the effective area of complete absorption like, changing the wall materials or adding more furniture may decrease
an e)cessive reverberation time for a hall. :ut this also decreases the intensity of a steady tone. $lso, too much absorption
will make the reverberation time too short and cause the room to sound acoustically 3dead3. 8ence, the optimum
reverberation time is a compromise between clarity of sound and its intensity.
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