DYNAMIC EARTH RESEARCH PROPOSAL 2014

Research Proposal: Investigation into low angle normal faulting and aftershock
distribution in the Central Appenines, Central Italy
CHARLIE KENZIE
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Durham, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE
Sent 6
th
March 2014


1. Introduction
The Apennines thrust belt is a tectonically
active region that runs in a NW-SE direction
through central Italy (Butler 2004), (Fig.1).
Progressive thinning and extension of the
Apennines thrust belt is mainly
accommodated by low-angle normal faults in
the central regions of Abruzzi and Umbria,
where seismic events are regular. In the last
decade, several large earthquakes have been
characterised by high magnitude aftershocks.
In some cases, slip has occurred along faults
that have a very low-angle. This project aims
to investigate the shallow crust and inner
structure of normal faults in the Central
Apennines so to gain physical constraints on
the processes controlling faulting and
earthquake mechanics. In particular the
project will focus on the origins of large
aftershocks and the ability of low-angle faults
to slip effectively.
2. Low-Angle Normal Faulting
Low-angle normal faulting is a commonly
known tectonic paradox. It describes the
disparity between theoretical rock mechanics,
which implies that frictional coefficients have
to be implausibly small to cause sliding, and
the distribution of low-angle normal faulting
across areas of extension, such as in the
Central Apennines. One mechanism that
accommodates low-angle slip is detachment
faulting (Fig.4). Detachment faults can form
as the result of sub-critical failure in ductile
shear zones, as they begin to pass through the
ductile-brittle transition (Lister & Forster
2004), or as the result of the rotation of high-
angle normal faults during extension. Thus,
such a mechanism can operate
seismogenically even at low dip-angles. This
process may be assisted by lenses of over-
pressured fluid (Lister & Forster 2004). In
contrast, other recent studies (Anders et al
2004; Bender 2000) have suggested that low-
angle faults are not accommodated by a
detachment mechanism and that interpreted
detachment faults in areas of extension are a
result of superficial landsliding.

3. Seismogenic Faulting
Earthquakes in Central Italy over the last
decade have been associated with several
large aftershock events. It has been suggested
that low-permeability seals, overlying sill-like
water rich reservoirs, are ruptured during
failure and cause overpressured fluids to
propagate upwards into the fault zone
(Gudmundson 1999). It has been proposed
that the overpressured fluid accommodates
initial failure, since higher pore fluid pressure
reduces the critical shear stress along a fault
plane, and its subsequent movement through
the fault zone triggers several large slips to
trend through the fault structure (Chiarabba et
al 2009).
Figure 1. Map of Italy and the Central Apennines thrust
belt and normal faulting (Bili et al. 2007). Position A is
the location of LAquila. Position C is the location of
Monte Cetona, the proposed drilling site.
Figure 2. Aftershock distribution of the LAquila
earthquake along the Campotosto fault plotted as
distance from the main shock. Starred symbols
represent main aftershock events. After 10 days the
majority of aftershocks are located in the order of 10km
away from the main shock location (Chiarabba et al.
2009)
CHARLIE KENZIE
4. Numerical model
A large earthquake in the LAquila region of
Central Italy in 2009 was well monitored by
scientists. Chiarabba et al (2009), and
references therein, constrained the aftershock
distribution of the LAquila earthquake
(Fig.2). Aftershock events were located and
plotted as distances away from the main
shock location. Seismogenic faulting, that is
failure associated with overpressured fluid, is
thought to be triggered by pressure pulses,
released from the main shock, with
amplitudes in the range of 10-20 MPa (Miller
et al 2004). Since a 20Mpa contour indicates
the upper boundary of a pulse that may cause
seismogenic aftershocks, it can be used to
indicate how far a potential aftershock would
be from the centre of a fault.
To investigate this possibility, a numerical
model was set up, which computes the
pressure diffusion through the crust after
faulting (Kenzie 2013). I set up a model based
on geological constraints that assumes two
porous layers each 5km thick with a uniform
permeability. A low permeability 400km
thick seal separates the layers. The top layer is
assumed to have a hydrostatic pore fluid
pressure, and the bottom layer has an
overpressure of 200MPa. I use a forward
Euler time-step to analytically solve Darcy's
law in two dimensions to compute the
pressure diffusion through the crust following
the rupture of a vertical fault. The model
results are shown above in Fig.3. The 20MPa
contour shows a similar curve geometry to
that of the aftershock distribution found by
Chiarabba et al (2006), (Fig.2), however, the
numerical model indicates that aftershocks
would occur much closer to the hypocentre of
the initial earthquake over a period of 10 days
(Fig.3b). The modelling suggests, at least by
first approximation, that large aftershocks
cannot be uniquely controlled by seismogenic
faulting of overpressured fluid reservoirs.

5. Purpose of Study
The drilling project aims to investigate the
shallow crust and the inner structure of
normal faults in the Central Italian region to
determine the physical constraints on the
processes controlling earthquake mechanics
and faulting. In particular, the project will
focus on investigation of the low angle
normal fault paradox and the mechanics
behind how low angle faulting is possible in
extensional areas. Additionally, the project
will focus on the origins of large aftershocks
and investigate if overpressured fluid
reservoirs (seismogenic faulting) have an
effect on the size and distribution of
aftershock events. Seismogenic faulting is
also suggested to be an important mechanism
behind low angle normal faulting.
Furthermore, numerical modeling only
provides only a heuristic approach. Models of
this kind can only be evaluated in relative
terms, and their predictive value is always
open to question. This underlines the
importance of experimental data and the
ability to interpret real observations.
Geological constraints can also prove helpful
for further modeling.

6. Methodology
In an area slightly to the north of the L'Aquila
earthquake epicentre (Fig.1), seismic
reflection data (Fig.4) allows us to choose a
borehole location that will enable us to
investigate the environmental processes
discussed above (Fig.4). The depth of the
Figure 3(a) Pressure diffusion through the fault with
the vector field shown as blue arrows, 20MPa contour
is solid blue line. (b) Depth of the 20MPa contour
through time. The model estimates that the contour
migrates about 4km in about 10 days (900,000
seconds), almost half the distance of the observed
aftershock distribution, which was in the order of 10km
(Fig.2). (Kenzie 2013).

(Fig.2). (Kenzie 2013)
CHARLIE KENZIE
borehole will extend to around 7km in order
to intersect the main interpreted detachment
fault. Additionally, this will enable
investigation down to the depths of the
LAquila hypocentre at 6.9km (Zhang et al.
2012). Cuttings and cores from the borehole
will provide geophysical and geochemical,
offering an insight into the faulting
mechanisms in the area. The presence, or lack
of, fault rocks (commonly breccias and fault
gouge) will give an indication to the extent of
faulting. Core samples will also allow us to
measure the permeability of the rocks, a
constraint that can control the fluid flow
properties between fault planes and
overpressuring of reservoirs. Additionally,
geochemical analysis of the cores may show
the extent of mineral precipitation associated
with the post-seismic discharge of
overpressured fluids.

Information about the type of fracturing can
be gained from borehole imaging, either using
electrical resistivity, or acoustic impedance
instruments. The extent and orientation of
borehole breakout can also provide an
indication of the stress field. These
observations can be used to determine the
type of faulting dominating the area, and
address whether deformation is
accommodated by low-angle faulting or by
some other mechanism. Borehole imaging
logs can also give an insight into the extent of
hydraulic fracture linked to large aftershocks.
Estimations of the pore fluid pressure can also
be measured directly in rock formations, or by
electrical instruments through impermeable
horizons. A pressure profile through the crust
will provide a direct insight into the extent of
overpressured fluids. Heat flow measurements
can also provide a constraint on the extent of
pressure relative to hydrostatic. The pressure
and permeability data can be used to apply
more rigorous constraints for future numerical
models. A two-step drilling strategy is
proposed. The first, a pilot hole to core
through the upper detachment level. A
secondary phase will continue the borehole
down to the main detachment. This is to
ensure that a fault is present before
continuing. A borehole drilled at the proposed
location will allow us to investigate the
faulting mechanisms of the area, and enable
us to further our understanding of the low
angle fault paradox. Additionally, the research
will allow a more detailed insight into how
fluid pressure is related to seismic activity and
aftershock distribution. This is not only
significant scientifically, since constraints on
aftershock size and distribution could
significantly reduce hazards of future
earthquakes.
REFERENCES:
BILLI, A., R. Gambini, C. Nicolai, and F. Storti. "Neogene-
Quaternary intraforeland transpression along a Mesozoic platform-
basin margin: The Gargano fault system, Adria, Italy." Geosphere 3,
no. 1 (2007): 1-15.
BUTLER, R., W. H., et al. "Applying Thick skinned Tectonic
Models to the Apennine Thrust Belt of Italy Limitations and
Implications." In Thrust Tectonics and hydrocarbon systems, by K.
R. McClay, 647-667. AAPG Memoir 82, 2004.
CHIARABBA, C., et al. "The 2009 L'Aquila (central Italy) Mw 6.4
earthquake; Main shock and aftershocks." Geophysical research
letters 36 36 (2009): L18308.
CHIARALUCE, L., et al. "Complex Normal Faulting in the
Apennines Thrust-and-Fold Belt: The 1997 Seismic Sequence in
Central Italy." Bulletins of teh Seismological Society of Americal
(Seism. Soc. America) 94, no. 1 (2004): 99-116.
GUDMUNDSSON, A. "Fluid overpressure and stress drop in fault
zones." Geophysical Research Letters 26, no. 1 (1999): 115-118.
KENZIE, C., F. Investigations into the aftershock distribution
of the LAquila earthquake modelling porous fluid flow and
pore pressure changes University of Durham (2013)*
LISTER, G., and M. A. Forster. "The nature and origin of
detachment faults." Geological Society of America, Abstracts with
Programs (Geol. Soc. America) 36, no. 5 (2004): 547.
MIRABELLA, F., R. B. Massimiliano, and A. Lupattelli. "Seismic
reflection data in the Umbria Marche Region: limits and capabilities
to unravel the subsurface structure in a seismically active area."
Annals of Geophysics 51, no. 2/3 (2008): 383-389.
*KENZIE (2013) Numerical modeling paper can be found here:
http://www.scribd.com/doc/210812073/Investigations-into-the-
aftershock-distribution-of-the-L%E2%80%99Aquila-earthquake-
%E2%80%93-modelling-porous-fluid-flow-and-pore-pressure-
changes

Figure 4. Seismic reflection interpretation of the Central N. Apennines indicating West-dripping detachments that
accommodate crustal extension (Mirabella et al 2008). A borehole is proposed to core to a depth of approximately 7km
SW of Monte Cetona. The drilling project will extend to the hypocentral depth of the LAquila earthquake (the location
is further south), through interpreted detachments and will allow observations of any overpressured fluid lenses.
A
is further south), through interpreted detachments and will allow observations of any overpressured fluid lenses.