3 Dream Motif Scale

Dream Motif Scale
Calvin Kai-Ching Yu
Hong Kong Shue Yan University
The primary purpose of this study was to develop a comprehensive assess-
ment tool for measuring the incidence of dream motifs by revising some
original items of the Dream Themes Inventory and incorporating new
themes, such as those concerning ones relation to surrounding objects. The
original scales for assessing the predispositions that are thought to modulate
the narrative content of dreams were revised with consideration of both
classical reliability and latent trait statistics. The new instrument, Dream
Motif Scale, is distinguished by its good psychometric properties and pro-
ciency in capturing the motifs experienced by over 90% of participants with
dream recall in the night prior to taking part in this study. In addition, the
dream prevalence, frequency, and recurrence proles replicated in this study
provide further substance to the universality, recurrence, and constancy of
typical dream themes, and have important implications for the sleep-protec-
tion and adaptation functions of dreaming.
Keywords: conrmatory factor analysis, dreams of convenience, item analysis, object-
relation, typical dreams
Dream content is perhaps less elusive than what one might expect. Certain
themes are dreamed alike by most people, such as those involving ying or falling,
missing a train, and the death of loved ones. In contrast to the belief that the
conscious experience of dreaming is a kind of random epiphenomenon resulting
from a bewildering array of information processing, a series of investigations by Yu
(2008a, 2008c, 2009a, 2009b, 2010a, 2010d, 2011a) demonstrated that these typical
themes occur far more frequently than other dream themes. For instance, the
prevalence rates of the themes school, teachers, studying and searching for a
certain place are almost 30 times more than that of theme someone having an
abortion (Yu, 2010d). A similar prole for the relative prevalence and frequency
rates of dream themes has been replicated across several separate samples (Yu,
2008a, 2009b, 2010d, 2011a).
These typical dream themes are not only shared by a majority of people, but
also tend to recur within an individual (Yu, 2008a, 2010d, 2011a). Moreover, the
most frequent dream themesschool, teachers, studying, falling, and being
chased or pursuedwere found to be the earliest dream themes experienced by
This article was published Online First November 21, 2011.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Calvin Kai-Ching Yu, Department
of Counselling and Psychology, Hong Kong Shue Yan University, 10 Wai Tsui Crescent, Braemar Hill
Road, North Point, Hong Kong. E-mail: calvinkcyu@ymail.com
18
Dreaming 2011 American Psychological Association
2012, Vol. 22, No. 1, 1852 1053-0797/11/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/a0026171
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the participants in Yus studies (2008a, 2011a). The mean age in years for partici-
pants earliest recalled themes was eight. In other words, many people not only
begin experiencing certain specic dream themes in childhood, but also experience
them recurrently across their developmental stages.
Even more strikingly, typical dreams cross cultural boundaries, with the rank-
ordered prevalence rates of typical dream themes for different ethnic groups closely
resembling each other (Yu, 2008a, 2011a). Specically, the most prevalent dream
themes for the Chinese sample were school, teachers, studying, being chased or
pursued, falling, and arriving too late. This was also true for Nielsen et al.s
(2003) Canadian sample and the German sample of Schredl, Ciric, Gtz, and
Wittmann (2004). The themes a person now alive as dead and ying or soaring
through the air were ranked highly in a similar way for the three ethnic groups. On
the other hand, someone having an abortion and being an object were the least
prevalent dream themes for all three ethnic groups.
The remarkable constancy of both prevalence and recurrence of typical
dreams across times and cultures suggests that the formation of dream narratives is
regularly biased toward a specic group of themes and is operated by highly stable
mechanisms and predispositions. Indeed, many motifs of dream mentations, such as
having superior knowledge or mental ability and being chased or pursued, bear
a resemblance to classic delusional themes long recognized in psychosis. Con-
versely, virtually all types of delusions and paranoid suspiciousnessincluding
grandiose, persecutory, religious, somatic, jealous, and erotomanic delusions
prevail in dreams (Yu, 2009a, 2009b, 2010d).
Building upon replicated results of factor analyses using various combinations
of the items from his Dream Themes Inventory (DTI), Yu (2009a, 2009b, 2010d)
developed a delusion-based model that classies prevalent dream themes into the
categories of Grandiosity, Persecution, and Ego Ideal. Dream themes subsumed
under the rst category, such as having a superior status and becoming a big
wheel or celebrity, are prototypes of a grandiose delusion. Dream themes placed
in the second category, such as being tracked and some people plotting against
you, can be largely compared with those of persecutory delusions. The Ego Ideal
category does not directly involve classic psychotic delusions but is concerned with
issues surrounding dreamers falling short of social expectations and paranoid
suspiciousness.
As indicated by the high internal consistencies, the scales formed by the three
groups of dream themes can serve as reliable measures for evaluating the delusional
inclinations found during the dream state. Besides the three major scales, Yu
(2010a, 2010d) also devised 10 minor scales to supplement the assessment of the
intrinsic predispositions that are thought to modulate dream content: Paranoia,
Delusion, Erotomania, Appetite-Instinct, Sensorimotor Excitement, Sex, Fighting
Symbolism, Oral Symbolism, Animal Symbolism, and Classic Symbolism.
These scales have been demonstrated to be useful for detecting hysterical
conversion and dissociation, even when dream intensity, neuroticism, psychological
boundaries, and defense mechanismsthe key factors associated with hysteria
are taken into consideration (Yu, 2011b). Furthermore, they are congruent with the
functional attributes of the neural network of dreaming constituted by the mesolim-
bic-dopaminergic pathway, the ventromesial-orbitofrontal cortex, and the infer-
omesial temporal-limbic pathway (see Yu, 2001a, 2001b, 2003, 2006a, 2006b, 2007a
Dream Motif Scale 19
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for a review of the neural substrates of dreaming, and Yu, 2010d, 2011b for the
neuropsychological basis of thematic content of dreams). For example, the Gran-
diosity category can be seen to correspond with the mesolimbic-dopaminergic
system in that chemically modulating this region of the brain can induce psychosis-
like euphoria and inated self-worth (Vollenweider, Vontobel, ye, Hell, & Leen-
ders, 2000).
Since the principles involved in the formation of dream images are now better
recognized, it is possible to modify some items in the dream list of the DTI to
encompass even more variants of typical themes. For example, elaborating on the
theme of nding money into nding money, winning a lottery, or becoming
rich can probably better assimilate the appetitive and grandiose nature of dream-
ing, thus increasing the likelihood of capturing the thematic content dreamed by
respondents. In a similar vein, motifs that reect the major dream predispositions
and therefore are expected to be shared by many people can be added to expand
the scope of the DTI dream list.
Some prevalent dream themes found by Yu (2009a, 2009b, 2010d) are con-
cerned with ones relation to surrounding objects. The most glaring examples of
these are themes such as a person now alive as dead and a person now dead as
alive, which were considered to be the most important dream themes by the
participants in Yus (2008a, 2011a) samples. According to Yu (2009b), dreamers
relive and rewrite their internal working model of object-relations through the
dynamic interplay of breaking up and repairing their relationships with the impor-
tant objects. Such a process can be symbolically represented by the death and
resurrection of an object in dreams. If object-relation plays such a pivotal part in the
dream life, the attachment issue can perhaps be equally dealt with by directly
dreaming of being abandoned and encountering a signicant other. Considering
also the regressive nature of dreaming (Yu, 2001a, 2003, 2006b), it can be predicted
that motifs featuring the revival of previous relationships, such as reuniting with a
long-lost schoolmate, will emerge in dreams.
Freud (1900, 1940) postulated that dreaming serves the purpose of safeguard-
ing sleep continuation. He believed that dreams of convenience or dreams of
impatience including dreaming about eating or drinking, urinating, waking up
and washing oneself, and being on the way to work or schoollend support to his
theory. According to Freud, these particular dream images protect sleep from
interruption by presenting needs and obligations as fullled such that the sleeper no
longer needs to wake up to satisfy them. Given that dreams of convenience might
reveal the fundamental function of dreaming, it is worth developing some items for
investigating the incidence of these themes. This occurs despite the fact that Freuds
conceptualization of dreams as a guardian of sleep is only one of the existing
hypotheses about the function of dreaming. Revonsuos evolutionary theory (2000),
for instance, postulated that the primary function of dreaming is to simulate
threatening waking events and rehearse threat perception and avoidance, thus
enhancing survival capacities. According to Revonsuo, the threats that ancient
people encountered are overrepresented in dreams, since dreaming is a coping
maneuver inherited from ancient times.
Yus dream scales are substantiated by the overall high internal reliability and
item-scale correlation indices. However, these statistical tests are founded on the
classical test theory, which assumes any variations in responding to an item are due
20 Yu
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to the trait or ability of the respondents but not to the difculty level of the item.
It is generally agreed that the item response model, also called the latent trait
model, is superior to the classical test model in that it separates the effects of person
and item parameters when computing the probability of a keyed response to an
item. Specically, item response analysis can provide information on item difcul-
ties and how effective an item is to discriminate between people who are strong in
certain ability or trait and those who are not. In a similar vein, although the
three-factor delusional model has been repeatedly replicated by exploratory factor
analyses in Yus (2009a, 2009b, 2010d) previous studies, this measurement model
remains to be conrmed by statistical procedures that are specically designed to
assess a models goodness of t.
The primary purpose of this study was to develop a more comprehensive
assessment tool for measuring the incidence of dream motifs by revising the DTI.
In addition to ne-tuning and eliminating some DTI items in accordance with the
characteristics of dream formation discovered in Yus previous studies, new items
were designed to include potentially prevalent and signicant dream themes that
have not been covered in the DTI (e.g., aspects of Freuds dream theory). To
improve the psychometric quality of the scales, the items were selected by consid-
ering both classical reliability and latent trait statistics, the factorial validity of the
new instrument was examined by conrmatory factor analyses, and the convergent
and discriminant validity of the rened scales were assessed by testing their asso-
ciations with personality dimensions. Moreover, participants in the present study
were asked to indicate if they had dreamed during the previous night any of the
themes in the revised dream list. This can shed further light on the constancy of
typical dream themes.
METHOD
Participants
The sample of 1186 participants contained 398 (33.6%) males and 788 (66.4%)
females. The mean age was 19.28 (SD 1.220, range 1725). Almost all
participants completed upper-secondary school education in Hong Kong. They
were recruited on the university admission days. Participation was voluntary and
without payment.
Instruments
The Dream Motif Scale (DMS), which is the revised version of the DTI, was
administered to all 1186 participants. In addition, 500 participants, 179 (35.8%)
males and 321 (64.2%) females, were randomly selected from the entire sample;
they were required to ll out the NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI; Costa &
McCrae, 1985). The NEO-FFI Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Openness scales
were used to evaluate the convergent and discriminant validity of the DMS on the
grounds that these three personal traits are distinguished by their stable, differential
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associations and dissociations with dream variables (see Yu, 2006c, 2007b, 2008b,
2010b, 2010c, for details).
Dream Motif Scale
The DMS contains a list of 110 dream themes. Participants indicated their
lifetime frequency with which they dreamed each theme on a 5-point scale (0
never or unsure; 1 once or twice in a lifetime; 2 three times or more in a lifetime,
but not regularly; 3 several times a year, but not each month; 4 once a month or
more often). A sum of percentages of participants choosing responses 1 to 4
represents the prevalence rate for a dream theme; that is, how widespread a dream
theme is experienced by participants. A sum of percentages of participants who
choose responses 2 to 4 represents a recurrence rate. A sum of percentages of
participants choosing responses 3 or 4 corresponds to a regularity rate. A conser-
vative approach was taken when quantifying participants frequency of dreaming
each theme; participants were requested to estimate their lifetime frequency only if
they remembered having dreamed the theme.
After rating the frequency of each dream theme, participants identied which
items in the list were the most frequent, the earliest, and the most important/
meaningful dream themes that they experienced. In addition, participants were
required to indicate whether any themes in the list occurred in their dreams last
night if they could recall the main content of those dreams.
The DMS comprises 92 items adopted from the DTI and 18 newly developed
themes. Twenty-ve of the 92 DTI items were revised to improve the clarity of the
expression, encompass the variants of the theme, and elaborate the description
based on the present authors theoretical understanding of dreaming. For instance,
Themes 9, snakes, 10, nding money, and 18, your teeth falling out/losing your
teeth were expanded into dragons, tortoises, or snakes, nding money, winning
a lottery, or becoming rich, and your teeth falling out, losing your teeth, or your
teeth rotting, respectively. Similarly, Theme 50, being a child again was changed
to being a child or the previous self again to include the dream scene of regressing
to previous times other than childhood.
The 18 new items are listed as follows: ve object-relation themes (Items 70,
being abandoned, 83 reuniting with a long-lost fellow or childhood play-
mate, 84 reuniting with a long-lost schoolmate, 85 reuniting with someone that
you have not seen for a long time [other than fellows, childhood playmates, and
schoolmates], and 103 encountering the person that you like or you want to see),
three convenient dreaming themes (Items 107 seeing yourself sleeping, 108
waking from sleep, and 109 rolling out of bed, cleaning up, going to school or
work), three blaming themes (Items 67 blaming yourself, 101 ying into a rage,
getting into a temper, or cursing, and 106 blaming others for blaming you
wrongly), two performance anxiety themes (Items 75 failing or performing very
badly in front of others [e.g., teachers, classmates, bosses, colleagues, etc.] and 102
being absent from classes or examinations), two bodily movement themes
(Items 65 performing a lot of difcult actions to get through a series of hurdle as
if you were a stunt man and 94 feeling dog-tired, lack of strength in the whole
body, and very difcult to movebut you have not stopped, and keep walking very
22 Yu
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hard), a set of phallic symbols (Item 68 pillars, rods, staffs, or stick-shaped
things) a persecutory theme (Item 93 encountering a devil in some form), and
an appetitive theme, (Item 82 searching for something).
NEO-Five-Factor Inventory
The present study employed the NEO-FFI Neuroticism, Extraversion, and
Openness scales (Costa & McCrae, 1985) to assess participants personality dimen-
sions. Each NEO-FFI scale is composed of 12 items.
RESULTS
Prevalence, Recurrence, and Regularity Rates of 110 Dream Themes
Among the 110 themes in the DMS list, 51 were dreamed by the majority of the
participants (see Table 1). The prevalence rates of the newly developed items were
high; 14 of the 18 new items showed a prevalence rate of over 50%. The remaining
four new themes were also dreamed by a considerable number of participants:
Items 70 (being abandoned) (47.0%), 93 (encountering a devil in some form)
(45.3%), 106 (blaming others for blaming you wrongly) (43.3%), and 68 (pillars,
rods, staffs, or stick-shaped things) (38.9%). Moreover, four of the top 10 preva-
lent themes were new items. The object-relation Themes 103 (encountering the
person that you like or you want to see), 84 (reuniting with a long-lost school-
mate), and 83 (reuniting with a long-lost fellow or childhood playmate) ranked
second, third, and 11th, respectively.
Those prevalent themes also tended to be recurrent and regular themes.
Themes 31 (school, teachers, and studying) and 103 (encountering the person
that you like or you want to see) topped the three rank-ordered incidence lists. Six
of the 10 most prevalent dreams showed a recurrence rate of over 50%. Being
blamed (Item 61) was more common than blaming others (Items 62 and 101), which
was in turn more likely to happen than blaming oneself (Item 67). In a similar vein,
Theme 109 (rolling out of bed, cleaning up, going to school or work) occurred
more frequently than Themes 108 (waking from sleep) and 107 (seeing yourself
sleeping).
Themes Dreamed in the Preceding Night
Of the 1186 participants in the sample, 44.8% claimed that they did not dream
last night, and 16.4% were not sure whether they dreamed. Of the remaining 455
participants who reported having dreamed last night, 303 (66.6%) participants
forgot the details of their dreams, while 152 (33.4%) participants remembered the
main content of their dreams. The themes dreamed by 143 (94.1%) participants of
the latter group with recalled content could be captured by the DMS list, with a
total of 71 themes being identied (see Table 2). Consistent with the ndings in
Table 1, Items 103 (encountering the person that you like or you want to see)
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and 31 (school, teachers, and studying) were the two most often reported dream
themes. Those themes that ranked high in the prevalence, recurrence, and regu-
larity ratings were more commonly dreamed by the participants in the night prior
to this research study. Among the top 32 prevalent dream themes shown in Table 1,
only one theme, 75 (failing or performing very badly in front of others [e.g.,
teachers, classmates, bosses, colleagues, etc.]) had not been dreamed by the
participants during the previous night.
The Most Frequent, Earliest Experienced, and Most Important/Meaningful
Dream Themes
The most frequent dream themes reported by the participants were 103
(encountering the person that you like or you want to see) (28.7%), 31 (school,
teachers, and studying) (22.8%), 12 (falling) (10.1%), and 109 (rolling out of
bed, cleaning up, going to school or work) (10.1%). The earliest experienced
dream themes most often reported by the participants were 1 (being chased or
pursued, but not physically injured) (12.7%), 31 (school, teachers, and studying)
(10.5%), and 12 (falling) (9.7%). The mean age in years at which their earliest
themes were recalled was 8.02 4.547. The most important/meaningful dream
themes reported by the participants were 103 (encountering the person that you
like or you want to see) (26.1%), 31 (school, teachers, and studying) (9.9%),
and 35 (a person now dead as alive) (9.3%).
Item Analyses
In addition to the original seven items of the Paranoia scale, two new
items, 67 (blaming yourself) and 106 (blaming others for blaming you
wrongly), which are germane to the issue were entered into the analyses. All
nine items were strongly correlated with the scale (see Table 3). Among the nine
items, Items 76 (others not giving you proper credit for your achievements)
and 106 (blaming others for blaming you wrongly) most effectively discrim-
inated between participants of different paranoid levels. By contrast, the dis-
crimination indices for Items 73 (having thoughts or beliefs that others do not
have) and 80 (something seriously wrong with your body) were relatively
low, suggesting that these two items did not contribute much information for
differentiating between high and low paranoia scorers. Furthermore, the
squared multiple correlations indicated that these two items contributed the
least to the internal consistency of the scale. After the removal of Items 73
and 80, the alpha reliability coefcient dropped mildly from 0.877 to 0.870,
which was still well above the conventional cutoff of 0.7.
Although all eight additional items for the Delusional scale exhibited both
adequate classical and logistic item analytical indices, only seven items were added
to the original 23 items to even out the number of items (see Table 4). All original
and new items for the Ego Ideal scale exhibited adequate indices except Item 18
(your teeth falling out, losing your teeth, or your teeth rotting), the item-scale
correlation coefcient of which was below the conventional .30 level. The original
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Item 35 (a person now dead as alive) was removed because of its low indices
relative to those of both the original and new items.
Some themessuch as 79 (committing a serious crime or blunder [other than
murder]) and 71 (some people are spying on or talking about you)loaded on
both the Ego Ideal and Persecution scales with adequate indices but were allotted
to the Ego Ideal scale after considering the relative magnitudes of the indices and
their face validity. Six new items with the highest corrected item-total correlation,
squared multiple correlation, and discrimination values were appended to the
original 14 items to create a new 20-item Ego Ideal scale (see Table 5). The
resulting internal consistency indices for the Delusional and Ego Ideal scales were
very highthat is, 0.944 and 0.929, respectively.
Eight other existing scales were revised using similar procedures as depicted
above (see Tables 613). In addition, three new scalesUnusual Creature, Object-
Relation, and Convenient Dreamingwere constructed by including a selection of
relevant themes (see Tables 1416). An inclusive approach was adopted; relevant
themes, even those only tangentially related to the construct that the scale is
intended to measure, were entered into the analyses. All resulting Cronbachs alpha
reliability values were higher than those previously reported (Yu, 2010a, 2010d). A
total of 11 DMS items were not allotted to any scales. The nalized version of the
DMS is shown in the Appendix.
Item 18 (your teeth falling out, losing your teeth, or your teeth rotting) was
only weakly correlated with the Ego Ideal, Grandiosity, Persecution, and Sensori-
motor Excitement scales, but its correlation coefcients with the Sensorimotor
Excitement (r .286) and Ego Ideal scales (r .280) were mildly larger than its
correlations with the Persecution (r .264) and Grandiosity (r .216) scales.
Item 30 (being unable to nd, or embarrassed about using, a toilet) exhibited
Table 3. Classical and Logistic Item Analyses for the Paranoia Scale (n 1183)
Item
no. Dream themes
Classical Logistic
r r
2
Difculty Discrimination
Original items
62 Blaming others for doing something
wrongly/ making troubles/ committing
mistakes
.628 .420 .863 0.539 1.253
64 Feeling that most people cannot be trusted .641 .418 .862 0.350 1.109
71 Some people are spying on or talking
about you
.671 .458 .859 0.046 1.433
73 Having thoughts or beliefs that others do
not have
a
.517 .285 .875 0.042 0.038
76 Others not giving you proper credit for
your achievements
.679 .483 .858 0.005 3.000
78 People wanting to take advantage of you .650 .433 .863 0.630 1.490
80 Something seriously wrong with your body
a
.536 .290 .870 1.082 0.443
Additional items
67 Blaming yourself .650 .425 .861 0.178 1.366
106 Blaming others for blaming you wrongly .650 .460 .861 0.114 2.760
Note. r Corrected item-total correlation; r
2
Squared multiple correlation; Cronbachs if item
deleted. The two items with the largest discrimination indices are bolded.
a
The item was removed in the nalized scale. for all nine items being included in the scale .877;
for the nalized 7-item scale .870.
32 Yu
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moderate correlations with the Ego Ideal (r .473), Sensorimotor Excitement (r
.446), Sex (r .369), and Convenient Dreaming (r .435) scales. Item 13 (being
inappropriately dressed) had a somewhat stronger correlation with the Ego Ideal
scale (r .516) than with the Sex scale (r .495), although the effect sizes of both
Table 4. Classical and Logistic Item Analyses for the Delusion Scale (n 1179)
Item
no. Dream themes
Classical Logistic
r r
2
Original items
16 Having superior knowledge or mental ability .512 .424 .943 0.359 0.743
20 Having magical powers (other than ying,
soaring, or oating through the air)
.589 .448 .943 0.626 0.824
52 Encountering a deity in some form .546 .537 .943 0.701 0.830
56 Some people plotting against you .603 .509 .942 0.185 0.891
59 Being persecuted .581 .512 .942 0.150 0.862
60 Becoming a certain form of deity .463 .376 .944 1.824 0.784
61 Being blamed or punished .645 .538 .942 1.608 0.964
62 Blaming others for doing something
wrongly/ making troubles/ committing
mistakes
.647 .545 .942 0.539 1.189
66 Becoming a big wheel or celebrity .686 .588 .941 0.056 1.180
71 Some people are spying on or talking about
you
.672 .517 .941 0.050 1.194
72 Being tracked .572 .433 .943 0.347 0.892
not have
.576 .389 .943 0.051 0.752
76 Others not giving you proper credit for your
achievements
.666 .531 .942 0.013 1.393
77 Having a superior status .711 .629 .941 0.213 1.543
79 Committing a serious crime or blunder
(other than murder)
.639 .482 .942 0.232 1.103
80 Something seriously wrong with your body .557 .368 .943 0.607 0.890
86 Spouse or lover having extramarital relations
or being unfaithful
.392 .236 .944 1.103 0.569
91 Rescuing somebody .635 .487 .942 0.940 1.028
96 Coming into contact with a big wheel or
celebrity
.625 .504 .942 0.024 1.103
97 Having a love affair with a big wheel or
celebrity
.533 .512 .943 0.203 0.717
98 Having a sexual relationship with a big
wheel or celebrity
.437 .350 .944 1.643 0.696
Additional items
43 Lunatic or insane people .525 .351 .943 0.796 0.784
46 Seeing a UFO
a
.448 .458 .944 1.226 0.651
47 Seeing extra-terrestrials .470 .484 .943 0.851 0.664
51 Seeing an angel .502 .467 .943 0.801 0.742
93 Encountering a devil in some form .541 .384 .943 0.164 0.711
101 Flying into a rage, getting into a temper, or
cursing
.594 .458 .942 0.515 0.898
2
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The item was removed in the nalized scale. for all items being included in the scale .944; for
the nalized 30-item scale .944.
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correlations were large. On the other hand, Item 14 (being nude) was more
robustly correlated with the Sex scale (r .512) than with the Ego Ideal scale (r
.418). Item 36 (a person now alive as dead) was more related to the Ego Ideal
(r .511) and Object-Relation (r .507) scales than to the Grandiosity scale (r
.481).
Table 5. Classical and Logistic Item Analyses for the Ego Ideal Scale (n 1172)
Item no. Dream themes
Classical Logistic
r r
2
Original items
6 Arriving too late, e.g., missing a train, a bus,
etc.
.531 .391 .942 1.041 0.738
13 Being inappropriately dressed .516 .382 .942 0.813 0.736
30 Being unable to nd, or embarrassed about
using, a toilet
.473 .266 .942 0.354 0.649
31 School, teachers, and studying .524 .403 .942 2.605 0.863
35 A person now dead as alive
a
.427 .218 .943 0.052 0.464
36 A person now alive as dead .511 .305 .942 0.676 0.591
38 Failing an examination .576 .448 .941 1.097 0.941
61 Being blamed or punished .713 .580 .940 1.156 1.558
62 Blaming others for doing something wrongly/
making troubles/ committing mistakes
.678 .538 .940 0.425 1.535
you
.671 .513 .940 0.009 1.383
76 Others not giving you proper credit for your
achievements
.671 .543 .940 0.035 1.633
80 Something seriously wrong with your body .560 .385 .942 0.619 0.935
81 Searching for a certain place .667 .648 .940 1.197 1.118
Additional items
3 Trying again and again to do something
a
.513 .302 .942 0.188 0.693
14 Being nude
a
.418 .319 .943 1.206 0.591
18 Your teeth falling out, losing your teeth, or
your teeth rotting
a
.280 .138 .944 1.133 0.265
19 Seeing yourself in a mirror
a
.487 .268 .942 0.139 0.667
33 Losing control of a vehicle (e.g., car, aircraft,
etc.)
a
.531 .312 .942 0.354 0.844
69 Living in a very big house
a
.612 .398 .941 0.568 1.020
70 Being abandoned
a
.572 .424 .941 0.120 1.028
72 Being tracked
a
.545 .384 .942 0.373 0.949
75 Failing or performing very badly in front of
others (e.g., teachers, classmates, bosses,
colleagues, etc.)
.735 .611 .940 0.645 1.687
(other than murder)
.638 .499 .941 0.255 1.191
82 Searching for something .692 .669 .940 0.967 1.321
or being unfaithful
a
.434 .285 .943 1.087 0.631
101 Flying into a rage, getting into a temper, or
cursing
.636 .466 .941 0.393 1.157
102 Being absent from classes or examinations
a
.596 .423 .941 0.006 0.815
103 Encountering the person that you like or you
want to see
a
.513 .329 .942 2.965 0.622
2
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34 Yu
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Conrmatory Factor Analyses
Conrmatory factor analyses were conducted to test the goodness of t of
the delusional model formed by the latent constructs Ego Ideal, Grandiosity,
and Persecution. The initial model was set up using the 60 delusional dream
themes of the Ego Ideal, Grandiosity, and Persecution scales. Each of the 60
delusional dream themes was mapped onto oneand only onecorresponding
latent construct based on the item analyses reported above. The three latent
constructs were specied to load on the upper order construct Delusion. The
diagrammatical representation of the model is shown in Figure 1. Given that
only four latent constructs were included in the model to explain the responses
to the 60 items, the absolute t indices were reasonable,
2
(1707) 9612.993,
Table 6. Classical and Logistic Item Analyses for the Grandiosity Scale (n 1180)
Item
no. Dream themes
Classical Logistic
r r
2
Original items
16 Having superior knowledge or mental
ability
.578 .437 .910 0.252 1.156
20 Having magical powers (other than ying,
soaring, or oating through the air)
.645 .467 .909 0.483 1.178
32 Sexual experiences .435 .326 .913 0.309 0.526
41 Being in a movie, ction, or drama .605 .412 .910 0.700 0.905
50 Being a child or the previous self again .549 .350 .911 0.847 0.741
69 Living in a very big house .640 .454 .909 0.567 1.186
not have
.567 .366 .910 0.024 0.852
celebrity
.619 .489 .909 0.004 1.203
celebrity
.571 .506 .910 0.202 0.886
wheel or celebrity
.472 .405 .912 1.518 0.809
Additional items
10 Finding money, winning a lottery, or
becoming rich
.550 .352 .911 0.055 0.903
18 Your teeth falling out, losing your teeth,
or your teeth rotting
a
.216 .084 .918 1.323 0.199
35 A person now dead as alive
a
.411 .223 .914 0.107 0.400
36 A person now alive as dead
a
.481 .265 .912 0.767 0.553
46 Seeing a UFO .478 .455 .912 1.109 0.784
48 Traveling to another planet or visiting a
different part of the universe
.537 .384 .911 0.544 0.905
51 Seeing an angel .533 .466 .911 0.721 0.926
2
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Root-Mean-Square Error of Approximation 0.064; Goodness-of-Fit In-
dex 0.778; Adjusted Goodness-of-Fit Index 0.762, and the comparative
(Normed Fit Index 0.964; Comparative Fit Index 0.971) and parsimonious
Table 7. Classical and Logistic Item Analyses for the Persecution Scale (n 1170)
Item
no. Dream themes
Classical Logistic
r r
2
Original items
1 Being chased or pursued, but not physically
injured
.574 .439 .933 1.718 0.983
2 Being physically attacked (e.g., beaten,
stabbed, raped, etc.)
.599 .465 .932 0.031 0.840
3 Trying again and again to do something .524 .337 .933 0.205 0.648
4 Being frozen with fright .479 .395 .934 0.235 0.667
11 Flying, soaring, or oating through the air .519 .348 .934 0.930 0.779
12 Falling
a
.453 .327 .935 1.842 0.607
15 Being tied, unable to move .549 .456 .933 0.552 0.907
29 Vividly sensing (but not necessarily seeing or
hearing) a presence in the room
a
.405 .269 .934 0.755 0.558
37 Being on the verge of falling .575 .422 .933 0.249 0.933
39 Being smothered, unable to breathe .544 .358 .933 0.343 0.888
56 Some people plotting against you .611 .520 .932 0.208 1.059
59 Being persecuted .631 .555 .932 0.162 1.297
63 Entering or passing through a narrow space .618 .449 .932 0.232 1.090
72 Being tracked .583 .436 .933 0.352 1.024
(other than murder)
a
.634 .461 .932 0.266 1.119
Additional items
8 Being locked up .511 .336 .934 1.135 1.040
your teeth rotting
a
.264 .120 .936 0.942 0.299
21 Floods or tidal waves
a
.501 .438 .934 0.846 0.854
22 Tornadoes or strong winds .538 .436 .933 0.830 0.991
23 Earthquakes
a
.459 .356 .934 1.143 0.871
26 Being an object (e.g., tree, rock, etc.)
a
.394 .268 .934 1.830 0.698
27 Being killed .556 .462 .933 0.603 0.798
28 Seeing yourself as dead
a
.500 .382 .933 0.971 0.729
etc.)
.584 .410 .933 0.291 1.099
34 Fire .563 .384 .933 0.048 0.950
40 Ferocious beasts .567 .404 .933 0.114 0.960
42 Killing someone .550 .363 .933 1.061 0.835
49 Being an animal
a
.446 .324 .934 1.156 0.831
54 A ying object crashing (e.g., aircraft)
a
.492 .333 .934 1.196 0.982
61 Being blamed or punished
a
.607 .441 .932 1.479 0.973
64 Feeling that most people cannot be trusted
a
.607 .475 .932 0.366 1.187
you
a
.628 .506 .932 0.001 1.161
78 People wanting to take advantage of you
a
.593 .446 .933 0.720 1.134
or being unfaithful
a
.372 .191 .935 1.114 0.571
2
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t values (Parsimony Normed Fit Index 0.930; Parsimony Goodness-of-Fit
Index 0.726) were remarkable.
All three lower order constructs loaded similarly highly on the upper order
construct Delusion, the estimate for the constructs Ego Ideal and Persecution being
Table 8. Classical and Logistic Item Analyses for the Erotomania Scale (n 1181)
Item
no. Dream themes
Classical Logistic
r r
2
Original items
or being unfaithful
.412 .266 .834 1.109 0.652
celebrity
.618 .476 .817 0.041 1.945
celebrity
.613 .494 .817 0.197 1.392
wheel or celebrity
.527 .399 .828 1.350 1.207
Additional items
25 Being a member of the opposite sex
a
.360 .161 .837 1.983 0.531
41 Being in a movie, ction, or drama .545 .356 .824 0.649 0.942
70 Being abandoned .468 .299 .830 0.170 0.659
103 Encountering the person that you like or
you want to see
.474 .256 .831 3.045 0.638
2
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Table 9. Classical and Logistic Item Analyses for the Appetite-Instinct Scale (n 1178)
Item
no. Dream themes
Classical Logistic
r r
2
Original items
3 Trying again and again to do something
a
.460 .251 .873 0.087 0.545
5 Eating delicious foods .539 .476 .869 0.689 0.986
10 Finding money, winning a lottery, or
becoming rich
.531 .312 .869 0.045 0.991
32 Sexual experiences
a
.341 .196 .879 0.169 0.084
69 Living in a very big house .665 .482 .862 0.376 1.975
Additional items
7 Swimming or vacationing .563 .372 .867 0.608 1.036
53 Discovering a new room at home
a
.463 .260 .872 0.816 0.565
82 Searching for something .686 .658 .860 0.765 1.822
you want to see
.499 .275 .871 2.802 0.629
105 Eating candies, ice-cream, or sweetmeat
(e.g., lollipop, Chupa Chups,
chocolate, ice pop, cake, etc.)
.556 .483 .868 0.567 0.901
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larger than that for the construct Grandiosity. Item 75 (failing or performing very
badly in front of others [e.g., teachers, classmates, bosses, colleagues, etc.]) loaded
most highly on the construct Ego Ideal, followed by Items 61 (being blamed or
punished) and 62 (blaming others for doing something wrongly/ making troubles/
committing mistakes), and the path estimate for Item 13 (being inappropriately
dressed) was the smallest. This pattern of loadings was consistent with the ndings
of the item analysis (see Table 5). A rst-order model in which the upper order
construct Delusion was removed with all remaining parameters left unchanged was
congured for testing the intercorrelations between the latent constructs Ego Ideal,
Table 10. Classical and Logistic Item Analyses for the Sensorimotor Excitement Scale (n 1172)
Item
no. Dream themes
Classical Logistic
r r
2
Original items
1 Being chased or pursued, but not physically
injured
.560 .398 .889 1.869 0.842
3 Trying again and again to do something .533 .331 .890 0.190 0.691
4 Being frozen with fright .486 .398 .891 0.208 0.733
11 Flying, soaring, or oating through the air .557 .349 .889 0.866 0.881
12 Falling .481 .332 .892 1.673 0.668
63 Entering or passing through a narrow space .620 .431 .887 0.200 1.392
Additional items
2 Being physically attacked (e.g., beaten,
stabbed, raped, etc.)
a
.538 .374 .890 0.051 0.645
15 Being tied, unable to move
a
.537 .410 .890 0.567 0.944
your teeth rotting
a
.286 .115 .896 0.873 0.323
a
.389 .244 .893 0.813 0.537
using, a toilet
a
.446 .216 .892 0.375 0.621
etc.)
a
.539 .322 .890 0.320 1.000
37 Being on the verge of falling .588 .409 .888 0.217 1.127
39 Being smothered, unable to breathe
a
.549 .359 .890 0.344 0.982
44 Being half awake and paralyzed in bed
a
.413 .251 .893 1.104 0.737
57 Playing a plucked-string instrument or an
analogous thing (e.g., violin, guitar, Chinese
lute, ancient Chinese zither, etc.)
a
.448 .438 .892 0.014 0.726
58 Blowing a wind instrument or a ute-shaped
object (e.g., clarinet, trumpet, vertical
bamboo ute, harmonica, etc.)
a
.419 .431 .893 0.800 0.746
65 Performing a lot of difcult actions to get
through a series of hurdle as if you were a
stunt man
.549 .358 .889 0.192 0.971
80 Something seriously wrong with your body
a
.548 .337 .890 0.630 0.971
94 Feeling dog-tired, lack of strength in the whole
body, and very difcult to move but you
have not stopped, and keep walking very
hard
.598 .397 .888 0.485 1.067
2
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Grandiosity, and Persecution (see Figure 2). The overall resulting t indices re-
mained the same, with the path coefcients resembling those of the rst model. The
three latent constructs, especially Ego Ideal and Persecution, were highly corre-
lated.
Analyses of Convergent and Discriminant Validity
The criterion-related validity of the DMS was assessed by testing its associa-
tions with neuroticism, extraversion, and openness to experience. It was hypothe-
sized that if the DMS scales serve as some valid constructs for describing respective
sets of dream themes, they would be correlated more strongly with neuroticism and
Table 11. Classical and Logistic Item Analyses for the Sex Scale (n 1178)
Item
no. Dream themes
Classical Logistic
r r
2
13 Being inappropriately dressed .495 .309 .672 0.511 0.935
14 Being nude .512 .323 .671 0.516 2.166
25 Being a member of the opposite sex .371 .148 .699 1.274 0.761
using, a toilet
.369 .159 .704 2.000 0.172
45 Seeing a face very close to you
a
.303 .104 .709 1.114 0.412
55 Someone having an abortion
a
.281 .088 .716 2.487 0.826
or being unfaithful
.359 .142 .699 0.828 0.635
wheel or celebrity
.471 .292 .684 0.886 1.984
2
a
Table 12. Classical and Logistic Item Analyses for the Fighting Scale (n 1174)
Item
no. Dream themes
Classical Logistic
r r
2
42 Killing someone .531 .322 .862 1.116 0.594
54 A ying object crashing (e.g., aircraft) .420 .182 .869 1.486 0.555
68 Pillars, rods, staffs, or stick-shaped things .585 .390 .858 0.143 0.800
87 Knives, swords, or daggers .715 .575 .847 0.179 2.356
88 Guns or cannons .698 .613 .849 0.104 1.543
89 Other weapons .468 .245 .868 2.264 0.731
90 Shooting or remote attacks (e.g., ring a gun,
shooting an arrow, vacuum surge st,
qigong attacks, etc.)
.668 .556 .851 0.146 1.253
92 Hitting something or someone .686 .490 .849 0.697 1.215
95 Balls or globoid .591 .421 .859 0.721 0.613
110 Hand tools (e.g., hammer, screwdriver, tin
opener, etc.)
.544 .342 .862 0.354 0.692
2
deleted. The two items with the largest discrimination indices are bolded. for the 10-item scale .870.
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openness to experience (convergent validity) than with extraversion (discriminant
validity). The NEO-FFI Neuroticism scale demonstrated signicant, positive cor-
relations with most DMS scales, with the exceptions of the Grandiosity, Appetite-
Instinct, Fighting, and Unusual Creature scales (see Table 17). Most of the corre-
lation coefcients reached the .001 signicant level. The NEO-FFI Openness was
moderately correlated with the Grandiosity scale, Fighting scale, Unusual Creature
scale, and six other DMS scales. The NEO-FFI Extraversion scale was negatively
associated with only four DMS scales. The differential patterns of the associations
indicated that the responses to the DMS scales could not be fully explained by a
single factor, such as dream recall frequency.
Table 13. Classical and Logistic Item Analyses for the Animal Symbolism Scale (n 1178)
Item
no. Dream themes
Classical Logistic
r r
2
9 Dragons, tortoises, or snakes .538 .298 .810 0.459 0.702
17 Creatures with both human and animal
characteristics
a
.469 .266 .818 1.263 0.410
24 Insect, spiders, worms, or a wormlike thing
(e.g., earthworm, caterpillar, etc.)
.521 .302 .813 0.502 0.499
40 Ferocious beasts .606 .375 .802 0.034 0.903
49 Being an animal
a
.479 .251 .818 1.730 0.493
74 Dogs .526 .322 .814 0.740 0.600
99 Caves, caverns, or grottoes .574 .490 .806 0.072 1.548
100 Holes or crevices .537 .465 .812 0.667 1.228
104 Birds .592 .363 .804 0.228 1.760
2
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Table 14. Classical and Logistic Item Analyses for the Unusual Creature Scale (n 1182)
Item
no. Dream themes
Classical Logistic
r r
2
17 Creatures with both human and animal
characteristics
.507 .276 .797 0.703 0.417
26 Being an object (e.g., tree, rock, etc.) .401 .220 .808 1.804 0.563
a
.383 .189 .813 0.499 0.120
46 Seeing a UFO .530 .444 .795 0.786 0.837
49 Being an animal .499 .307 .798 0.833 0.911
51 Seeing an angel .520 .416 .795 0.370 1.295
2
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DISCUSSION
Of the 110 dream themes, 51 were dreamed by more than half of the partici-
pants. Excluding the newly developed themes, 37 themes demonstrated a preva-
lence rate above 50%, compared with the average of 26 themes in the previous
studies (Yu, 2008a, 2009b, 2010d, 2011a). The prevalence rates of many dream
themes were substantially raised after the items were elaborated. For instance, the
prevalence rates of Themes 7 (swimming or vacationing), 10 (nding money,
winning a lottery, or becoming rich), 41 (being in a movie, ction, or drama),
and 50 (being a child or the previous self again) in this study
were 69.9%, 51.3%, 67.9%, and 69.2%, respectively. The prevalence rates of the
Table 15. Classical and Logistic Item Analyses for the Object-Relation Scale (n 1177)
Item
no. Dream themes
Classical Logistic
r r
2
28 Seeing yourself as dead
a
.359 .175 .840 1.587 0.395
35 A person now dead as alive .444 .220 .835 0.010 0.514
36 A person now alive as dead .507 .294 .830 0.649 0.617
50 Being a child or the previous self again .531 .312 .829 0.760 0.825
70 Being abandoned .500 .321 .831 0.127 0.895
83 Reuniting with a long-lost fellow or
childhood playmate
.658 .664 .818 0.681 3.000
84 Reuniting with a long-lost schoolmate .633 .659 .820 0.925 2.760
85 Reuniting with someone that you have not
seen for a long time (other than fellows,
childhood playmates, and schoolmates)
.653 .517 .818 0.326 1.961
86 Spouse or lover having extramarital
relations or being unfaithful
.414 .270 .837 1.032 0.705
you want to see
.508 .274 .831 2.581 0.773
45 Seeing a face very close to you
a
.356 .139 .840 1.150 0.605
74 Dogs .483 .246 .833 0.382 0.775
2
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Table 16. Classical and Logistic Item Analyses for the Convenient Dreaming Scale (n 1183)
Item
no. Dream themes
Classical Logistic
r r
2
5 Eating delicious foods .396 .164 .791 0.784 0.527
6 Arriving too late, e.g., missing a train, a
bus, etc.
.533 .329 .764 0.943 0.666
using, a toilet
.435 .196 .782 0.020 0.531
102 Being absent from classes or examinations .558 .353 .761 0.441 0.696
107 Seeing yourself sleeping .561 .500 .759 0.098 0.772
108 Waking from sleep .615 .546 .748 0.214 0.798
109 Rolling out of bed, cleaning up, going to
school or work
.571 .350 .757 1.603 0.717
2
deleted. The two items with the largest discrimination indices are bolded. for the 7-item scale .793.
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corresponding items (7 [swimming], 10 [nding money], 41 [being in a
movie], 50 [being a child again]) for the previous age-matched samples were
obviously lowerthat is, 43.3%, 38.8%, 42.6%, and 68.4% in Yus 2010d sample,
and 35.7%, 47.0%, 49.6%, and 55.4% in Yus 2011a sample. The overall marked
increase in the prevalence of dream themes suggests that the rened dream list is
more effective than previous versions for reecting the modus operandi of dream
expression and capturing the motifs of respondents dreams.
The DMS is distinguished by its prociency in describing the themes experi-
enced by over 90% of participants with dream recall in the night prior to taking part
in the present research study. It is noteworthy that these participants had not
received any presleep information and instructions, which can have powerful effects
for prompting nocturnal conscious activities (Yu, 2006c). Since a sample of dreams
spontaneously recollected from a randomly designated day following sleep without
an experimental intervention can contain a sizable amount of typical themes, those
prominent dream motifs shared by many people probably occur far more constantly
than what contemporary researchers generally believe.
Figure 1. Standardized solution for the second order conrmatory factor analytic model of the 60
delusional dream themes.
42 Yu
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The rank-ordered frequencies of themes dreamed by participants in the pre-
ceding night were largely consistent with the dream prevalence, frequency, and
recurrence proles replicated in the present study and Yus (2008a, 2009a, 2009b,
2010d, 2011a) several previous studies using the retrospective-scale method. More-
over, all 18 new themes, which were designed along the lines of dream predispo-
sitions discovered in Yus studies, were dreamed by a substantial number of
participants, with the prevalence rates of 14 new themes exceeding 50%. This
scenario is even more impressive when it is considered that some new themes
such as Item 65 (performing a lot of difcult actions to get through a series of
hurdle as if you were a stunt man)were scripted in a precise and detailed
manner. Accordingly, it is unlikely that things happened in dreams by chance.
There are clearly rules that govern the formation of dream images. The themes
that top the three rank-ordered incidence lists are far more frequently dreamed by
people than those at the bottom of the lists. Some patterns of dream language usage
can be observed even within a set of interrelated prevalent dream themes. For
Figure 2. Standardized solution for the rst order conrmatory factor analytic model of the 60 delusional
dream themes.
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instance, being blamed is more prevalent than blaming oneself in dreams. This
resonates with the notion that dream thoughts, particularly intangible ones, pref-
erentially nd concrete expression via visualization; therefore, during dreaming,
guilt feeling manifests itself in the form of being criticized by an external agent
rather than introspectively criticizing oneself. Similarly, dreaming about rolling out
of bed, cleaning up, and going to school or work is more common than dreaming of
waking from sleep or seeing oneself sleeping probably because the former dream
scene can more effectively relieve the sleeper of the tasks incompatible with sleep
than the latter.
On the strength of the ndings generated by both classical and logistic item
analyses, the scales previously devised for assessing the major predispositions that
modulate dream content were modied to improve their psychometric quality.
Three new scales were developed to measure the incidence of symbolizing people
with unusual creatures, dealing with object-relation issues, and processing sleep-
disturbing stimuli in dreams. Overall, the internal consistencies of all the scales
were high; the convergent and discriminant validity of the DMS scales being
substantiated by the differential patterns of their associations with neuroticism,
extraversion, and openness to experience, the three universal personality traits that
can be reliably measured. Moreover, the three-factor DMS delusional model was
corroborated by the conrmatory statistical procedures, which indicate that re-
sponses to 60 of the DMS dream themes can be properly explained by the
interrelated lower order factors Ego Ideal, Grandiosity, and Persecution, which in
turn can be accounted for by the higher order factor Delusion.
In addition to evaluating the types of motifs that predominate a persons
dream experiences, the DMS scales can serve as some useful indicators of the
potential meanings of a dream theme. In light of the relative magnitudes of its
correlations with various scales, dreams featuring teeth rotting or losing ones teeth
most probably spring from dental excitation. On the other hand, the feeling of
pressure on the bladder cannot fully explain the experience of being unable to nd,
or embarrassed about using, a toilet in dreams, given the nding that this theme was
Table 17. Correlations With the NEO-FFI Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Openness Scales
(n 500)
Scales NEO-FFI
DMS Neuroticism Extraversion Openness
Paranoia r
s
.294, p .001 r
s
.123, p .01 r
s
.055, p .224
Delusion r
s
.183, p .001 r
s
.063, p .159 r
s
.100, p .05
Ego ideal r
s
.291, p .001 r
s
.093, p .05 r
s
.076, p .089
Grandiosity r
s
.054, p .227 r
s
.034, p .446 r
s
.101, p .05
Persecution r
s
.227, p .001 r
s
.105, p .05 r
s
.101, p .05
Erotomania r
s
.131, p .01 r
s
.019, p .672 r
s
.092, p .05
Appetite-instinct r
s
.062, p .167 r
s
.086, p .054 r
s
.087, p .053
Sensorimotor excitement r
s
.218, p .001 r
s
.062, p .171 r
s
.128, p .01
Sex r
s
.175, p .001 r
s
.116, p .01 r
s
.114, p .05
Fighting r
s
.085, p .060 r
s
.014, p .758 r
s
.097, p .05
Animal symbolism r
s
.113, p .05 r
s
.035, p .438 r
s
.050, p .265
Unusual creature r
s
.013, p .774 r
s
.023, p .613 r
s
.106, p .05
Object-relation r
s
.182, p .001 r
s
.021, p .648 r
s
.077, p .086
Convenient dreaming r
s
.169, p .001 r
s
.004, p .932 r
s
.115, p .01
44 Yu
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most strongly correlated with the Ego Ideal scale, not the Sensorimotor Excitement
scale. Likewise, dreaming of being inappropriately dressed may have both ego-ideal
and sexual implications, whereas being naked in dreams is more an erotic idea than
a concern of self-adequacy. Notwithstanding the expediency of classifying dream
themes into categories, it should be cautioned that as pointed out by Yu (2009a,
2009b, 2010d, 2011a), each theme can be interpreted in multiple fashions or
accounted for by several dream predispositions. For example, the theme feeling
dog-tired, lack of strength in the whole body, and very difcult to movebut you
have not stopped, and keep walking very hard may be a compromise of the conict
between Rapid Eye Movement atonia and the compulsive urge to explore, which
are associated with the Sensorimotor Excitement predisposition and the Appetite-
Instinct predisposition, respectively.
Similar to Yus (2008a, 2008c, 2009a, 2009b, 2010d, 2011a) previous ndings,
themes of natural disasters, including oods or tidal waves (rank: 92nd), tornadoes
or strong winds (rank: 96th), and earthquakes (rank: 102nd), as well as themes
involving ferocious beasts (rank: 58th) and threat-avoidance skills, such as shooting
arrows (rank: 76th), ranked consistently low in the dream prevalence prole.
Although some prominent dream themes consist of physical threats, such as Items 1
(being chased or pursued, but not physically injured) and 65 (performing a lot
of difcult actions to get through a series of hurdle as if you were a stunt man), the
predicaments described in these themes bear no direct resemblance to the physical
threats that prehistoric people tackled in their natural habitats. Perhaps, these
sensorimotor themes, as they did in ancient times, function as a general, symbolic
representation of the ght or ight response to any threats people face nowadays.
In contrast to themes involving natural disasters and physical threats, some
prototypes of convenience dreams were found to be quite common, and Freuds
classic example rolling out of bed, cleaning up, going to school or work was one
of the most frequent dream motif reported by the participants. Theoretically, all
dreams are dreams of convenience insomuch as they serve the function of prolong-
ing sleep by converting stimuli into images that are compatible with the internal
world. Weaving external sensory stimuli into a dream eliminates the cues that alert
the sleeping ego to the existence of the outer world. Quenching visceral needs in the
form of hallucinations or creatively resolving issues that preoccupy the dreamer in
waking life constitutes a persuasive reason for the outward-directed, action-ori-
ented mental apparatus to stay asleep. Because visual inputs from the external
world, which provide clues for making sense of what happen surrounding us in the
daytime, are minimal during sleep, objective interpretation gives way to egoistic
association from which dream images are derived. This is, in essence, a projective
contextualization process whereby subjective meanings are assigned to the stimuli
experienced, which, in turn, are assimilated into the internal schema.
Besides dreams of convenience, many dream themes that demonstrated a high
prevalence rate are connected with emotional concerns and object-relation.
Themes 103 (encountering the person that you like or you want to see), 84
(reuniting with a long-lost schoolmate), and 83 (reuniting with a long-lost fellow
or childhood playmate) ranked very highly in the prevalence, recurrence, and
regularity proles. The item encountering the person that you like or you want to
see was, among the 110 dream themes, most frequently experienced by the
participants and was considered to be the most important/meaningful dream
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themes. If dreaming as a phenomenological experience promotes adaptation to
waking life, it seems that issues processed by such a coping mechanism can include,
but is not limited to, physical threats. In addition, some apparently pleasurable
themessuch as encountering the person that you like or you want to see,
eating delicious foods, eating candies, ice-cream, or sweetmeat (e.g., lollipop,
Chupa Chups, chocolate, ice pop, cake, etc.), swimming or vacationing, and
living in a very big house were found to prevail in dreams. This suggests that
apart from providing an arena for threat simulation, dream consciousness might
accomplish an adaptive function by creating some pleasant scenarios, in which
dreamers directly fulll their wishes.
Endless rehearsal of threats without building up proper buffers is reminiscent
of repeated traumas, which eventually leads to learned helplessness and hopeless-
ness. On the other hand, incessant solace is detrimental because it only makes the
ego labile to injuries. Therefore, the optimal way to promote adaptation is the
mixture of intermittent setbacks and gratications that strengthens the ego to
confront and capitalize on everyday challenges.
CONCLUSION
The overall evidence provided by this study lends further support to the
universality, recurrence, and constancy of typical dream themes, and the reliability
and validity of the DMS. In contrast to the stance that dream consciousness is a
meaningless epiphenomenon resulting from a bewildering array of information
processing, this study demonstrates that motifs occurring in dreams are highly
stable, and possess intrinsic predispositions that modulate the formation of dream
narratives. When a need cannot be satised or a concern has not yet been solved,
whether pertaining to the physiological or psychological type or a combination of
both, an unpleasant stimulus is created and should be fended off to preserve sleep.
Perhaps, regardless of whether they are remembered, dreams signify an attempt to
search for a well-tting solution to those issues that have been suppressed or have
not been sufciently worked through in waking life.
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(Appendix follows)
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APPENDIX A
Dream Motif Scale
The following questions are about dream content. To help you select the
answer that best applies to you, we provide the following guidelines:
0. If you have never dreamed a theme on the list, or are unsure whether you
have dreamed that theme, please select never.
1. If you have dreamed the theme, but only once or twice in your entire life,
please select once or twice.
2. If you have dreamed the theme for three times or more in your entire life,
but not regularly, please select three times or more.
3. If you have been regularly dreaming the theme around several times a year,
but not each month, please select several times a year.
4. If you have been dreaming the theme almost once a month or more often,
please select once a month or more often.
Have You Ever Dreamed About: Never
Once or
Twice
Three
Times or
More
Several
Times a
Year
Once a
Month
or More
Often
1. Being chased or pursued, but
not physically injured 0 1 2 3 4
2. Being physically attacked (e.g.,
beaten, stabbed, raped, etc.) 0 1 2 3 4
3. Trying again and again to do
something 0 1 2 3 4
4. Being frozen with fright 0 1 2 3 4
5. Eating delicious foods 0 1 2 3 4
6. Arriving too late, e.g., missing a
train, a bus, etc. 0 1 2 3 4
7. Swimming or vacationing 0 1 2 3 4
8. Being locked up 0 1 2 3 4
9. Dragons, tortoises, or snakes 0 1 2 3 4
10. Finding money, winning a
lottery, or becoming rich 0 1 2 3 4
11. Flying, soaring, or oating
through the air 0 1 2 3 4
12. Falling 0 1 2 3 4
13. Being inappropriately dressed 0 1 2 3 4
14. Being nude 0 1 2 3 4
15. Being tied, unable to move 0 1 2 3 4
(Appendix continues)
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Appendix (continued)
Once or
Twice
Three
Times or
More
Several
Times a
Year
Once a
Month
or More
Often
16. Having superior knowledge or
mental ability 0 1 2 3 4
17. Creatures with both human and
animal characteristics 0 1 2 3 4
18. Your teeth falling out, losing your
teeth, or your teeth rotting 0 1 2 3 4
19. Having magical powers (other
than ying, soaring, or oating
through the air) 0 1 2 3 4
20. Tornadoes or strong winds 0 1 2 3 4
21. Insect, spiders, worms, or a
wormlike thing (e.g., earthworm,
caterpillar, etc.) 0 1 2 3 4
22. Being a member of the opposite
sex 0 1 2 3 4
23. Being an object (e.g., tree, rock,
etc.) 0 1 2 3 4
24. Being killed 0 1 2 3 4
25. Vividly sensing (but not
necessarily seeing or hearing) a
presence in the room 0 1 2 3 4
26. Being unable to nd, or
embarrassed about using, a toilet 0 1 2 3 4
27. School, teachers, and studying 0 1 2 3 4
28. Sexual experiences 0 1 2 3 4
29. Losing control of a vehicle (e.g.,
car, aircraft, etc.) 0 1 2 3 4
30. Fire 0 1 2 3 4
31. A person now dead as alive 0 1 2 3 4
32. A person now alive as dead 0 1 2 3 4
33. Being on the verge of falling 0 1 2 3 4
34. Failing an examination 0 1 2 3 4
35. Being smothered, unable to
breathe 0 1 2 3 4
36. Ferocious beasts 0 1 2 3 4
37. Being in a movie, ction, or
drama 0 1 2 3 4
38. Killing someone 0 1 2 3 4
39. Lunatic or insane people 0 1 2 3 4
40. Seeing a UFO 0 1 2 3 4
41. Seeing extra-terrestrials 0 1 2 3 4
42. Traveling to another planet or
visiting a different part of the
universe 0 1 2 3 4
43. Being an animal 0 1 2 3 4
44. Being a child or the previous self
again 0 1 2 3 4
45. Seeing an angel 0 1 2 3 4
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Once or
Twice
Three
Times or
More
Several
Times a
Year
Once a
Month
or More
Often
46. Encountering a deity in some
form 0 1 2 3 4
47. A ying object crashing (e.g.,
aircraft) 0 1 2 3 4
48. Some people plotting against
you 0 1 2 3 4
49. Being persecuted 0 1 2 3 4
50. Becoming a certain form of
deity 0 1 2 3 4
51. Being blamed or punished 0 1 2 3 4
52. Blaming others for doing
something wrongly/ making
troubles/ committing mistakes 0 1 2 3 4
53. Entering or passing through a
narrow space 0 1 2 3 4
54. Feeling that most people cannot
be trusted 0 1 2 3 4
55. Performing a lot of difcult
actions to get through a series of
hurdle as if you were a stunt
man 0 1 2 3 4
56. Becoming a big wheel or
celebrity 0 1 2 3 4
57. Blaming yourself 0 1 2 3 4
58. Pillars, rods, staffs, or stick-
shaped things 0 1 2 3 4
59. Living in a very big house 0 1 2 3 4
60. Being abandoned 0 1 2 3 4
61. Some people are spying on or
talking about you 0 1 2 3 4
62. Being tracked 0 1 2 3 4
63. Having thoughts or beliefs that
others do not have 0 1 2 3 4
64. Dogs 0 1 2 3 4
65. Failing or performing very badly
in front of others (e.g., teachers,
classmates, bosses, colleagues,
etc.) 0 1 2 3 4
66. Others not giving you proper
credit for your achievements 0 1 2 3 4
67. Having a superior status 0 1 2 3 4
68. People wanting to take
advantage of you 0 1 2 3 4
69. Committing a serious crime or
blunder (other than murder) 0 1 2 3 4
70. Something seriously wrong with
your body 0 1 2 3 4
50 Yu
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71. Searching for a certain place 0 1 2 3 4
72. Searching for something 0 1 2 3 4
73. Reuniting with a long-lost fellow
or childhood playmate 0 1 2 3 4
74. Reuniting with a long-lost
schoolmate 0 1 2 3 4
75. Reuniting with someone that you
have not seen for a long time
(other than fellows, childhood
playmates, and schoolmates) 0 1 2 3 4
76. Spouse or lover having
extramarital relations or being
unfaithful 0 1 2 3 4
77. Knives, swords, or daggers 0 1 2 3 4
78. Guns or cannons 0 1 2 3 4
79. Other weapons 0 1 2 3 4
80. Shooting or remote attacks (e.g.,
ring a gun, shooting an arrow,
vacuum surge st, qigong attacks,
etc.) 0 1 2 3 4
81. Rescuing somebody 0 1 2 3 4
82. Hitting something or someone 0 1 2 3 4
83. Encountering a devil in some
form 0 1 2 3 4
84. Feeling dog-tired, lack of strength
in the whole body, and very
difcult to movebut you have
not stopped, and keep walking
very hard 0 1 2 3 4
85. Balls or globoid 0 1 2 3 4
86. Coming into contact with a big
wheel or celebrity 0 1 2 3 4
87. Having a love affair with a big
wheel or celebrity 0 1 2 3 4
88. Having a sexual relationship with
a big wheel or celebrity 0 1 2 3 4
89. Caves, caverns, or grottoes 0 1 2 3 4
90. Holes or crevices 0 1 2 3 4
91. Flying into a rage, getting into a
temper, or cursing 0 1 2 3 4
92. Being absent from classes or
examinations 0 1 2 3 4
93. Encountering the person that you
like or you want to see 0 1 2 3 4
94. Birds 0 1 2 3 4
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95. Eating candies, ice-cream, or
sweetmeat (e.g., lollipop, Chupa
Chups, chocolate, ice pop, cake,
etc.) 0 1 2 3 4
96. Blaming others for blaming you
wrongly 0 1 2 3 4
97. Seeing yourself sleeping 0 1 2 3 4
98. Waking from sleep 0 1 2 3 4
99. Rolling out of bed, cleaning up,
going to school or work 0 1 2 3 4
100. Hand tools (e.g., hammer,
screwdriver, tin opener, etc.) 0 1 2 3 4
a. Which theme/s do you dream most often in your life (please specify num-
ber/s from 1100, choose three items at most; hint: go through those themes with
higher scores) ________________
b.i. According to what you remember, which theme/s occurred earliest in your
life? (please specify number/s from items 1100, choose three items at most)
________________
b.ii. At approximately what age did you dream them? __________
c. Which theme/s is/are most important or meaningful to you? (please specify
number/s from items 1100, choose three items at most) ________________
d.i. Did you dream last night?
x Yes, and I remember the main content of my dream/s
x Yes, but I forgot the main content of my dream/s
x No
x Not sure whether I dreamed or not
d.ii. If you chose yes, and I remember the main content of my dream/s, did
you dream of any one of the 100 themes listed above. If yes, please specify number/s
from items 1100 (you can choose more than one item): ________________
52 Yu
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3 Dream Motif Scale

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Dream Motif Scale

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