Marine Biology - Part 4

Ocean 101
The Benthos The Benthos
Some Benthic Communities Some Benthic Communities
1. 1. Rocky intertidal community Rocky intertidal community
2. 2. Sandy/cobble beach community Sandy/cobble beach community
3. 3. Salt marsh & estuary community Salt marsh & estuary community
4. 4. Coral reef community Coral reef community
5. 5. Deep sea oor community Deep sea oor community
6. 6. Hydrothermal vent community Hydrothermal vent community
7. 7. Low temperature seep community Low temperature seep community
8. 8. Deep biosphere Deep biosphere
The Benthos The Benthos
More than 98% of the known marine
species are benthic
Most on continental shelf
Distribution like that of phytoplankton
productivity (why?)
How long would your remains remain on the sea oor?
Amphipods eating sh carcasses, 9600 meters deep, Philippine Trench, 1975
Only about 1 day!
Limiting Factors & Tolerances Limiting Factors & Tolerances
Here, 2 species of barnacle
compete for space on rocks
in the intertidal zone.
The larger one (Balanus) is
better at taking over space
than the smaller one, but the
smaller one (Chthamalus)
can survive out of water
better than the larger one.
The result is that the larger
one dominates lower down,
while the smaller one
dominates higher up.
Competition Competition
.
1. 1. Rocky Intertidal Community Rocky Intertidal Community
The intertidal zone is the area between high and low tides.
Pros: Abundant food & light --> Desirable, crowded, high biodiversity
Cons: Tough place to live --> Adaptations, zonation
Zonation is a distinct feature of this community. Different species
arrange themselves into distinct horizontal bands, or zones, within
the intertidal zone according to their ability to withstand desiccation
(drying out when tide is low) and inundation (when tide is high).
Adverse Conditions of Rocky Adverse Conditions of Rocky Intertidal Intertidal Zones Zones
& Organism Adaptations to Those Conditions & Organism Adaptations to Those Conditions
Bryozoans,
barnacles, limpets
* Attach to other organism.
* Overtake another organism!s space.
Lack of space or
attachment sites
Snails, limpets,
mussels, barnacles
* Ability to withdraw into shells to minimize exposure to
rapid changes in environment.
* Ability to exist in varied conditions for extended periods.
Rapid changes in
T, S, pH, O2
Abalones, sea
urchins, barnacles
* Release of large numbers of eggs/sperm into water
column during reproduction.
* Long organs to reach others for sexual reproduction.
Difculty nding
mates for
attached species
Mussels, sea
anemones, sea
slugs, octopi, sea
stars
* Firm attachment. Stinging cells. Camouage. Inking
response.
* Ability to break off body parts and regenerate them later.
Predators
occupy area
during low tide
Kelp, snails, sea
stars, mussels, sea
urchins
* Hard structures adapted to withstand wave energy.
* Algae: Strong holdfasts to prevent being washed away.
* Animals: Strong attachment threads, muscular foot,
multiple legs, or hundreds of tube feet to allow rm
attachment to bottom.
Strong wave
activity
Sea slugs, snails,
crabs, kelp
* Ability to seek shelter.
* Ability to withdraw into shell.
* Thick exterior or exoskeleton to prevent water loss.
Drying out during
low tide
Examples Adaptations
Adverse
Condition
Rocky Shore Rocky Shore Rocky Shore Rocky Shore
Shells
Soft
bodies
Periwinkle
Rock louse
Buckshot barnacles
Stinging cells
Sea Anemone Macrocystis (kelp)
2. Sand Beach & Cobble Beach Community
Beaches (sediment-covered shores) are also physically demanding.
Pros: Less competition between species
Abundant plankton, detritus, and light
--> Species that can thrive here are often abundant
Cons: Higher energy (waves, longshore current)
Steeper slope
Loose sand & cobbles are highly unstable & abrasive
--> Adaptations, zonation, low biodiversity
Epifauna - Live on the bottom
(attached = sessile, freely moving = motile)
Infauna - Live buried in the substrate (sand, mud, etc)
Meiofauna - Live in the spaces between sand /sediment grains!
(interstitial)
Sediment-Covered Shore Sediment-Covered Shore
Modes of feeding
along a sediment-
covered shore
Epifauna and Epifauna and Infauna Infauna Meiofauna Meiofauna
Mollusks: Phylum Mollusca
The bivalves or clams are
mollusks with a pair of
hinged shells (called valves)
which open and close. Most
bivalves are suspension
feeders who pump water into
their shells and extract both
food particles and oxygen
from the water.
Some clams live attached to
the sea oor, while others
burrow into sediments on
the sea oor, reaching up to
the water above with a pair
of tubes called siphons.
Mollusks: Phylum Mollusca
The gastropods or snails
possess a single coil-shaped
shell, although many species
do not have a shell. This very
large group of mollusks
includes species that are
grazers on algae, suspension
feeders on food particles
oating in the water, and
predators of various kinds.
The cephalopods are the most
active and intelligent of the
mollusks. They are predators
who catch prey with muscular
tentacles lined with powerful
suction cups.
Arthropods: Phylum Arthropoda
Marine arthropods include lobsters, crabs, shrimps, krill, copepods,
and barnacles. All arthropods have an exoskeleton, articulation, and
striated muscle.
The exoskeleton is a protective covering made of the material chitin
(a substance similar to your ngernails). The exoskeleton is exible
and hinged at various body joints. It provides protection and support
while also allowing movement and exibility.
Articulation refers to the ability to bend appendages at specic
points. Multiple bending points give arthropods a range of movement
and exibility, even within the restrictions of an exoskeleton.
Striated muscle is a form of muscle that is strong and lightweight,
allowing for rapid movement and considerable power compared to
many other invertebrates.
Arthropods: Phylum Arthropoda
To grow larger, an
arthropod must
periodically molt its
exoskeleton. During
molting the animal
grows in size rapidly,
before the new
exoskeleton solidies
on its body. This
periodic growth is
shown on this graph.
Echinoderms: Phylum Echinodermata
= spiny skin
The echinoderms include the sea stars, brittle stars, sea urchins,
sand dollars, and sea cucumbers.
All echinoderms have a body that is radially symmetric and based
on ve sections. In other words, echinoderms have a body design
that can be divided into 5 identical pieces that radiate out from a
central point. A sea star (starsh) is the most clear example of
this, but all echinoderms have this type of body plan.
Another feature that characterizes all echinoderms is the water
vascular system (WVS) -- a set of water-lled tubes, valves, and
projections used in feeding and movement.
Echinoderms: Phylum Echinodermata
The diagram shows
the WVS of a sea
star. The WVS is a
hydraulic system.
Water moving
through tubes
controls the
movement of tube
feet, dozens of small
projections with
suction cups on the
ends. The tube feet
are used to grab onto
objects during
feeding, and are also
used in movement.
Estuary = Partially enclosed coastal body of water in which salty ocean water
is signicantly diluted by freshwater from land runoff. (River mouths, bays,
inlets, gulfs, and sounds.)
Salt marsh = Relatively at area of the shore where ne sediment is deposited
and salt-tolerant grasses grow. Also mud ats.
Pros: Lower energy, gentler slopes
Finer sediments, more stable
Rich in nutrients, abundant sunlight
--> Very high primary production, abundant food supply = Rich habitats
Supports many organisms
Easy to burrow or attach
Cons: Fluctuating salinity (often brackish) and temperature
Very vulnerable to pollution & urban development
(rivers, urban/agricultural, etc)
Estuaries are often called marine nurseries because they form habitats for
many juvenile organisms. Many sh are born and grow up in estuaries, and
later migrate to the open ocean.
3. 3. Salt Marsh & Estuary Community Salt Marsh & Estuary Community
Mangroves Mangroves
(AAAS)
% of modified
shoreline
[WA DNR, 1998]
Puget Sound - The Fertile Fjord
http://www.wsg.washington.edu/pubs/fjord/fjord.html
4. 4. Coral Reef Community Coral Reef Community
Coral reefs are created by
coral animals. Corals
(phylum Cnidaria) are
colonial cnidarians that
secrete skeletal structures
of calcium carbonate
(CaCO3). These form great
mounds that rise up from
the sea oor, creating
habitat for vast numbers of
species. Coral reefs have
the greatest biodiversity of
any marine community.
More than one million
species inhabit the coral
reef ecosystem.
Coral Reef Coral Reef
Polyps precipitate CaCO
3
Mutual symbiotic relationship
Zooxanthellae algae in coral
Water: Shallow, normal salinity,
warm, clear (not turbid)
Sunlight
Zoned on basis of water depth
Light penetration
Wave activity
Different types of corals
Coral Reef Coral Reef
Castro Marine Biology Chapter 14 (.pdf)
Important
Largest structure built by living organisms
Great diversity of species
Shelter, food, breeding ground
Economictourism
Coral bleaching indicates warming of oceans
Endangered
Increased sewage and agricultural fertilizers
Increase nutrient levels
Increase phytoplankton
Decrease corals
Bioerosion
Over-harvesting and damage by humans
Crown-of-thorn sea star (Acanthaster planci)
Coral Reef Coral Reef
Diseased Corals Diseased Corals
Coral Bleaching Coral Bleaching
Crown-of-thorn sea star Crown-of-thorn sea star (Acanthaster planci) (Acanthaster planci)
One might expect that the tremendous
cold and high pressure of the deep sea
oor would mean little life, but this is not
the case. Many species are found here that
are adapted to eating a dependable food
source -- detritus, the dead material that
constantly sifts down to the sea bed from
up above!
This sea cucumber is one of many deep
sea species that mines dead organic
particles from the sea oor for food.
Deep sea organisms have slow
metabolism, so do not require much food.
Many may feed as little as once a year, and
some may live 100 years or more.
5. 5. Deep Sea Floor Community Deep Sea Floor Community
Deep Sea Floor Deep Sea Floor
Physical constraints
Dark
Cold
High pressure
High oxygen
Currents move
slowly
Diversity much greater
than expected!
At the centers of mid-ocean
ridges, where magma comes up
close to the sea oor, water may
circulate through cracks in the
rock and become very hot.
Hydrothermal vents are sites
where this superheated water
containing dissolved minerals
and gases escapes through
ssures, or vents. This escaping
hot water forms chimneys called
smokers.
6. 6. Hydrothermal Vent Community Hydrothermal Vent Community
Chemosynthetic bacteria (Archaea) use the hydrogen sulde (H2S)
that comes out of these smokers as an energy source to grow and
reproduce. These bacteria are the primary producers in this
community, forming a food source for a host of other species. This
entire community exists independent of sunlight!
Animals unusually large
for deep ocean
Some in symbiosis with
Archaea
Species diversity low
Larvae transported by
deep-ocean currents
Vent areas probably
short lived
Shrimp at N. Atlantic vent
Hydrothermal Vents Hydrothermal Vents
Are these the
conditions under
which life began in
oceans billions of
years ago?
7. 7. Low-Temperature Seep Communities Low-Temperature Seep Communities
Hypersaline seep
Hydrocarbon seep
Subduction seep
Lower temperature water
Archaea use
chemosynthesis
H
2
S and CH
4
Hypersaline seep
(46.2)
Hydrocarbon seep
Subduction seep
8. 8. Deep Biosphere Deep Biosphere
Microbes
Pore waters
Below seaoor surface
More biomass than expected
Stay tuned!
Review of Some Important Concepts Review of Some Important Concepts
Marine organisms are found in communities: groups of
interacting producers, consumers, and decomposers that share a
common living space.
Each species within the community has a particular habitat: a
specic location (address) it occupies within the community.
Each species within the community also has a particular niche: a
specic role (job) it performs within the community.
Every species requires a balance of particular physical and
biological factors to exist and thrive.
Organisms within a community compete with one another for
space, food and other resources. But in many instances they also
depend upon one another in specic ways.
Symbiosis describes the situation where the lives of 2 species
are extremely closely intertwined; so closely in some cases that
one organism may be totally dependent upon the other.
Marine Communities Marine Communities
Examples of marine communities, each with its own
particular physical and biological characteristics:
! Open ocean community (pelagic)
! Rocky intertidal community
! Beach community (sandy/cobble)
! Salt marsh & estuary community
! Coral reef community
! Deep sea oor community
! Hydrothermal vent community
! Low temperature seep community
! Deep biosphere
Biodiversity refers to the variety of species in a community:
! High biodiversity = Lots of different species live there
! Low biodiversity = Only a few species occur there
Physical and Biological Factors Physical and Biological Factors
Recall the concept of limiting factors. A proper balance of
physical and biological factors is important for the
success of each organism in the community.
Different organisms have different tolerances for specic
physical or biological factors.
Steno- is a prex meaning narrow. Eury- means wide.
Stenohaline means an organism can only live within
a narrow range of water salinity
Eurythermal means an organism can live in a wide
range of water temperature
Distribution of Organisms in a Community Distribution of Organisms in a Community
Individuals within a community will have a certain population
density: the number of individuals per unit area (or volume).
These individuals may be distributed in several ways.
Random - The position of one individual has no relation to the
position of another.
Clumped - Individuals occur in tight groups, or clumps.
Uniform - Individuals are distributed in a manner that maximizes
the space between each one.
Growth Rate & Carrying Capacity Growth Rate & Carrying Capacity
With unlimited resources, a
population will grow in size
over time as shown by the
J-shaped curve.
But because resources in
the environment are nearly
always limited, there is
environmental resistance
to population growth.
This resistance increases with increasing population size, resulting in
the S-shaped curve. A balance is achieved when the nal population
size evens out around a specic value. This is called the carrying
capacity -- the size of population that the community can support
under a stable set of environmental conditions.
Change in Marine Communities Change in Marine Communities
Marine communities change through time. Changes
can occur slowly due to climate cycles or seaoor
spreading, or quickly due to factors such as a volcanic
eruption that disrupts the sea bed.
A climax community is a stable, long-established
community.
If a climax community is disrupted, it may be restored
through the process of succession. During succession,
the composition of a community changes in a regular
way, as early temporary inhabitants are gradually
replaced by long-term inhabitants. Eventually, if no
major disturbances happen, the community will again
become a stable climax community.
5-Minute Write 5-Minute Write
Summarize the Summarize the main points main points of today of today s s
lecture. lecture.
List 3 to 5 List 3 to 5 questions questions you have, based on you have, based on
today today s lecture. s lecture.
What did you nd most What did you nd most interesting interesting about about
today today s lecture? s lecture?
How was the lecture How was the lecture relevant relevant to you? to you?