I. CELL - basic structural and functional units of all multicellular organisms
A. Structure i. Nucleus ii. Cytoplasm 1. Formed Elements a) rganelles b) Inclusions i. Crystals - found in sertoli and leydig ii. !igment granules 1. Lipofuscin - bro"nis# gold seen in nondi$iding cells% result of aging &. 'emosiderin - indigestible residues of 'b% p#agocytosis of ()Cs iii. Stored products *glycogen+ lipids) &. Cytosol a) ions *Na+ ,+ Ca) - pro$ide inorg c#emicals for cell r-n% cell control mec#anism b) org mols i. Carbs *glucose+ glycogen) - part of glycoproteins% more on nutrition ii. Lipids *&.) - form membrane and intracellular barriers 1. !#osp#olipids &. C#olesterol /. 0riglycerides *neutral fat) - store#ouse of energy iii. !roteins *11-&1.) 1. Structural - long filaments% form microtubules 2 cytos3eleton &. Functional - tubular-globular% en4ymes% mobile c) "ater *51-67.) ). rganelles iii. 8embranous - "it# plasma membrane
i$. Nonmembranous - proteins self-assemble into polymers 2 cytos3eleton 9fibrillar proteins - synt#esi4ed in t#e ribosome% form filament or tubule 9ectoplasm - outer 4one of t#e cytoplasm% actin filament - form elastic support for t#e cell membrane C. Nucleus i. C#romatin - contains :NA *1.6m) and fi$e proteins *#istone and non-#istone)% basop#ilic *p#osp#ate grps) 1. Euc#romatin - dispersed% lig#tly staining *not $isible in L8 or ;clear areas<) - acti$e c#romatin *stretc#ed out) - neurons+ li$er cells &. 'eteroc#romatin - condensed% densely staining - stains "it# basic dyes *#emato-ylin)+ Feulgen *for deo-yribose)+ fluorescent *'oesc#t% propidium iodide) - sperm+ lymp#ocytes+ plasma cells a) 8arginal - perip#eryof t#e nucleus b) ,aryosomes - t#roug#out t#e nucleus *irreg in si4e = s#ape) c) Nucleolar-associated 9:NA 2 c#romatin 2 c#romosome *>?) - && pairs autosome+ 1 pair se- c#romosome 9pac3aging - to permit transcription to access regions of c#romosome re@ for gene e-pression 9'uman genome - entire lengt# of :NA containing info pac3aged in all >? c#romosomes 9gene - union of genomic se@uences encoding a co#erent set of potentially functional products 9:NAA#istone 2 nucleosome - 11-nm+ 1 st le$el% :NAcoiling around a protein core% s#ortens 5fold - core consists of 6 #istones *octamer) 2 /1-nm fibril 2 loop domainsBscaffold 9se- c#romosomes - C and D 22 CC *females) and CD *males) 9c#romosomes are stained "it# Eiemsa or FIS' ii. Nucleolus - contains :NA in t#e form of r(NA genes+ (NA+ and proteins% site of r(NA synt#esis% - contains regulatory cell-cycle proteins iii. Nuclear en$elope - innerBouter membrane+ perinuclear cisternal space+ pores 9outer membrane connects "it# rE( i$. Nucleoplasm SignificanceF tumor diagnosis+ cell deat# 9 3aryolysis - disappearance of nuclei *:NAse) 9 py3nosis - c#romatin condensation 2 nuclear s#rin3age 9 3aryorr#e-is - fragmentation of nuclei :. Cytos3eleton a) 8icrotubules - rigid #ollo" tubes t#at can disassemble t#en reassemble - gro" from y-tubulin rings "it#in 80C near t#e nucleus e-tending to t#e perip#ery - Gparts of a-tubulin *non-gro"ing+ embedded in 80C) and b-tubulin *gro"ing+ e-t perip#ery) -circularly arrayed globular dimeric tubulin molecules *protofilament2s#eet2cylinder) -polymeri4ation needs E0! and 8g -dynamic instability - adding and remo$ing of tubulin dimers 2 c#ange in lengt# -f-nF lin3 perip#eral structures and organelles "it# 80C+ transport+ mo$ement+ cell asymmetry 9motor proteins - attac# to organelles *guide to destination) :yneins - mo$e to"ard t#e minus end *from perip#ery to 80C) ,inesins - to"ard t#e plus end *from center to perip#ery) Astral microtubule - nucleated from y-tubulin in a starli3e fas#ion !olar microtubule - gro" a"ay from 80C ,inetoc#ore microtubule - probes cytoplasm in searc# for 3inetoc#ores
b) Intermediate filaments *6-11nm diameter) - s#o" di$ersity and tse specificity
-assembled from 1 pair of #elical monomers 2 t"ist around *coiled-coil dimer) 2 t"ist in antiparallel fas#ion *staggered tetramer) -f-nF compose cytoplasmic lin3 of tissue"ide continuum of cytoplasmic+ nuclear+ and e-tracellular filaments% cell-to-cell = cell-to-e-tracellular matri- -classesF 1 *acid) = & *basic) G 3eratins *of simple epit#+ of strat epit#+ structural) - #eteropolymers - keratoderma disorders / - #omopolymers - Alexander disease, desmin-rel myopat#y - contains four proteinsF Himentin - most "idely distributed *mesoderm-deri$ed cells - fibroblast) :esmin - muscle cells Elial fibrillary acidic protein *EFA!) - astrocytes !erip#erin - perip#eral ner$e cells > - ;neurofilaments< - #eteropolymers - a-ons of ner$e cells - Parkinson dse 7 - nuclear lamins - nucleoplasm of almost all differentiatied cells - Limb gurdle muscular dystrophy ? - lens-specific B beaded filaments - Congenital cataracts !#a3inin Filensin c) 8icrofilaments *or Actin) - ?-6nm - fast-gro"ing end G barbedBplus end - slo"-gro"ing G pointedBminus end - polymeri4ation re@F ,+ 8g+ A0! *#ydrolysis after E-actin incorporates to t#e fil) - proteinsF E-actin *globular) - free actin mols in t#e cytoplasm F-actin *filamentous) - polymeri4ed Actin-binding proteins - en#ance or pre$ent polymeri4ation Actin-bundling proteins *fascin = fimbrin) - cross-lin3 creating filament bundles+ imparts rigidity to t#e micro$illi E. Intercellular communication 1. C#emical composition of ad#esion molecules &. Structural connections *epit#elium) /. !#ysical connections a) Neural - neurotransmitters released by a-on terminals into synaptic Iunctions 22 ner$e cell f-n b) Endocrine - influence f-n of a target cellat anot#er location in t#e body c) !aracrine - adIacent communication *neig#boring cells) II. CELL :IHISIN = 0'E( AC0IHI0IES A. Cell :i$ision a) Amitosis b) 8itosis - c#romosome segration and nuclear di$ision 2 cell di$ision 2 & daug#ter cells "B t#e same n and d - gat#ers proteins and (NA for :NA synt#esis 2 restriction point = :NA damage c#ec3 point i. S p#ase - before mitosis+ cells duplicate :NA ii. !rop#ase - c#romosomes condense and become $isible - nuclear en$ disintegrates + nucleolus disappears *late prop#ase) - c#romatids #eld by co#esins and centromeres iii. 8etap#ase - mitotic spindle at opposite poles - formation of e@uatorial or metap#ase plate i$. Anap#ase - initial separation of sister c#romatids *pulled by dyneins+ co#esins brea3 do"n) $. 0elop#ase - reconstitution of nuclear en$ around c#romosomes at eac# pole - c#romosomes uncoil - nucleoli reappear and cytoplasm di$ides 2 clea$age furro" *by contractile ring) c) 8eiosis - & se@ nuclear di$isions 2 gametes containing 1n and 1d found in somatic cells - significanceF reduction is necessary to maintain a constant J of c#romosomes e-c#ange of c#romosome segments *crossing-o$er) 2 infinite genetic di$ersity -p#ases in prop#ase in meiosis I Leptotene - condensation of c#romatin *c#romosomes) - sister c#romatids connect $ia meiosis-specific co#esion comple-es - #omologous pairing is initiated Kygotene - synapsis or close association of #omologous c#romosomes - formation of synaptonemal comple- - binds c#romosomes toget#er !ac#ytene - synapsis is complete 2 crossing-o$er :iplotene - comple- dissol$es - c#romosomes condense furt#er = separate but connected $ia c#iasmata - c#iasmata indicates t#at crossing-o$er #as occurred :ia3inesis - c#romosomes condense until ma-imum t#ic3ness - nucleolus disappears - nuclear en$elope disintegrates ). Cell 8o$ement - 8uscle cells *s3eletal+ cardiac+ smoot#) a) Ameboid i. 8ec#anism - continual formation of ne" cell membrane at t#e leading edge of t#e pseudopodium - continual absorption of t#e membrane in mid and rear portions - for"ard mo$ement 22 attac#ment of t#e pseudopodium to tissues *receptor proteins) 22 pro$ide t#e energy needed to pull cell body ii. Control - c#emota-is as initiator *positi$e = negati$e) 9 t#e side of t#e cell t#at is most e-posed de$elops c#ange causing pseudopodial form-n iii. Cells e-#ibit - L)Cs+ macrop#ages+ fibroblasts+ germinal cells of t#e s3in+ embryonic cells b) Ciliary i. 8ec#anism - "#ip-li3e mo$ement of cilia *layer of mucus mo$e 1cmBmin to"ard p#aryn-) - a-oneme *comple- of tubules and lin3ages) re@uiresF 2 A0! 2 appropriate ionic conditions *8g and Ca) 2 dynein "it# A0!ase ii. E-#ibit - respiratory air"ays = inside surfaces of uterine tubes 98o$ement "it#in cells 9Cytomorp#osis C. Cell :eat# a) Apoptosis - programmed cell deat# - in$ proteolytic cascade *caspases) 22 cell s#rin3age and condensation 22 disassembled cytos3el - controlled autodigestion or of neig#boring p#agocyte 22 no inIury to neig#boring cells b) Necrosis - deat# due to acute inIury and damage to t#e plasma membrane 22 s"elling and lysis - cause inflammation and inIury to neig#boring cells :. C#emota-is - migration of cells to mo$e to"ard t#e source - effecti$e up to 111 um a"ay from an inflamed tse a) )acterialB$iral to-ins b) :egenerati$e products of inflamed tissues c) C7a d) !lasma clotting reaction products E. In = ut of t#e Cell a) Endocytosis i. !inocytosis - $ia small $esicles *171nm) - consituti$e *continuous dynamic formation of small $esicles at t#e cell surface) - 0E8F smoot# surface - clat#rin-independent ii. !#agocytosis - $esicles of 2&71um *p#agosome) - membrane sends out pseudopodia to engulf particles - receptor-mediated *Fc fragment) - clat#rin-independent but actin-dependent - clat#rin-dependent receptor-mediated endocytosis b) E-ocytosis i. Constituti$e secretory - subs are continuously deli$ered in transport $esicles to t#e C8 - proteins are secreted immediately after synt#esis *eg Ig from plasma cells) - 0E8F cells lac3 secretory granules ii. (egulated secretory - cells concentrate secretory proteins - transiently store t#emin secretory $esicles - stimulus 22 influ- of Ca 22 fusion of $esicles "it# C8 - cellsF endocrine+ e-ocrine+ neurons 9 cytologic anomaliesF !olyploidy - more t#an & sets of c#romosomes Aneuploidy - c#romosome number is not an e-act multiple of t#e J c#aracteristic of t#at species :eletion - NondisIunction - 0ranslocation- III. CELL 8E8)(ANE A. Lipids a) !#osp#olipids *&7.) i. !#osp#oglyceride - glycerol bac3bone attac#ed "it# & FA *ester) and "B p#osp#orylated alco#ol ii. Sp#ingomyelin - sp#ingosine bac3bone attac#ed "it# FA *amide) 22 ceramide - #ydro-yl grp of sp#ingosine is esterified to p#osp#orylc#oline 22 sp#ingomyelin b) Elycosp#ingolipids i. Cerebroside ii. Eanglioside c) C#olesterol *1/.) - fluidity of t#e membrane 9ot#er lipids *>.) 9carbs */.) 9FA - polar #ead% #ydrocarbon - #ydrop#obic ). !roteins *77.) a) Integral - embedded "it#in bilayer% pass t#roug# bilayer - re@uire detergents for solubili4ation - lateral diffusion *lipid rafts) - pre$ents nonspecific interactions 9lipid rafts *ric# in c#olesterol+ sp#ingolipids+ and certain proteins) - in$ in signal transduction - cell metabolism+ regulation+ and integration 2 pumps - transport ion acti$ely 2 c#annels - passi$e diffusion 2 receptors - recognition and locali4ed binding of ligands 2 lin3ers - anc#or intracellular cytos3eleton to e-tracellular matri- 2 en4ymes - A0!ase in ion pumping 2 structural - form Iunctions "it# neig#boring cells b) !erip#eral - not embedded - can be released by 0- "it# salt solns of #ig# ionic strengt# - e-. An3yrin bound to integral band / 9glycoproteins - carbo#ydrate A protein C. Asymmetry - location of carbs attac#ed to membrane proteins - regional #eterogeneities - some macroscopically $isible *$illous borders of mucosal cells) - asymmetry of p#osp#olipidsF p#osp#atidylc#olineBsp#ingomyelin M0SI:E F aminop#osp#olipids INSI:E - significanceF limited trans$erse mobility *flip-flop) :. Fluid 8osaic 8odel - p#osp#olipids undergo rapid redistribution in t#e membrane *lateral diffusion) 22 p#ase c#anges 22 fluidity of t#e membrane *dependent upon lipid composition) 9transition temperature - temp at "#ic# structure undergoes transition from ordered to disordered 9c#olesterol modifies fluidityF t#e longer = more saturated $ia longer #ydrocarbons+ t#e #ig#er t#e 0m - belo" 0m+ interferes "it# t#e interaction of t#e #ydrocarbon tails of FA 2 inc fluidity - #ig#er 0m+ limits disorder becuase it is more rigid t#an t#e #ydrocarbon tails 22 cannot mo$e 9fluidity G permeability to "ater and small #ydrop#ilic mols E. !roperties Selecti$e permeability 1. Lipid bilayer &. !rotein c#annels Antigenicity F. 0ransport System i. :iffusion a) Simple - mo$ement of molecules t#roug# interstices of bilayer or t#roug# "atery c#annels Factors for rate of diffusionF 1. Amount of substance &. Helocityof 3inetic motion /. J and si4es of opening b) Facilitated - re@uires a carrier protein 9Factors affecting net rate of diffusionF 1. Concentration difference &. Electrical potential /. !ressure difference ii. Acti$e transport -eg. Na-,-A0!ase pump -/ Na receptors -& , receptors -A0!ase near Na receptors -Secondary 0ransport Co-transport - eg. Na-glucose - primary acti$e transport of Na 2 #ig# conc gradient 2 store#ouse of energy - diffusion energy of Na pulls glucose 2 conformational c#ange of protein Counter transport - eg. Na-' in pro-imal tubules - transport in a direction opposite to t#e primary ion - Na to t#e inside+ ' to t#e outside iii. Endo = e-ocytosis 0ransport according to J of molecules and direction of mo$ement Mniport - mo$es 1 type of mol bidirectionally Symport - & sol in t#e same direction *Na-glucose) Anti-port - & sol in opposite directions *Na-Ca) C#annel protein transport- contain a pore domain *ion-selecti$ity filter) Holtage-gated - regulated by membrane potential *eg Na+ ,) Ligand-gated - regulated by a specific moleculeBc#emical li3e neurotransmitters *eg acteylc#oline c#annel)