Journal of Research in Biology Volume 3 Issue 5

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Managing and Executive Editor:
Abiya Chelliah [Molecular Biology]
Publisher, Journal of Research in Biology.

Editorial Board Members:
Ciccarese [Molecular Biology]
Universita di Bari, Italy.

Sathishkumar [Plant Biotechnologist]
Bharathiar University.

SUGANTHY [Entomologist]
TNAU, Coimbatore.

Elanchezhyan [Agriculture, Entomology]
TNAU, Tirunelveli.

Syed Mohsen Hosseini [Forestry & Ecology]
Tarbiat Modares University (TMU), Iran.

Dr. Ramesh. C. K [Plant Tissue Culture]
Sahyadri Science College, Karnataka.

Kamal Prasad Acharya [Conservation Biology]
Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Norway.

Dr. Ajay Singh [Zoology]
Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur

Dr. T. P. Mall [Ethnobotany and Plant pathoilogy]
Kisan PG College, BAHRAICH

Ramesh Chandra [Hydrobiology, Zoology]
S.S.(P.G.)College, Shahjahanpur, India.

Adarsh Pandey [Mycology and Plant Pathology]
SS P.G.College, Shahjahanpur, India

Hanan El-Sayed Mohamed Abd El-All Osman [Plant Ecology]
Al-Azhar university, Egypt

Ganga suresh [Microbiology]
Sri Ram Nallamani Yadava College of Arts & Sciences, Tenkasi, India.

T.P. Mall [Ethnobotany, Plant pathology]
Kisan PG College,BAHRAICH, India.

Mirza Hasanuzzaman [Agronomy, Weeds, Plant]
Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh

Mukesh Kumar Chaubey [Immunology, Zoology]
Mahatma Gandhi Post Graduate College, Gorakhpur, India.

N.K. Patel [Plant physiology & Ethno Botany]
Sheth M.N.Science College, Patan, India.

Kumudben Babulal Patel [Bird, Ecology]
Gujarat, India.

CHANDRAMOHAN [Biochemist]
College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Saud University.

B.C. Behera [Natural product and their Bioprospecting]
Agharkar Research Institute, Pune, INDIA.

Kuvalekar Aniket Arun [Biotechnology]
Lecturer, Pune.

Mohd. Kamil Usmani [Entomology, Insect taxonomy]
Aligarh Muslim university, Aligarh, india.

Dr. Lachhman Das Singla [Veterinary Parasitology]
Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana, India.

Vaclav Vetvicka [Immunomodulators and Breast Cancer]
University of Louisville, Kentucky.

Jos F. Gonzlez-Maya [Conservation Biology]
Laboratorio de ecologa y conservacin de fauna Silvestre,
Instituto de Ecologa, UNAM, Mxico.

Dr. Afreenish Hassan [Microbiology]
Department of Pathology, Army Medical College, Rawalpindi, Pakistan.

Gurjit Singh [Soil Science]
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Amritsar, Punjab, India.

Dr. Marcela Pagano [Mycology]
Universidade Federal de So Joo del-Rei, Brazil.

Dr.Amit Baran Sharangi [Horticulture]
BCKV (Agri University), West Bengal, INDIA.

Dr. Bhargava [Melittopalynology]
School of Chemical & Biotechnology, Sastra University, Tamilnadu, INDIA.

Dr. Sri Lakshmi Sunitha Merla [Plant Biotechnology]
Jawaharlal Technological University, Hyderabad.

Dr. Mrs. Kaiser Jamil [Biotechnology]
Bhagwan Mahavir Medical Research Centre, Hyderabad, India.

Ahmed Mohammed El Naim [Agronomy]
University of Kordofan, Elobeid-SUDAN.

Dr. Zohair Rahemo [Parasitology]
University of Mosul, Mosul,Iraq.

Dr. Birendra Kumar [Breeding and Genetic improvement]
Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow, India.

Dr. Sanjay M. Dave [Ornithology and Ecology]
Hem. North Gujarat University, Patan.

Dr. Nand Lal [Micropropagation Technology Development]
C.S.J.M. University, India.

Fbio M. da Costa [Biotechnology: Integrated pest control, genetics]
Federal University of Rondnia, Brazil.

Marcel Avramiuc [Biologist]
Stefan cel Mare University of Suceava, Romania.

Dr. Meera Srivastava [Hematology , Entomology]
Govt. Dungar College, Bikaner.

P. Gurusaravanan [Plant Biology ,Plant Biotechnology and Plant Science]
School of Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, India.

Dr. Mrs Kavita Sharma [Botany]
Arts and commerce girls college Raipur (C.G.), India.

Suwattana Pruksasri [Enzyme technology, Biochemical Engineering]
Silpakorn University, Thailand.

Dr.Vishwas Balasaheb Sakhare [Reservoir Fisheries]
Yogeshwari Mahavidyalaya, Ambajogai, India.

Dr. Pankaj Sah [Environmental Science, Plant Ecology]
Higher College of Technology (HCT), Al-Khuwair.

Dr. Erkan Kalipci [Environmental Engineering]
Selcuk University, Turkey.

Dr Gajendra Pandurang Jagtap [Plant Pathology]
College of Agriculture, India.

Dr. Arun M. Chilke [Biochemistry, Enzymology, Histochemistry]
Shree Shivaji Arts, Commerce & Science College, India.

Dr. AC. Tangavelou [Biodiversity, Plant Taxonomy]
Bio-Science Research Foundation, India.

Nasroallah Moradi Kor [Animal Science]
Razi University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Iran

T. Badal Singh [plant tissue culture]
Panjab University, India

Dr. Kalyan Chakraborti [Agriculture, Pomology, horticulture]
AICRP on Sub-Tropical Fruits, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
Kalyani, Nadia, West Bengal, India.

Dr. Monanjali Bandyopadhyay [Farmlore, Traditional and indigenous
practices, Ethno botany]
V. C., Vidyasagar University, Midnapore.

M.Sugumaran [Phytochemistry]
Adhiparasakthi College of Pharmacy, Melmaruvathur, Kancheepuram District.

Prashanth N S [Public health, Medicine]
Institute of Public Health, Bangalore.

Tariq Aftab
Department of Botany, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.

Manzoor Ahmad Shah
Department of Botany, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, India.

Syampungani Stephen
School of Natural Resources, Copperbelt University, Kitwe, Zambia.

Iheanyi Omezuruike OKONKO
Department of Biochemistry & Microbiology, Lead City University,
Ibadan, Nigeria.

Sharangouda Patil
Toxicology Laboratory, Bioenergetics & Environmental Sciences Division,
National Institue of Animal Nutrition
and Physiology (NIANP, ICAR), Adugodi, Bangalore.

Jayapal
Nandyal, Kurnool, Andrapradesh, India.

T.S. Pathan [Aquatic toxicology and Fish biology]
Department of Zoology, Kalikadevi Senior College, Shirur, India.

Aparna Sarkar [Physiology and biochemistry]
Amity Institute of Physiotherapy, Amity campus, Noida, INDIA.

Dr. Amit Bandyopadhyay [Sports & Exercise Physiology]
Department of Physiology, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, INDIA .

Maruthi [Plant Biotechnology]
Dept of Biotechnology, SDM College (Autonomous),
Ujire Dakshina Kannada, India.

Veeranna [Biotechnology]
Dept of Biotechnology, SDM College (Autonomous),
Ujire Dakshina Kannada, India.

RAVI [Biotechnology & Bioinformatics]
Department of Botany, Government Arts College, Coimbatore, India.

Sadanand Mallappa Yamakanamardi [Zoology]
Department of Zoology, University of Mysore, Mysore, India.

Anoop Das [Ornithologist]
Research Department of Zoology, MES Mampad College, Kerala, India.

Dr. Satish Ambadas Bhalerao [Environmental Botany]
Wilson College, Mumbai

Rafael Gomez Kosky [Plant Biotechnology]
Instituto de Biotecnologa de las Plantas, Universidad Central de Las Villas
Eudriano Costa [Aquatic Bioecology]
IOUSP - Instituto Oceanogrfico da Universidade de So Paulo, Brasil

M. Bubesh Guptha [Wildlife Biologist]
Wildlife Management Circle (WLMC), India

Rajib Roychowdhury [Plant science]
Centre for biotechnology visva-bharati, India.

Dr. S.M.Gopinath [Environmental Biotechnology]
Acharya Institute of Technology, Bangalore.

Dr. U.S. Mahadeva Rao [Bio Chemistry]
Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Malaysia.

Hrida Regina Nunes Salgado [Pharmacist]
Unesp - Universidade Estadual Paulista, Brazil

Mandava Venkata Basaveswara Rao [Chemistry]
Krishna University, India.

Dr. Mostafa Mohamed Rady [Agricultural Sciences]
Fayoum University, Egypt.

Dr. Hazim Jabbar Shah Ali [Poultry Science]
College of Agriculture, University of Baghdad , Iraq.

Danial Kahrizi [Plant Biotechnology, Plant Breeding,Genetics]
Agronomy and Plant Breeding Dept., Razi University, Iran

Dr. Houhun LI [Systematics of Microlepidoptera, Zoogeography, Coevolution,
Forest protection]
College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, China.

Mara de la Concepcin Garca Aguilar [Biology]
Center for Scientific Research and Higher Education of Ensenada, B. C., Mexico

Fernando Reboredo [Archaeobotany, Forestry, Ecophysiology]
New University of Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal

Dr. Pritam Chattopadhyay [Agricultural Biotech, Food Biotech, Plant Biotech]
Visva-Bharati (a Central University), India

Table of Contents (Volume 3 - Issue 5)

Serial No Accession No Title of the article Page No

1 RA0359 Identification lethal and sub lethal concentrations (LC
50
) of
Organophosphate (OP) pesticide Diazinon using an endemic species
(Yucatan Molly, Poecilia velifera Regan 1914) as a potential
biomonitor for the intensive agricultural activities of Southeastern
Mexico.
Francisco Ucan-Marin, Vctor Cobos-Gasca and Roberto C. Barrientos-
Medina.

993-1002
2 RA0366 Species diversity and assemblage of fish fauna of Sip River: A tributary
of Narmada River.

Vipin Vyas and Kripal Singh Vishwakarma.

1003-1008

3

RA0361

A preliminary study on spider diversity from a house hold garden
(artificial mixed plantation) in West Tripura, India.

Animesh Dey, Susmita Debnath, Biplab Debbarma and PS Chaudhuri.

1009-1017
4 RA0368 Constraints in the control of animal trypanosomiasis by cattle farmers
in coastal savannah of Ghana: Quality aspects of drug use.

Reuben K. Esena.

1018-1031
5 RA0370 A study on the wetland avian species of Sultanpur National Park
Gurgaon, Haryana (India).

Girish Chopra, Anil K. Tyor and Seema Kumari.

1032-1040
6 RA0367 Empirical validation of reliability of triangulation methods of mixed-
method mode research: Quality improvement strategies for
trypanosomiasis control.

Reuben K. Esena

1041-1053
Article Citation:
Francisco Ucan-Marin,

Vctor Cobos-Gasca and Roberto C. Barrientos-Medina.
Identification lethal and sub lethal concentrations (LC
50
) of Organophosphate (OP)
pesticide Diazinon using an endemic species (Yucatan Molly, Poecilia velifera Regan 1914)
as a potential biomonitor for the intensive agricultural activities of Southeastern Mexico.
Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 993-1002
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Identification lethal and sub lethal concentrations (LC50) of Organophosphate (OP)
pesticide Diazinon using an endemic species (Yucatan Molly, Poecilia velifera
Regan 1914) as a potential biomonitor for the intensive agricultural activities
of Southeastern Mexico.
Keywords:
Agriculture, Diazinon, LD
50
, Yucatan Molly, Biomonitor, Yucatan Mexico,
Ecotoxicology
ABSTRACT:
Organophosphate (OP) pesticides are commonly used in agriculture;
this group of compounds includes very toxic chemicals. Diazinon (IUPAC name:
O,O-Diethyl O-[4-methyl-6-(propan-2-yl)pyrimidin-2-yl] phosphorothioate, INN-
Dimpylate) is used often in the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. Regular tropical rain-floods
and the Yucatans karstic topography allow Diazinon to be incorporated quickly into
the freshwater watersheds and other aquatic ecosystems surrounding agricultural
areas. This dispersion process has various negative consequences for the aquatic
ecosystems. In the present study we used the Yucatan Molly (Poecilia velfera) a native
and endemic fish of Southeastern Mexico as a biomonitor for the first time to assess
some of the basic gaps in the Diazinon toxicity data. 96 juvenile fish (fry) were exposed
to two time exposure-observations; for acute (24 hours) and chronic exposures (10
weeks). Three Diazinon doses were added as follows: 0.01, 0.02 and 0.04 mg/l (and a
duplicated control group). The results showed that the acute dosed group has 100%
mortality. Fish exposed to a 0.01 mg/l did not have any observable effects. The LC
50

value calculated during this experiment for Yucatan Mollies exposed to dissolve
Diazinon is extremely toxic at 0.02 mg/L. These results confirm, that the sensibility of
Poecilia velifera as a native bioindicator for pesticides; and compared with other
published LC
50
data appears to be the most sensitive. Further studies are
recommended to continue the study on the Yucatn Molly physiology; this fish has the
potential to become a reliable sentinel for the aquatic ecosystems in the Yucatan
Area, Mexico.
993-1002 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 5
This article is governed by the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by/2.0), which gives permission for unrestricted use, non-commercial, distribution and
reproduction in all medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
www.jresearchbiology.com
Journal of Research in Biology
An International
Scientific Research Journal
Authors:
Francisco Ucan-Marin
* 1,2,
Vctor Cobos-Gasca
3
and
Roberto C. Barrientos-
Medina
3

Institution:
1. Aquatic Toxicology,
Aquaponika Ltd. 126-340
Parkdale Ave. Ottawa Ontario,
Canada K1Y 1P2.

2 . Chemistry and
Environmental Toxicology,
Department of Chemistry,
Carleton University. 203 Steacie
Building Ottawa, Ontario,
Canada K1S 5B6.

3. Cuerpo Acadmico de
Ecologa Tropical, Depto. de
Ecologa. Facultad de Medicina
Veterinaria y Zootecnia,
Campus de Ciencias Biolgicas
y Agropecuarias, Universidad
Autnoma de Yucatn.
Km. 15.5 Carretera Mrida-
Xmatkuil, Yucatn, Mxico.

Corresponding author:
Francisco Ucan-Marin

Email Id:

Web Address:
http://jresearchbiology.com/
documents/RA0359.pdf.
Dates:
Received: 18 June 2013 Accepted: 01 July 2013 Published: 16 July 2013
An International Scientific Research Journal
Original Research

INTRODUCTION
The Yucatan Peninsula in located in
Southeastern Mexico, and is an intensive production area
for citrus and horticultural farms, most of the farming is
devel oped t hr ough smal l gr oups cal l ed
Ejidos comunitarios (Community Cooperatives).
Agricultural activities in this region includes: citrus
production, mango and papaya farming, vegetables and
herbs, but also intensive cattle and horse ranching.
Organophosphate (OP) pesticides are used openly for
infestation management and applied intensively. It has
been noticed that farmers and agricultural workers in the
Yucatan area do not use proper protection during
pesticide applications. Furthermore, there are no
enforced disposal regulations for the remaining
chemicals or containers. Diverse factors of management
and inadequate disposal protocols have contributed to
leaking and accumulation of pesticides in sites near
water sources. Therefore the potential of pesticides
entering the aquatic ecosystems increase the possibilities
of endocrine disruptions effects in wildlife, and
eventually the surrounding human settlements.
Diazinon (O,O-diethyl O-[6-methyl-2-(1-
methylethyl)-4-pyrimidinyl] phosphorothioate), is an
organophosphate insecticide, it has agricultural and
commercial uses, and is used in Southeastern Mexico to
control a wide diversity of insects including aphids,
beetles, scales, pill bugs, and others (Cobos-Gasca 1995;
Cox 1992). Diazinon is a compound of large variety of
applications soluble in water, and produces a chemical
half-life recorded up to 12 weeks in water (Blackburn
et al.., 1988). In addition, Diazinon does not settle
permanently in sediments; as a result, it is easily hydro
transported which facilitates its presence in aquatic
ecosystems (Blackburn et al., 1988). Diazinon
permanency in the aquatic ecosystems has been
associated directly with rain-runoff and its unofficial
unregulated disposal, where it has been noticed to settle
on freshwater ecosystems (Bailey et al., 2000). Diazinon
has been previously reported as a dangerous chemical
able of acute toxicity and sub-lethal effects in fresh water
fish and other aquatic organisms (Banaeea et al., 2011).
The mode of action of OP chemicals it is associated with
the inhibition of acetyl cholinesterase, and oxidative
stress (Ozcan and Demet 2007). Diazinon disrupting
effects on aquatic organisms has been widely
documented in freshwater organisms such as snail
(Gillia altilis), largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides)
and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), among others
(Robertson and Mazzella 1989; Pan and Dutta 1998;
Beauvais et al., 2000).
Mexicos Yucatan geography and hydrological
conditions create a unique aquatic underground
environment (Figure 1), and also a variety of unique
endemic species of fish (Figure 2) and aquatic
ecosystems. Due to this unique karstic ground (limestone
bedrock) characteristic, the leaching and transporting of
contaminants such as pesticides and fertilizers into
groundwater do not favor soil absorption (Pacheco and
Cabrera 1996). In the Yucatan, underground water is the
only source for human consumption since rivers are
almost not existent. The underground water table is close
to the surface in the north and near the coasts, but in the
higher elevations of the middle and south of the
Peninsula water is too far below the surface for access by
hand-dug wells; nevertheless, the ancient Maya
maintained dense populations in this area for centuries
using reservoirs and underground tanks (chultuno'ob).
Therefore, the assessment and monitoring of water and
environment quality through biomonitoring is highly
significant for a local social, economic and community
context.
Previous regional studies has assessed the effect
of OP pesticides in estuarine ecosystems aquatic macro-
fauna such as; shrimps from genus Penaeus
(Acosta-Maya et al., 1997), and mosquito fish
Gambusia yucatana (Rendn von-Osten et al., 2005).
Diazinon has also been repeatedly detected in
Ucan-Marin et al., 2013
994 Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 993-1002
horticultural water supplies (underwater sinkholes) in the
Yucatan region (Cobos-Gasca et al., 1997). One of the
most common observable fish surrounding the areas of
concern is the Yucatan molly (Poecilia velifera, Regan,
1914). The Yucatan molly (Figure 2) belongs to the
Poeciliidae family, and is an endemic species to the
Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico (Miller 1983; Miller 2005;
Hankison et al., 2006). This fish was introduced
internationally for two main reasons; first, as a valuable
aquarium specie, and as a biological control against
mosquitoes larvae (Courtenay and Meffe 1989; Lever
1996).
Studies assessing the toxicity of Diazinon to
aquatic fauna had documented that this pesticide is able
to cause neurotoxic effects on fish (Dias-Assis et al.,
2012). However, the importance of the present study is
the original contribution of lethal and sub lethal data
assessing this native and endemic species. The values do
not only contribute to aquatic toxicology knowledge, but
also add the proposition to use the Yucatan Molly as a
biomonitor of pesticide activities surrounding
agricultural communities across the southeastern
Mexico.

MATERIALS AND METHODS
Gravid female Yucatan mollies were captured
from freshwater near the port of Celestun, in the State of
Yucatan, Mexico, and kept under laboratory conditions.
Fish tanks were used for the acclimation, and 15 days
after collection, 134 fingerlings were hatched and were
fed with commercially available food for four weeks.
The bioassay to assess the toxicity of Diazinon was
conducted by selecting 96 juveniles (fry), of similar
length and weight, and distributed randomly sex
independent into four tanks with 20 liters of freshwater.
The conditions were: temperature, 26.9 0.1C;
saturation of dissolved oxygen, 62 0.1%; electric
conductivity, 468.61 0.1 S /cm and pH of 7.40 0.1
units. The experiment had four treatments 0.04 mg/l,
0.02 mg/l, and 0.01 mg/l of commercially available
Diazinon (Dragon
) and a control group.

Mortality was first observed after 24 h and data
were adjusted accordingly with two regression models:
binomial logit model (Collet 2003) and the probit model
(Finney 1971), with the help of STATGRAPHICS
package. This statistical procedure consent the estimation
of regression parameters by maximum likelihood method
and use the percentage of deviance explained as a
measure of fit for comparing the models, and estimates
the median lethal concentration (LC
50
). The bioassay was
Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 993-1002 995
Figure 2. Yucatan Molly (Poecilia velfera, male) a
native fish of Southeastern Mexico (Credit: Lizbeth
Chumba-Segura)
Figure 1 Cenote (in Spanish) or Sinkhole a common
freshwater ecosystem in the Yucatan area of Mexico
(Credit; Francisco Ucan-Marin).

sustained up to 10 weeks of exposure, where
concentration levels were applied in order to study
severe chronic effects, and a constant concentration of
pesticide in the tanks were monitored. Mortality data
obtained after 10 weeks, excluding the highest
concentration, were analyzed using repeated measures
analysis of variance (ANOVA), considering weeks as
repeated sampling units and using as response variable
the number of dead organisms (base-10 log transformed)
and concentrations as treatments employing Tukey-test
as multiple comparison procedure to distinguish the dose
effects, including the control group (Kuehl 2001).
Repeated measure ANOVA were carried out with PAST
software (Hammer et al., 2001), version 2.14 and for all
statistical analyses, the significant level of 5% was
considered as appropriated. Finally, to aid in the
interpretation of results, standardized mortality was
calculated according to the following expression
(Raymond 1985):

Where ME is the standardized mortality, MT is
the death occurred in each dose and MC the mortality
that occurred in the control group. This expression
allows separating the mortality caused by the pesticide of
natural mortality.

RESULTS
Within the first 24 h of exposure, all organisms
exposed to the highest concentration (0.04 mg/l)
perished. Diazinon effects on the exposed fish began to
be noticeable at the moment of the first exposure, where
erratic swimming behavior and disruption in the posture
were clearly observable. Fish exposed started to swim
close to the bottom of the tank, revolving around a single
point, with the head close to the bottom and the body
placed in perpendicular to it. Fish groups exposed at
0.02 and 0.01 mg/l had mortalities of 16% and
52% (Figure 3), and control registered no deaths or
changes in the swimming behavior. Regression analyses
revealed that both; the logit model and probit models, are
appropriate to describe the relationship between
concentration and mortality at 24 hours of exposure.
Both models were highly significant (P < 0.001). Probit
model had greater percentage of deviance in the data
(98.84%) when compared to logit model (97.89%).
According to the probit model, estimates of the
regression parameters are
0
=

2.4246 and
1
= 127.93,
both significantly different from zero according to the
confidence limits at 95% (Table 1). This means that in
the modeling of mortality by effect of diazinon the
intercept (
0
) should be considered as an intercept, as a
measure of the response obtained in the absence of
pesticide (natural mortality), and that the association
between pesticide dose and mortality is direct and
significant, given that mortality is increased nearly 124
units (on average) by each increase in the applied dose of
diazinon.
The estimate of LC
50
was 0.0189 mg / l (0.0160
to 0.0231 mg / l, 95% confidence), statistically similar to
the value of intermediate concentration used
Figure 3. Relationship between the concentration of
diazinon and mortality of Yucatan Molly
Poecilia velifera, according to the probit regression
model. The 95% CI for the regression curve is also
included (dotted lines).
(0.02 mg / l), which will cause a mortality of 52%.
Comparing selected data (Table 2) as average for lethal
concentration obtained in this bioassay for freshwater
fish (Figure 4), shows that Yucatan Molly tolerance to
Diazinon exposure is clearly lower. The repeated
measures ANOVA revealed significant differences
between treatments (F= 1164, P<< 0.05 with 2, 29 df). In
fact, the three treatments differ in terms of mortality
(Tukeys P< 0.05, in all cases): the two sub lethal
concentrations causes mortalities of 9 and 48%
respectively, compared with control (Figure 4). At the
intermediate concentration, which produces five times
greater mortality than the lowest concentration (0.01 mg/
l), swimming disruption was observed after three weeks
of exposure. In the fourth week we observed that one fish
had damage in the orbits and visible spine paralysis,
which prevented movement and feeding. The fish died a
few hours after this behavior first appeared. At the
seventh week another fish was observed also with severe
spinal paralysis. In both cases, fish were not able to feed
for themselves and perished.

DISCUSSION
Given the intensive use of pesticides in Yucatan,
several evaluations of the quality of groundwater have
been done; mainly assessing areas specialized in growing
citrus and vegetables (Cobos-Gasca et al., 1997; Santos-
Vzquez 1989; Cabrera et al., 1992). These studies have
shown that the presence of these contaminants in the
aquifer is linked to the rainfall season. During this event
the rain wash and carry the all sort of organic compounds
1
10
100
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Weeks
M
o
r
t
a
l
i
t
y

(
1
0
0
%
)

L
o
g
a
r
i
t
h
m
i
c
Control
0.01 mg/L
0.02 mg/L
Figure 4. Yucatan molly (Poecilia velifera)
accumulative mortality for each treatment during
the 10 weeks of exposure to Diazinon.
Table 2. Comparative levels of LC
50
(lethal concentration, 50%) of Diazinon
(mg /l) for some freshwater fish.
Species LC
50
Time of exposure Reference
Channa punctata (Bloch, 1793) 11.00 96 h Robertson and Mazella, 1989
Carassius auratus (Linnaeus, 1758) 9.01 96 h Turner L, 2002
Oreochromis niloticus (Linnaeus, 1758) 7.83 96 h Giron-Perez et al., 2007
Cyprinus carpio (Linnaeus, 1758) 4.97 96 h Turner L, 2002
Cyprinodon variegatus (Lacepde, 1803) 1.47 96 h Turner L, 2002
Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum, 1792) 5.52 24 h Robertson and Mazella, 1989
Lepomis macrochirus (Rafinesque, 1819) 0.76 24 h Robertson and Mazella, 1989
Micropterus salmoides (Lacepde, 1802) 0.09 24 h Robertson and Mazella, 1989
Danio rerio (Hamilton, 1822) 2.52 96 h Turner L, 2002
Poecilia sphenops (Cuvier, 1846) 1.65 96 h Turner L, 2002
Gambusia affinis (Baird and Girard, 1853) 1.27 48 h Turner L, 2002
Poecilia reticulata (Peters, 1859) 0.08 96 h Turner L, 2002
Poecilia velifera (Regan, 1914) 0.02 24 h * Present study
Table 1. Estimates of the regression parameters
according to the probit regression model.
Parameter Estimation SE CI 95%
0
-2.42 0.43 -4.46, -0.39
1
127.93 26.97 11.87, 243.98
SE = standard error, CI = confidence interval

passing over calcareous soil, which cause difficulty of
absorption into the subsoil. If a compound is exposed
directly over the karstic soil, the heat and light of the
tropics are a decisive factor to their breakdown. Also,
due to the edaphological characteristics of the area, these
do not allow bacterial enzymes to speed the breakdown
of Diazinon. However, since the pesticide is stored in
cold water underground, the persistence of Diazinon is
an environmental concern. Toxicology studies assessing
other native fish species to the Yucatan Peninsula, the
mosquito fish Gambusia yucatana (Rendn von-Osten
et al., 2005) determined, granted midsize lethal
concentration (LC
50
of 0.085 mg/l for chlorpyrifos, 17.79
mg/l for glyphosate, 0.636 mg/l for carbofuran and
0.011 mg/l for a mixture of chlorpyrifos and glyphosate).
Chlorpyrifos (IUPAC name: O,O-diethyl O-3,5,6-
trichloropyridin-2-yl phosphorothioate) after 96 h of
exposure had LC
50
values of 0.085 mg/l in mosquito fish
(Rendn von-Osten et al., 2005).
Our results showed that Diazinon is extremely
toxic to the Yucatan molly fry, with high probability to
cause mortality as these chemicals enter the surrounding
aquatic ecosystems (wells, watersheds and sinkholes)
where frequent use is registered for this pesticide (Cobos
-Gasca et al., 1997). Differences in LC
50
values among
different species may be due to physiological and
ecological factors, although most fish are sensitive to
Diazinon, it is known that fish living in fresh and hard
(calcium-bicarbonate-containing) waters are more
resistant to those who live in saltwater environments
(Banaeea et al., 2011).

The abnormal behavioral responses (loss of
equilibrium, hanging vertically in the water, rapid gill
movement, erratic swimming, swimming at the water
surface, and staying motionless on the aquarium bottom)
of the Yucatan Molly in the present study are similar
behavioral responses observed with the guppy
[Poecilia reticulate] (Viran et al., 2003), freshwater
catfish [Heteropneustes fossilis] (Saha and Kaviraj 2003)
and young mirror carp [Cyprinus carpio] (Calta and Ural
2004). Nevertheless, the physiological response has been
extensively analyzed, where it has been recently
observed by Ucan-Marin et al., (2012) that the Brain
Acethyl cholinesterase is the main enzyme affected by
OP insecticides. Briefly, the mechanism of action of OP
insecticides is based on the irreversible inhibition of
Brain Acethylcholinesterase (AChE) which leads to the
accumulation of ACh in synapses resulting in an initial
over-stimulation of neurotransmission followed by
depression of neurotransmission, paralysis, and eventual
death (Pope 1999). The disruption of AChE activity
either above or below 50% of normal has been
considered as a valid indicator of adverse effects
(De Marco et al., 2002). The loss of mobility and lack of
coordination in animals previously exposed to pesticides
is often attributed to a decrease in the activity of brain
AChE (Arufe et al., 2007). Yet, the same effect was
observed when brain AChE activity is increased, Zatta
et al., (2002) studied mice exposed to aluminum and
reported that brain AChE increased activity also has the
effects of paralysis and lack of control in the mobility.
One of the possible mechanisms of action of
Diazinon is centered on its potent ability to open
g-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-gated ClK channels
(Campbell 1989) in both invertebrates and vertebrates.
Ucan-Marin et al., (2012) studied salmon smolts and
observed that behavioral symptoms similar to those
associated with Diazinon are observed when AChE
disruption is present, where either an elevated or
depressed significantly brain AChE activity can be a
Table 3. Qualitative descriptors for categories of fish
and aquatic invertebrate toxicity (from Zucker, 1985)
LC
50
or EC
50
Category description
< 0.1 ppm Very highly toxic
0.1- 1 ppm Highly toxic
> 1 ppm Moderately toxic
> 10 < 100 ppm Slightly toxic
> 100 ppm Practically non-toxic
response to stress (Nijholt et al., 2004). Diazinon can
be metabolized to diazoxon by cytochrome P-450
monooxygenase (Hogan and Knowles 1972). This
compound, which is a potent inhibitor of the brain
acetylcholine esterase (Ucan-Marin et al., 2012), is
usually not detectable in vivo because of its rapid
hydrolysis, catalyzed by the oxonase, to 2-methyl-6-
i sopr opyl -4-pyr imi dinol (pyr imi dinol ). The
monooxygenase-catalyzed reaction accomplishes also an
oxidative ester cleavage (Sultatos 1991). So, the
production of diazoxon is accompanied by the concurrent
formation of other metabolites, including pyrimidino1
(Fuji and Asaka 1982). Finally, Diazinon can also be a
substrate for the glutathione S-transferase, which cleaves
an ethyl group from the phosphate and gives rise to the
S-ethyl-glutathione conjugate (de Bruijn I and
Hermens 1991). The remaining portion of the OP may be
hydrolyzed by phosphodiesterases to give pyrimidinol
and other products. Since monooxygenases are present
in fish with very different levels, it is likely that the rate
of formation of the oxon from diazinon as well as
from other organophosphothionates, acts in combination
with the AChE affinity to cause the species-specific
toxicity of OPs among fish (Keizer et al., 1995).
In-vivo evaluation of Yucatan molly as
biomarkers is highly significant due to the capacity to
react to a real environmental exposure. In-vitro studies
do not assess the specifics and co-factor triggered
responses, in fact the main drawback of in-vitro toxicity
tests is their apparently lower sensitivity compared
to fish (Castano et al., 2003; Segner 2004) which
restricts their use as alternative to the acute fish tests.
Because of its aquatic distribution capabilities, Diazinon
affects a wide range of non-target organisms like
invertebrates, mammals, birds, and fish; but especially
animals inhabiting aquatic ecosystems (Burkepile et al.,
2000). During the present study, the Yucatan Molly was
used as the most sensible fish for monitoring
the presence of Diazinon near extensive and
intensive agricultural activities.

CONCLUSION
In the present study we obtained an LC
50
of 0.02
mg/L (24h) for young (fry) Yucatan molly
Poecilia velifera (Regan 1914) and due to its high
sensibility to Organophosphate compounds (OP) can be
used as a bioindicator for the presence of pesticides in
the aquatic ecosystems in the Yucatan Peninsula,
Mexico. P. velifera is an exceptional sensible fish able to
physiologically react to very low concentrations of
Diazinon present in their ecosystems. Since Diazinon is
used today in diverse agricultural activities in Latin
America, therefore the use of P. velifera as a first class
biomarker could improve the time, precision and costs of
monitoring practices.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We want to thank to the personal at the
Experimental Biology at the Autonomous University of
Yucatan (UADY). The funding for this study was
obtained trough the Yucatan Contaminants Monitoring
Program (V Cobos-Gasca) and Aquaponika Ltd.

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Article Citation:
Vipin Vyas and Kripal Singh Vishwakarma
Species diversity and assemblage of fish fauna of Sip River: A tributary of Narmada
River
J
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Species diversity and assemblage of fish fauna of Sip River:
A tributary of Narmada River
Keywords:
Biodiversity, Sip River, Narmada River, Conservation, Ecosystem
ABSTRACT:

The Sip River is a tributary of the River Narmada, joining Narmada right bank
just upstream of Indira Sagar Reservoir. A systematic study of fish diversity in River
Sip has been neglected and the information on this aspects in scanty, either very old
or not been updated for decades. Keeping this in view, the present study was
conducted. The aim of this study is to document ichthyofauna and to provide
measures for their conservation. The present work was done from the period of May
2011 to April 2012. A total of 29 species belonging to 17 genera, eight families and
three orders were recorded. A total of 427 individuals were caught from eight
stations. The most abundant group of fish was Cyprinidae. Out of all these,
Rasbora daniconius has the maximum number of individuals (116) recorded from all
sites and contributes 27.16% of the total population.
1003-1008 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 5
An International
Authors:
Vipin Vyas* and Kripal
Singh Vishwakarma

Institution:
Department of
Environmental Science and
Limnology, Barkatullah
University, Bhopal-462026,
India

Vipin Vyas

Email Id:

Web Address:
Dates:
Received: 13 July 2013 Accepted: 26 July 2013 Published: 10 Aug 2013
Original Research

INTRODUCTION
The Narmada River is a west flowing river of
central India which has been extensively studied for its
ecological aspects. Ichthyofaunal diversity of Narmada
has been documented by various workers in concern of
fish community by Hora and Nair (1941),
Karamchandani et al., (1967), Vyas et al., (2007). Most
of these studies were confined to the main river but
tributaries have not been studied yet.
Some recent works on various aspects of fish
diversity were also confined to central part of the river
Narmada (Vyas et al., 2007). Very first record of fish
diversity of Narmada was on the hill stream of Satpura
ranges (Hora and Nair 1941). Later Tawa and Barna
tributaries were dammed to form reservoirs and studies
were done on these reservoirs. Vyas et al., (2009)
worked on Ganjal River which joins Narmada River near
the backwaters of Indira Sagar. No record of fish fauna
of Sip River is available in the present literature.
Therefore, our objective in this study is to
document the fish diversity and species composition in
Sip River. The information from this investigation will
serve as a baseline data for carrying out further study on
ecology, conservation, sustainability and management of
fisheries resources of this tributary of Narmada in light
of the changing habitat conditions due to dam formation.
STUDY AREA:
The Narmada River is one of the three major
rivers in peninsular India. It flows over a length of
1312km before draining through the Gulf of Cambay
into the Arabian Sea. Narmada receives 41 principal
tributaries. Out of which 22 tributaries join from the left
bank and 19 from the right bank. The river under the
study is a right bank tributary of river Narmada namely
Sip river. The Sip river originates near Ramdasi village
of Ichhawar Tehsil in Sehore district of Madhya Pradesh,
(Longitude 77 11 E and Latitude 22 34 N) at an
elevation of above 432 M msl and joins river Narmada
near village Satdev of Narsurlaganj Tehsil in Sehore
district, (Longitude 76 56 E and Latitude 22 54N) at
an elevation of above 292 M msl. Total length of Sip
River is about 68 km. The catchment area of Sip river
basin is shown in Map 01.
Fish sampling was conducted at eight pre-
selected locations in the river Sip namely Kaliyadev,
Ambha Kadim, Jhirniya, Chhapri, Pandagaon,
Confluence Point of Sip River, Up Stream Sip
Narmada River Confluence and Down Stream Sip
Narmada River Confluence.

MATERIALS AND METHODS:
Sampling and Analysis:
Physicochemical Analysis:
During the study, water samples were collected
at seasonal interval during May 2011 and April 2012,
using clean 1L-polyethylene bottle for analysis of water
variables in the laboratory from preselected station of the
river. The water quality parameters such as air and water
temperature, pH, Secchi Disc transparency, alkalinity
(carbonate and bicarbonate) and dissolved oxygen were
measured on in the field itself. The air and water
temperature was recorded with the help of mercury
thermometer, pH, conductivity and turbidity were
recorded through digital equipment and dissolved
oxygen was analyzed use Modified Winkles Method.
The methodology adopted for the analysis of
physicochemical properties was followed from American
Public Health Association (APHA, 1998) and Adoni
et al., (1985).
Collection of fish:
The fi shes wer e col l ect ed usi ng
monofilamentaous gill nets of 10-50 mm mesh size. We
also used cast nets of 10-25 mm mesh size for collecting
fish in shallow areas. Fish specimens were also collected
from different fish landing sites. All specimens were
preserved in 4% formaldehyde solution at the field.

Vyas and Vishwakarma, 2013
Laboratory Procedures:
Fishes brought to laboratory were preserved in
10% formaldehyde solution in separate specimen jar
according to the size of specimen. The fishes were
identified using standard keys of Jayaram (1981),
Qureshi and Qureshi (1983), Jhingran (1991), Day
Francis (1994) and Shrivastava (1998). Fish Base
website was also referred for various aspects of fish
fauna (www.fishbase.org).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:
At the period of this study, the two seasons were:
dry (October- June) and wet (July September), pH (7.0-
8.9), air temperature (27C - 36C) , water temperature
(22C -31C), transparency (09cm - 90cm), conductivity
(270 /cm - 618/cm), free Co
2
(22 mg/l 50 mg/l), total
alkalinity (182 mg/l 504 mg/l), Dissolved oxygen (6.4
mg/l -13.6 mg/L), chloride (7.94 mg/l - 69.5 mg/l), total
hardness (90 mg/l 190 mg/l), calcium hardness (46.2
mg/l 102 mg/l), magnesium hardness (43.8 mg/l 88
mg/l), and Turbidity (1.05 NTU -15.4 NTU). The river
serves as a source of water for irrigation.
During the present study of fish biodiversity of
Sip River, a total of 29 species belonging to eight
families and 17 different genera and three orders were
recorded. The species were collected at different
sampling sites during May 2011 to April 2012. The
members of family Cyprinidae were dominated with 19
species, followed by Cobitidae three species,
Ophiocephalidae two species, Gobiidae one species,
Heteropneustidae one species, Siluridae one species,
Ambassidae one species, Bagridae one species. Family
Cyprinidae was represented by the Oxygaster bacaila,
Oxygaster gora, Rasbora daniconius, Garra gotyla,
Puntius sophore, Puntius dorsalis, Puntius conchonius,
Puntius sarana, Puntius chola, Puntius chrysopterus,
Puntius ticto, Amblypharyngodon mola, Danio devario,
Labeo bata, Labeo boga, Labeo pangusia, Labeo
calbasu, Aspidoparia jaya and Tor tor Family Cobitidae
by Lepidocephalichthys guntea, Nemacheilus botia and
Nemacheilus duyi, Bagridae by Mystus bleekeri,
Heteropneustidae by Heteropneustes fossilis, Siluridae
by Ompok bimaculatus, Gobiidae by Glossogobius
giuris, Ambassidae by Chanda ranga, Ophiocephalidae
by Channa gachua and Channa striatus. From all the
stations, Cyprinidae formed the largest dominant family
contributing the 19 species (62.06%); Cobitidae formed
the subdominant family contributing three species
(10.32%) and rest of the family followed the order of
abundance.
During the studies 427 fish individuals were
collected from eight sites, belonging to three orders,
eight families, 17 genera and 29 species (Table -1). Out
of all these, Rasbora daniconius has the maximum
number of individuals found from all the sites. The
Map 01: Map showing Sip river and its catchment
area in Narmada basin

dominant species, Rasbora daniconius has total 116
individuals (27.16%) followed by Danio devario with 59
individuals (13.81%) and Puntius conchonius with 47
individuals (11%) respectively. The least abundant fish
was Lepidocephalichthys guntea with one individual
(0.23%).
Among all these families Cyprinidae was the
most dominant family constituting (88.75%) which is
followed by Cobitidae (5.38%), Bagridae (2.81%)
Heteropneustidae and Ophiocephalidae (0.93%) and
Siliuridae and Ambassidae (0.46%) and Gobiidae
(0.23%) respectively (Figure-1). Vyas et al., (2006- 07)
reported, a total of 47 species of fishes belonging to 29
genera, 15 families and six orders in the Hoshangabad
stretch of River Narmada.
Vyas et al., (2012) worked on fish biodiversity of
Betwa River, a total of 60 fish species belonging to 18
families and 36 genera were recorded. Verma and
Kanhere (2007) revealed that at least 39 species in
Narmada River are declined and considered as threatened
S.No Order Family Species
1 Cypriniformes Cobitidae Lepidocephalichthys guntea
2 Nemacheilus botia
3 Nemacheilus duyi
4 Cyprinidae Oxygaster bacaila
5 Oxygaster gora
6 Rasbora daniconius
7 Garra gotyla
8 Puntius sophore
9 Puntius dorsalis
10 Puntius conchonius
11 Puntius sarana
12 Puntius chola
13 Puntius chrysopterus
14 Puntius ticto
15 Amblypharyngodon mola
16 Danio devario
17 Labeo pangusia
18 Labeo bata
19 Labeo boga
20 Labeo calbasu
21 Tor tor
22 Aspidoparia jaya
23 Bagridae Mystus bleekeri
24 Heteropneustidae Heteropneustes fossilis
25 Siluridae Ompok bimaculatus
26 Perciformes Gobiidae Glossogobius giuris
27 Ambassidae Chanda ranga
28 Ophiocephaliformes Ophiocephalidae Channa gachua
29 Channa striatus
Table - 1: Systematic Position of fish fauna of Sip River
species or endangered species.
Various workers have done work on main river
whereas very little is known about the tributaries of
Narmada river. First detailed work on Narmada was done
by Karamchandani et al., (1967) which recorded 77 fish
species belonging to 41 genera, 19 families and seven
orders. In a stretch from Jabalpur to Khalghat Anon
(1971) reported 46 species belonging to 27 genera, 14
families and seven orders. Rao et al., (1991) have
undertaken pre impoundment survey at Punasa,
Omkareshwar, Mandleswar, Maheshwar and Barwani
pertaining to the river and have enlisted 84 fish species
belonging to 45 genera, 20 families and six orders.
Hora and Nair (1941) Very first recorded 41
species of fish from River Narmada on the hill stream of
Satpura ranges. Vyas et al., (2009) studied on fish fauna
some tributaries of River Narmada and recorded 52
species belonging to 28 genera, 13 families and seven
orders. Bose et al., (2013) have reported 57 species,
belonging to 35 genera, 13 families and six orders from
middle stretch of river Tawa.

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, increased fishing pressure exerted
from overfishing activity of the artisanal fishermen that
operating in this water body and farming activities
around the river as factors that were probably responsible
for low fish composition and diversity in Sip River. This
study could serve as baseline data in assisting relevant
bodies in the management and conservation of fisheries
resources of this river where there are dearth of
information related to its fish and fisheries. Moreover
formation of reservoirs on the main river course and on
its tributaries may result in the change in fish faunas in
due course of time.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors are thankful to Dr. Dinesh Damde and
Dr. Vivek Parashar for their kind support during the
work. Thanks are due to Mr. Ankit Kumar, Mrs. Reetu
Sharma and Mr. Shyam Panwar who helped during field
visits. Our special thanks are due to the University
Grants Commission, New Delhi for providing funds in
the form of Major Research Project during the course of
present investigation.

REFERENCES
Adoni AD, Joshi G, Ghosh K, Chourasia SK,
Vaishya AK, Yadav M and Verma HG. 1985.
Workbook on Limnology. Pratibha Publishers, Sagar
India, 1-127.

Anon. 1971. Fisheries Department, M.P. Fisheries
Survey in Narmda River, 1967-1971.

APHA. 1998. Standard methods for the examination of
water and wastewater, American Public Health
Association, Washington, DC.

Bose AK, Jha BC, Suresh VR, Das AK, Parasar A
and Ridhi. 2013. Fishes of the Middle Stretch of River
Tawa, Madhya Pradesh, India. J. Chem. Bio. Phy. Sci.
Sec., A, 3(1): 706-716.

Day Francis. 1994. The Fishes of India, Jagmander
Book Agency, New Delhi.

Hora SL and Nair KK. 1941. Fishes of Satpura Range,
Hoshangabad District, Central Province, Rec. Indian
Mus., 43.361-373.
Figure 1. Family wise fish species of Sip River

Jayaram KC. 1981. The Freshwater fishes of India,
Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Srilanka, A handbook
Edited by Zoological, Survey of India Calcutta-12.

Jhingran VG. 1991. Fish and Fisheries of India,
Hindustan Pub. Co., New Delhi, 727.

Karamchandani SJ, Desai VR, Pisolkar MD, and
Bhatnagar GK. 1967. Biological investigation on the
fish and fisheries of Narmada River (1958-66). Bull cent.
Inland Fish. Res. Inst. Barrackpore, 10:40 (Mimeo).

Qureshi TA and Qureshi NA. 1983. Indian fishes,
Publishers: Brij Brothers, Sultania Road, Bhopal. (M.P.)
5-209.

Rao KS, Chatterjee SN, and Singh K Anil. 1991.
Studies on preimpoundment fishery potential of
Narmada Basin (Western Region) in the context of Indira
Sagar, Maheshwar, Omkareshwar and Sardar Sarovar
reservoirs. J.Inland Fish India. 23 (1): 41-44

Shrivastava G. 1998. Fishes of U.P. and Bihar, Sevnth
edition, Vishwavidyalaya Prakashan, Chowk Varanasi
India Pub.

Verma D, and Kanhere RR. 2007. Threatened
Ichthyofauna of the River Narmada in Western Zone.
Life Sciences Bulletin, 4(1 and 2), 17-20

Vyas V, Bara S, Parashar V, Damde D and Tuli RP.
2006. Temporal variation in fish biodiversity of River
Narmada in Hoshangabad Region. Fishing Chimes.27:
49-53.

Vyas V, Parashar V, Bara S and Damde D. 2007.
Fish catch composition of River Narmada with reference
to common fishing gears in Hoshangabad area. National
Bulletin of Life Sciences, 4(1 and 2): 1-6.

Vyas V, Damde D and Parashar V. 2009.
Fish diversity of Narmada in submergence area of
Indra Sagar Reservair. Journal of Inland Fish
Soc.India.41(2`): 18-25.

Vyas V, Damde D and Parashar V. 2012. Fish
Biodiversity of Betwa River in Madhya Pradesh, India
with Special reference to Sacred Ghat. Int. J. Biodiv.
Con., 4(2): 71-77.

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Article Citation:
Animesh Dey, Susmita Debnath, Biplab Debbarma and PS Chaudhuri.
A preliminary study on spider diversity from a house hold garden (artificial mixed
plantation) in West Tripura, India.
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A preliminary study on spider diversity from a house hold garden
(artificial mixed plantation) in West Tripura, India
Keywords:
Spider diversity, artificial mixed plantation, salticidae, insect predator
ABSTRACT:

Insects are the largest taxonomic group in the animal kingdom and their
significant role in ecology needs no description. Spiders are exclusively predatory,
hence can play a very important role in regulation of insect population in any
ecosystem. Comprehensive study of spider fauna of Tripura has not been carried out
yet. In our present study, we are attempting to provide relevant information regarding
spiders. This information may serve as the baseline documentation for future studies
in Tripura. A survey was carried out during July 2011 to January 2012 in a house
garden (artificial mixed plantation) in Khayerpur of west Tripura district. A total of 47
spider species belonging to 36 genera of 14 families were collected. Among all the
families, Salticidae dominated the studied assemblage and represents approximately
38% of the total species collected.
1009-1017 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 5

An International
Authors:
Animesh Dey
1*
,
Susmita Debnath
1
, Biplab
Debbarma
1
, PS Chaudhuri
2
.

Institution:
1. Department of Zoology,
Maharaja Bir Bikram
College, Agartala - 799004,
West Tripura

2. Department of Zoology,
Tripura University,
Suryamaninagar 799022,
West Tripura

Animesh Dey

Email Id:

Web Address:
Dates:
Received: 24 June 2013 Accepted: 18 July 2013 Published: 16 Aug 2013
Original Research

INTRODUCTION
The arachnids are the second largest contributor
(8.3%) of total arthropod diversity after insects. Spiders
belong to the order Araneae of class Arachnida and are
one of the diverse and functionally important predators.
Hence, spiders can play a very important role in
regulating the terrestrial arthropod populations
(Coddington and Levi, 1991). Considering, the
potentiality of spiders as bio-control agents of insect
pests and bio-indicator as well, exploration of spider
diversity need to be done with immediate effect. Since
the distribution and occurrence of spiders are greatly
related to habitat structure and vegetation parameters
(Buddle et al., 2000; de Souza and Martins, 2004;
Greenstone, 1984; Uetz, 1991; Wise, 1993), study of
spiders can be very much helpful for understanding
biodiversity patterns (Platnick, 1999). Despite of their
enormous importance in the natural ecosystem, spiders
are largely ignored in conservational studies (Chetia and
Kalita, 2012).
Now-a-days, distribution and diversity of spiders
has been studied in different parts of the world. A well
illustrated account of the diversity, beauty and intricacies
of spiders has been documented by Taylor (1999).
Although few reports on spiders from southern part of
the country are available up to some extent (Charpentier,
1996; Jose and Sebastian, 2001; Jose et al., 2006; Smith,
2004; Sugumaran et al., 2005; Vijayalakshmi and
Ahimaz, 1993), there are scanty records on diversity and
distribution of spiders in India including its north east
part as compared to other regions of the world. In NE
India, diversity of spiders approximately unexplored and
have received least attention in conservation strategies
(Singh et al., 2012). A very few documentations
(Tikader, 1970; Biswas, 2000a, 2000b, 2003, 2004,
2006, 2007) are available on spiders of north east India.
As far as the spider diversity of Tripura is concerned, it
is still not completely explored or understood. The main
aim of this study was to explore the spider species
richness in a house hold garden. Considering the duration
and plot size, this study is far from the complete
exploration of spider fauna of the state. However, it
forms the basis for further investigations on this faunal
group and reveals the importance, as well as potentiality
Dey et al., 2013
Figure 1. Showing the study site (Khayerpur) near Agartala city
of house hold gardens as natural habitat of spider fauna.

The study was conducted during July 2011 to
January 2012 in a house hold garden having an area of
80 m
2
in Khayerpur (23

50' 37.9'' N, 91

20' 39.9'' E;
elevation 24 m) near to the Agartala city of west Tripura
district (Fig. 1). Since, polyculture house hold gardens
with such type of size are very rare in the core city of
Agartala now a days, the above site is selected for this
preliminary survey of spider fauna near to the city.
Aerial and ground hand collection methods, along with
vegetation beating was mainly used for the collection of
spider specimens. Spiders were searched visually also
under fallen tree branches, leaf litters etc. Collected
specimens were preserved in 70% ethanol for further
identification. Keys and catalogs provided by Biswas and
Biswas (1992, 2003, 2004), Sebastian and Peter (2009)
and Tikader (1987) were followed for the identification
of spider specimen.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A total of 47 spider species were collected from
the studied house hold garden. Among the collected
species of spiders, eighteen species belong to the family
Salticidae, seven species to the family Araneidae, three
species each to the family Tetragnathidae, Lycosidae and
Thomisidae, two species each to the family Nephilidae,
Oxyopidae, Sparassidae, and Theridiidae, one species
each to the families Scytodidae, Hersiliidae, Uloboridae,
Corinnidae and Miturgidae (Table 1). India represents
438 genera (Keswani et al., 2012) from which 36 genera
were recorded during the study. Highest generic diversity
was found in Salicidae (12), Araneidae (6),
Tetragnathidae (3), Lycosidae (3) and Thomisidae (2)
(Fig. 2). Among the collected spiders, four (Cyrtophora
unicolor, Camaricus maugi, Nephila pilipes, Heteropoda
cervina) and one (Menemerus bivittatus) species of
spiders were also reported from Australia and USA
respectively (Framenau, 2013; Richman et al., 2005).
Rest are endemic to south-east Asia (Siliwal et al., 2005)
and distribution of four species (Thiania bhamoensis,
Argiope versicolor, Cyrtophora unicolor, Amyciaea
lineatipes) are reported in India for the first time
(Keshwani et al., 2012).
A total of 1686 spider species accounts with
India (Keswani et al., 2012) and 47 species are recorded
during the study from a small house hold garden.
Records on spider diversity from the other parts of the
country viz. Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Sikkim,
Calcutta and Assam (Chetia and Kalita, 2012; Singh
et al., 2012; Tikader and Biswas, 1981; Tikader, 1970,
1977, 1980) are comparable with the observations of the
present study. Highest species diversity was shown by
Salticidae, followed by Araneidae, Tetragnathidae,
Lycosidae, Thomisidae etc. (Fig. 3). Plexippus paykulli
was found to be most abundant in the studied garden
followed by Phintella vittata, Myrmarachne sp1,
Neoscona sp, Araneus mitificus, Pardosa sp, Camaricus
formosus etc. Out of total spider species recorded, about
48 % (22 species) were found to be foliage runner, 28 %
(13 species) were orb web builder, 15 % (7 species) were
ground runner, 6 % (3 species) were ambusher and 4 %
(2 species) were scattered line weber (Fig. 4).
Dey et al., 2013
Figure 2. Showing the total number of genera
represented by different spider families

Dey et al., 2013
Table 1: List of spider species collected from the household garden during study
Family Species Distribution
Salticidae
(Foliage runner)
1) Plexippus paykulli (Audouin, 1826) IND, CHN, LKA
2) Plexippus petersi (Karsch, 1878) IND, CHN, SGP
3) Phintella vittata (C. L. Koch, 1846) IND, CHN, MYS
4) Asemonea sp. IND, LKA, THA
5) Phintella versicolor (C. L. Koch, 1846) IND, CHN, MYS
6) Portia labiata (Thorell, 1887) IND, LKA, MYS
7) Epeus sp.1 IND,CHN,MYS,IDN
8) Epeus sp.2 IND,CHN,MYS,IDN
9) Menemerus bivittatus (Dufour, 1831) IND, USA
10) Thiania bhamoensis (Thorell, 1887) SGP, IDN, MYS
11) Telamonia dimidiata (Simon, 1899) IND, IDN, BTN
12) Brettus sp. IND, CHN, LKA
13) Siler sp. IND, LKA
14) Rhene danieli (Tikader, 1973) IND
15) Myrmarachne orientales (Tikader , 1973) IND, PAK
16) Myrmarachne plataleoides (Cambridge, 1869) IND, LKA, CHN
17) Myrmarachne sp.1 IND, LKA, CHN, PAK
18) Myrmarachne sp.2 IND, LKA, CHN, PAK
Araneidae
(Orb web builder)
19) Neoscona sp. IND, PAK, CHN
20) Argiope versicolor (Doleschall, 1859) SGP, IDN, VNM
21) Cyclosa sp. IND, LKA, MYS
22) Cyclosa bifida (Doleschall, 1859) IND, LKA, MYS
23) Araneus mitificus (Simon, 1886) IND, PAK, BGD
24) Cyrtophora unicolor (Doleschall, 1857) LKA, PHL, AUS
25) Gasteracantha hasselti (C. L. Koch, 1837) IND, CHN
Tetragnathidae
(Orb web builder)
26) Leucauge decorata (Blackwall, 1864) IND, LKA, SGP
27) Opadometa fastigiata (Simon, 1877) IND, PHL
28) Tylorida sp. IND, CHN, AUS
Lycosidae
(Ground runner)
29) Lycosa mackenziei (Gravely, 1924) IND, PAK, BGD
30) Pardosa sp. SGP, THA, CHN
31) Hippasa greenalliae (Blackwall, 1867) IND, LKA, CHN
Thomisidae
(Ambusher)
32) Camaricus formosus (Thorell, 1887) IND, CHN, PHL
33) Camaricus maugi (Walckenaer, 1837) IND, LKA, AUS
34) Amyciaea lineatipes (Cambridge, 1901) SGP, IDN
35) Nephila kuhlii (Doleschall 1859) IND, LKA, SGP Nephilidae
(Orb web builder)
36) Nephila pilipes (Fabricius, 1793) IND, CHN, AUS
According to earlier reports, the spider fauna of
Tripura is represented by 6 families, 15 genera and 27
species (Biswas and Majumder, 2000). Present study
represents 14 families, 36 genera and 47 species (plate 1
and 2), collected from a small house hold garden during
a very small survey, among which 45 species were
reported for the first time from the state. Since, the
present study is not focused on specific spider families
like the previous authors, who studied only six families
(Araneidae, Oxyopidae, Tetragnathidae, Salticidae,
Lycosidae and Heteropodidae) and the survey is carried
out in a natural habitat of spiders, greater species
richness is observed. Hence this study reveals the
potentiality of Tripura state as the reservoir of large
Dey et al., 2013
Figure 4. Graph showing the number of species
represented by different types of spiders
Hersiliidae
Oxyopidae
(Foliage runner)
37) Oxyopes birmanicus (Thorell 1887) IND, LKA, MYS
38) Oxyopes javanus (Thorell 1887) IND, CHN, PHL
Sparassidae
(Ground runner)
39) Heteropoda venatoria (Latreille, 1802) IND, JPN
40) Heteropoda cervina (C. L. Koch, 1875) IND, AUS
Theridiidae
(Scattered line weber)
41) Chrysso sp. IND, CHN, JPN
42) Ariamnes sp. IND, AUS
Scytodidae
(Ground runner)
43) Scytodes pallida (Doleschall 1859) IND, CHN, PHL
Hersiliidae
(Foliage runner)
44) Hersilia sp. IND, LKA, MMR
Uloboridae
(Orb web builder)
45) Zosis sp. IND, TWN
Corinnidae
(Ground runner)
46) Castianeira sp. IND, BGD, BTN
Miturgidae
(Foliage runner)
47) Cheiracanthium danieli Tikader, 1975 IND
Abbreviations: IND India, CHN - China, LKA Sri Lanka, SGP Singapore, MYS Malaysia, THA
Thailand, IDN Indonesia, USA United States, BTN Bhutan, PAK Pakistan, VNM Viet Nam, BGD
Bangladesh, PHL Philippines, AUS Australia, JPN Japan, MMR Myanmar, TWN Taiwan
Figure 3. Percentage of total species diversity
shared by shared by different spider families
spider diversity. Inter-specific variation in coloration
among different spiders might be linked with different
environmental effects and behavioral patterns observed
on them (Craig and Ebert, 1994; Hoese et al., 2006;
Huber, 2002; Oxford and Gillespie, 1998).

CONCLUSION
Ecological as well as taxonomic information on
Indian spiders are lacking up to a great extent and studies
of spiders on these regards are completely untouched in
Tripura, NE India. Checklist or records of these spiders
are not yet prepared. However, spiders can be considered
as the most efficient one, among the few bio-indicator
species in ecological studies (Kapoor, 2008; Noss, 1990).
Relationship between spider distribution with habitat
patterns and its various patterns of responses to the
different disturbances create complexities in using them
as indicator species (Chetia and Kalita, 2012). This study
Dey et al., 2013
Plate 1. (1) Plexippus paykulli (2) Plexippus petersi (3) Phintella vittata (4) Asemonea sp. (5) Phintella versicolor
(6) Portia labiata (7) Epeus sp.1 (8) Epeus sp.2 (9) Menemerus bivittatus (10) Thiania bhamoensis (11)
Telamonia dimidiata (12) Brettus sp. (13) Siler sp. (14) Rhene danieli (15) Myrmarachne orientales (16)
Myrmarachne plataleoides (17) Myrmarachne sp.1 (18) Myrmarachne sp.2 (19) Neoscona sp. (20) Argiope
versicolor (21) Cyclosa sp. (22) Cyclosa bifida (23) Araneus mitificus (24) Cyrtophora unicolor
shows information related to the species distribution in a
particular habitat and the importance of house hold
gardens in maintaining and conserving spider diversity.
The study also reveals the potentiality of the state as the
reservoir of diversified spider fauna. Detailed studies on
the spider fauna of the state and inclusion of spiders in
conservational strategies are recommended.

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Dey et al., 2013
Article Citation:
Reuben K. Esena
Constraints in the control of animal trypanosomiasis by cattle farmers in coastal
savannah of Ghana: Quality aspects of drug use
Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1018-1031 J
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Constraints in the control of animal trypanosomiasis by cattle farmers in
coastal savannah of Ghana: Quality aspects of drug use
ABSTRACT:
Cattle trypanosomiasis is a major constraint to livestock development in
Ghana and is demonstrated by the fact that cattle farmers treat the disease by
themselves. The main objective of this study is to identify the constraints associated
with the control of trypanosomiasis by cattle farmers. To identify the constraints, 250
herdsmen were interviewed on the use of trypanocides to treat cattle
trypanosomiasis. The interview focused on treatment procedures such as knowledge
of diagnosis, trypanosomiasis treatment procedures, dilutions, injection techniques,
volume of trypanocides used and prophylaxis use. The data were supplemented by
relevant records and information from the following sources: Department of
Veterinary Technical officers (Community Animal Health/Frontline Staffs), District
veterinary doctors and the National Head of Tsetse and trypanosomiasis Control Unit.
To empirically estimate the marginal effect of constraints affecting the
control of trypanosomiasis, multiple regression equations were run on the PC-SPSS
version 16 programme by Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) analysis. In this analysis, the
general to specific approach of Hendry as found by Koutsoyiannis (1977) was
adopted in order to arrive at a coherent regression results. This provided a reliable
means of recommending appropriate and effective control strategies and good drug
services for traditional husbandry systems.
In this research, certain factors were identified as affecting cattle production.
They are, inappropriate dosage of Berenil used by farmers, selective treatments
adopted, pour-on techniques and lack of extension training. Others were the criteria
for treatments, inappropriate treatment intervals, underdosing of Berenil used, and
cost of inputs and services. Some others were injection techniques, lack of knowledge
of trypanocides and dilution of drugs. These are factors that affect productivity and
need to be addressed by policy makers especially by the Veterinary department to
improve drug use by herdsmen.
1018-1031 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 5
An International
Authors:
Reuben K. Esena

Institution:
Department of Health Policy
Planning and Management,
School of Public Health,
University of Ghana,
Legon - Accra, Ghana

Reuben K. Esena

Email Id:

Web Address:
Dates:
Received: 13 July 2013 Accepted: 07 Aug 2013 Published: 20 Aug 2013
Original Research
Keywords:
Trypanocides, Berenil Trypanosomiasis, Constraints, Drug use, Quality Control.

INTRODUCTION
Certain policies have been instrumental in
affecting veterinary drug use, especially trypanocide in
Africa. Prominent among these policies is the Structural
Adjustment Programme (SAP) which has been a strong
factor in the move towards privatization in Africa. A
free market policy as a component of SAP, has
triggered privatisation and commercialisation of almost
all sectors of the economy including animal production
and the social marketing of Veterinary drugs (especially
trypanocides) by the private sector. The belief was that,
a free market with price flexibility could maximize the
effect of SAP and thereby stimulate economic growth.
But the decentralization of the ministry of food and
agriculture as a component of SAP created stagnation in
national livestock services projects because of unclear
responsibilities and lack of communication at national,
regional and district levels (Ghana, 1998a) and thereby
enabling cattle farmers to treat their own livestock
especially animal trypanosomiasis.
The constraints inherent in SAPs does not only
affect the poorest sections of the population, but also
failing to steer the economy towards self-sustaining
development (Araka Morna et al., 1990). In the
agricultural sector for example, the rapid change in the
privatization of the veterinary services and provision of
drugs has serious implications on disease control. In
fact, the failure of livestock production to grow and
contribute to national development is not only due to
policy changes, nor lack of requisite drugs, inputs and
finance. Indeed it is related to drug use.
Until the problems and constraints associated
with drug use against animal diseases are recognised,
policy reforms promoting livestock production cannot be
implemented. This section discusses some important
aspects of veterinary drug use especially trypanocides for
cattle trypanosomiasis control and makes
recommendations. A comprehensive quantification of
the impact of trypanosomiasis control on productivity by
herdsmen has never been attempted mainly due to a
paucity of data on such important factors as diagnosis of
the disease, drug dosages, farmers knowledge of
trypanosomiasis and treatment strategies. Prominent
among these constraints is the lack of knowledge of on
the effects of the disease on livestock productivity;
especially the difficulties in quantifying the values of
livestock and their products in traditional husbandry
systems (ILCA, 1992a).
At the herd or household level, livestock
productivity can be measured in terms of the output of
meat, milk, inputs of preventive and curative treatments
using trypanocidal drugs (Swallow, 2000) whilst
incomes, expenditures and profits are commonly used
economic measures. Therefore this procedure, analyses
the annual costs of livestock products such as milk, meat,
manure, hides, and cost of cattle sales in economic terms.
Infact, cattle farmers are more concerned with
profitability of the use of trypanocide in relation to their
livestock and products rather than the products by itself.
The productivity in this study was therefore measured
and calculated for sales and profits and analysed in the
model.
African Trypanosomiasis is one of the most
important constraints to livestock development in sub-
Saharan Africa. Despite almost a century of research on
the subject, and considerable investments, little impact
has been made on its control. African trypanosomiasis
are caused by species of trypanosomes, protozoan
parasites (Trypanosoma congolense, T. vivax, T. brucei)
that are transmitted by tsetse flies. Currently, the only
effective treatment is the continuous dosage of
trypanocidal drugs such as Diminazene aceturate
(Berenil
) and Isometamedium chloride (Samorin
). In
an area of intensive tsetse challenge, each animal may
need several treatments per year.
This study examines the impact of a spectrum of
factors on sales, profits, drug use and the prevalence of
animal trypanosomiasis among cattle farmers in the
Esena, 2013
coastal Savannah zone of Ghana. This is necessary to
identify major factors influencing production and to
quantify the relationships. It will also help to inform
farmers on the appropriate choice of control measures for
cattle trypanosomiasis in the coastal savannah. The
objective is to establish a relationship between cattle
management practices and cattle productivity as found in
the village production systems where animal
trypanosomiasis is controlled by cattle farmers
themselves. Identifying the procedures and constraints
associated with the control of animal trypanosomiasis by
cattle farmers is what this research seeks to answer. The
models used for the analysis consist of trypanosomiasis
prevalence, drug use and sales and variable profit
functions.

METHODOLOGY
Trypanocide usage and the constraints in the control
of trypanosomiasis by livestock keepers
Knowledge of diagnosis and treatment
procedures of trypanosomiasis by 250 herdsmen was
assessed by questionnaire to interview respondents on
the use of trypanocides to treat cattle trypanosomiasis.
Records included the volume of berenil administered to
cattle. The data were supplemented by relevant records
and information from the following sources: Department
of Veterinary Technical officers (Community Animal
Health/Frontline Staffs), District veterinary doctors and
the National Head of Tsetse and trypanosomiasis Control
Unit.
The Models
The research problem discussed in this section
considers the impact of farming practices associated with
sales and profits on cattle farms. Sales turnover is a
measure for defining the scale of enterprises (Harper,
1984). Value added or profit, which is the difference
between sales and the cost of purchased material
supplied or labour, is a further refinement and
theoretically preferable version of sales turnover. The
reason is that profit measures the scale of what actually
happens in the businesses and excludes the value of
materials which are merely bought and sold (Harper,
1984).
This study is the type needed at the micro-level
for the successful implementation of agricultural
economics and drug use policies. Another advantage of
this model is that it helps in the forecasts on sales and
profits of cattle productivity as well as factors associated
with the control of trypanosomiasis. The research
problem is linked to a policy question and the approach
to the policy question is in turn embedded in the
econometric framework.
Variables used for the Models
The collection and organization of data for this
model is described and presented below. Data were
required for the dependent variables (sales, profit,
trypanosomiasis prevalence, Berenil
dose rate) and

independent variables and are presented as follows:
s = Dependent Variable 1: Sales ($)
= Dependent Variable 2: Profit ($)
=Dependent Var i abl e 3: Tr ypanosomi asi s
Prevalence (%)
= Dependent Variable 4: Dosage of Berenil (mg/kg
body wt)
Independent Variables:
VAL.INPUTS: Value of Inputs (in US$)
COST.SERVICES; Cost of Veterinary Services
(in US$)
AGE.ENTPRISE: Age of enterprise or kraal (years)
MANAGEMNT.EXP : Management Experience (years)
HERD.SIZE : Herd size (number of cattle)
DOSE Dosage: Estimated Berenil
dosage (milligrams/
kg body weight of cattle)
0 = < 1.9 1 = 1.9-3.4 2 = 3.5-7.0
EDUCATN: Education of herdsman
0=No education, 1 = Basic/primary/JSS,
2 = Secondary/Technical, 3= Training College/Diploma/
University
Esena, 2013

EXTN.TRG : Extension training (1 if herdsman received
extension training, 0 if otherwise)
BUSS.OWN: Business Ownership of livestock (1 if
partnership, 0 if sole ownership)
ENCOUNTER.TSETSE : Encounter tsetse during
migrations, movements or grazing (1 if cattle do not
encounter tsetse flies during cattle migrations, 0 if
encounter tsetse flies during cattle migrations or grazing)
KNOW.TRYPANOCIDE : Knowledge of Trypanocides
( 1 if farmer has knowledge of Trypanocides, 0 if
otherwise)
PROF.ADVICE : Professional advice. (1 if farmer seeks
or adopts Veterinary Technical advice on trypanocide
use, 0 if farmer does not seek professional advice
prior to trypanocide use).
DILUTION : Dilution of trypanocides (1 if correct
dilution of trypanocide-Berenil
i.e. 1 sachet of Berenil

in 125mls of distilled water, 0 if otherwise)
INJECTION.TECNIQUE: Injection Techniques
(1 if farmer uses appropriate needles ie 4 cm (16G)
1.5 mm and injects at appropriate sites i.e. neck or rump
and excess injected at two separate sites; or injection by
Veterinary Technical officer and 0 if otherwise).
TREATMT.INTERVALS: Treatment Intervals. Correct
intervals (3 to 4 months) between Treatments 1,
prolonged intervals (> 6 months) between treatments 0)
SANATIVE.PAIR: Sanative pair. Uses sanative pair of
drugs (Isometamedium and Diminazene)for
trypanosomiasis treatment 1; does not use sanative pair
of drugs, 0)
SELECTIVE.TREATMT: Selective treatment. Adopts
selective treatment of infected cattle only 1; adopts mass
treatment of all animals whenever trypanosomiasis cases
are detected 0)
PROPHYLAXIS: Prophylaxis use (1 if farmer treats all
animals with samorin
prior to the Period for highest

risk such as rainy season and movement of cattle, 0 if
otherwise).

ANTIBIOTICS.USE: Antibiotics use (against secondary
infections) in conjunction with Trypanocides (1, does not
use antibiotics in conjunction with trypanocides for
trypanosomiasis treatments; 0 if otherwise)
POURON.TECHNIQUE: Pour-on technique. (Use
integrated vector control strategies of pour-on for disease
control 1, does not use pour on technique 0)
CRITERIA.TREATMNT: Criteria for trypanosomiasis
treatment (ie for drug use). (1 drug used when animal has
all the following characteristics: lean, off-feed,diarrhoea,
watery eyes, or clinically diagnosed; 0 if drug is used
only when animal is lean, weak, off-feed or whenever
drug is available).
Production or sales
The sales production function is specified as:
Equation 1.1
S=( VAL. I NPUTS, COST. SERVI CES,
AGE.ENTERPRISE, MANAGEMT.EXP, HERD.SIZE,
DOSE, EDUCATN, EXTN.TRG, BUSS.OWN,
ENCOUNTER.TSETSE, KNOW.TRYPANOCIDE,
P R O F . A D V I C E , D I L U T I O N ,
INJECTION.TECHNIQUE, TREATMT.INTERVALS,
SANATIVE. PAIR, SELECTIVE. TREATMNT,
P R O P HY L A X S , A N T I B I OT I C S . US E ,
POURON.TECHNIQUE, CRITERIA.TREATMNT)
where,
S = Sales
VAL.INPUTS = Value of inputs (US$)
COST.SERVICES = Cost of Services (US$)
AGE.ENTERPRISE = Age of enterprise/kraal (years)
MANAGEMNT.EXP = Management experience (years)
HERD.SIZE = Herd size (number of cattle)
DOSE = Dosage of Berenil
used by farmer
EDUCATN = Education of herdsmen
EXTN.TRG = Extension training
BUSS.OWN = Business ownership of livestock
ENCOUNTER.TSETSE = Encounter tsetse (during
migrations, movements or Grazing)
KNOW.TRYPANOCIDE = Knowledge of trypanocides
Esena, 2013
PROF.ADVICE = Professional advice
DILUTIONN = Dilution of trypanocides
INJECTION.TECHNIQUE = Injection technique
TREATMNT.INTERVLS = Treatment intervals
SANATIVE.PAIR = Sanative pair
SELECTIVE.TREATMNT = Selective treatment
PROPHYLXS = Prophylaxis
ANTIBIOTICS.USE = Antibiotics use
POURON.TECHNIQUE = Pour-on technique
CRITERIA.TREATMNT = Criteria for treatment
Variable Profit Function
The variable profit function is specified as:
Equation 1.2
= (VAL.INPUTS, COST.SERVICES,
AGE.KRAAL, MANAGEMT.EXP, HERD.SIZE,
DOSAGE, EDUCATN, EXT.TRAING, BUSS.OWN,
HUSBNDRY. TYPE, CATTLE. MOVEMNT,
ENCOUNTER.TSETSE, ORIGIN.TSETSE, DIAGNS,
CLI N. DI AGNS, KNOW. TRYPANOCI DE,
P R O F . A D V I C E , D I L U T I O N ,
INJECTION.TECHNIQUE, REGULAR.TREATMNT,
TREATMT. I NTERVALS, SANATV. PAI R,
SELECTI VE. TREATMNT, PROPHYLAXS,
A N T I B I O T I C S . U S E , S T E R I L I T Y ,
POURON.TECHNIQUE, CRITERIA.TREATMNT
Where,
= profit
The other independent variables are the same as in
(Equation 7.1) above
Functional Forms
In terms of functional forms, equations (Equation
7.1) and (Equation 7.2) are estimated as log-linear
equations. The log-linear sales function is shown as:
Equation 1.3
LogS=logb
0
+b
1
logVAL.INPUTS+b
2
logCOST.S
ERVICES+b
3
ENTRPRSE+b
4
logMANAGEMNT.EXP+
b
5
logHERD.SIZE+b
6
logDOSE+b
7
logEDUCTN+b
8
logE
XTNSN.TRG+b
9
logBUSS.OWN+b
10
logENCOUNTER.
TSETSE+b
11
logKNOW.TRYPANOCIDE+b
12
logPROF.
ADVICE+b
13
logDILUTN+b
14
logINJEC.TECHNQ+b
15
lo
gTREATMNT.INTERVALS+b
16
logSANATV.PAIR+
b
17
logSELECTV.TREATMNT+b
18
PROPHYLAXS+
b
19
logANTIBIOTICS.USE+b
20
logPOURON.TECHNQ+
b
21
logCRITERIA.TREATMNT
Equation 1.4
Log=logb
0
+b
1
logVAL.INPUTS+b
2
logCOST.S
ERVICES+b
3
logENTRPRSE+b
4
logMANAGEMNT.EX
P+b
5
logHERD.SIZE+b
6
logDOSE+b
7
logEDUCTN+b
8
log
EXTN.TRG+b
9
logBUSS.OWN+b
10
logENCOUNTER.T
SETSE+b
11
12
logPROF.A
DVICE+b
13
logDILUTN+b
14
logINJEC.TECHNIQUE+
b
15
logTREATMNT.INTERVALS+b
16
logSANATIVE.P
AIR+b
17
logSELECTIVE.TREATMNT+b
18
PROPHYLA
XS+b
19
ogANTIBIOTICS.USE+b
20
logPOURON.
TECHNIQUE+b
21
logCRITERIA.TREATMNT
Equation 1.5
Log=logb
0
+b
1
logVALINPUTS+b
2
logCOST.
SERVICES+b
3
logENTRPRSE+b
4
logMANAGEMNT.E
XP+b
5
logHERD.SIZE+b
6
logDOSE+b
7
logEDUCTN+
b
8
logEXTN.TRG+b
9
logBUSS.OWN+b
10
logENCOUNT
ER.TSETSE+b
11
12
logPR
OF.ADVICE+b
13
logDILUTN+b
14
logINJEC.TECHNIQ
UE+b
15
16
logSANATIV
E.PAIR+b
17
18
PROPHY
LAXS+b
19
20
logPOURON.TE
CHNIQUE+ b
21
logCRITRIA.TREATMNT
Equation 1.6
Log=logb
0
+b
1
logVALINPUTS+b
2
logCOST.SE
RVICES+b
3
logENTRPRSE+b
4
logMANAGEMNT.EXP
+b
5
logHERD.SIZE+b
6
logDOSE+b
7
logEDUCTN+b
8
logE
XTN.TRG+b
9
logBUSS.OWN+b
10
logENCOUNTER.TS
ETSE+b
11
12
logPROF.AD
VICE+b
13
logDILUTN+b
14
logINJEC.TECHNIQUE+
b
15
16
logSANATIVE.P
AIR+b
17
18
PROPHYLA
XS+b
19
20
logPOURON.TECH
NIQUE+ b
21
logCRITRIA.TREATMNT

Esena, 2013

Estimation Procedures
The Ordinary least Squares (OLS) was applied to
the data regressions in equations (Equation 1.1) and
(Equation 1.2). When ordinary least squares is
appropriately applied to data, the choice among all
possible lines is normally done on the basis of the least
squares criterion. The rationale for this criterion is easy
to understand:
It is intuitively obvious that the smaller the
deviation from the line, the better the fit of the line to the
scatter of the observations. Consequently from all
possible lines, we choose the one for which the deviation
of points is the smallest possible. The least squares
criterion requires that the regression line be drawn
(i.e. its parameters be chosen) in such a way as to
minimize the sum of squares of the deviation of
observations from it.
Test of Significance
Test of significance of parameter estimates was
carried out by the use of the student t-test. Traditionally,
in econometric applications, researchers (Koutsoyiannis,
1977; Wonocott and Wonocott 1979) test the null
hypothesis H
0
: b = 0 for each parameter, against the
alternative hypothesis H
1
: b
1
0
This type of hypothesis implies a two-tail test of
a chosen level of significance, usually at the 5 % (and
more rarely at the 1% level). We compute the t ratio for
each b
1
. This is the observed (or sample) value of the t
ratio which we compare with the theoretical value of t
obtainable from the t-table with n-k degrees of freedom
(where n = number of observations and k = number of
independent variables). The decision rule (for
significance tests) is that the t-values associated with
independent variables that are equal to or greater than
theoretical value (t.
05 (2)n-k
) are considered to have
significant effects on the dependent variables (eg. sales,
profits) and are retained in the model (Koutsoyiannis,
1977).

Testing for the overall significance of a
regression, we generalize the test for models including
any number of explanatory (independent) variables.
Such tests aim at finding out whether explanatory
variables do actually have any joint significance
influence on the dependent variable. Formally the test of
overall significance of the regression implies that the null
hypothesis
Against the alternative hypothesis
H
1
: not all b
1
s are zeros
If the null hypothesis is true, that is, if all the true
parameters are zeros, there is no linear relationship
between Y and the regressors. To test for the overall
significance of the regression, F ratio is computed and
compared with the theoretical F* (at p = 0.5 level of
sinificance) with v
1
= k-1 (numerator) and v
2
= n-k
(denomenator) degrees of freedom. If F* > F, we reject
the null hypothesis, ie. we accept that the overall
regression is not significant: not all b1s are zeros. If F*
< F, we accept the null hypothesis, that is, we accept that
the overall regression is not significant. In general,
higher values of F* suggest significant relationships
between the dependent variable and the independent
variables.
The generalization of the formula of the
coefficient of multiple determination maybe derived by
inspection of the values of R
2
(goodness of fit). It should
be noted that the inclusion of additional independent
variables in the function can never reduce the coefficient
of multiple determination and would usually raise it. By
introducing a new regressor, (independent variable) the
value of the numerator of the expression for R
2
is
increased, and the denominator remains the same
(Koutsoyiannis, 1977). It is important to adjust R
2
(
2
)
by taking into account degrees of freedom [df] which
decrease as new regressors (independent variables) are
introduced into the function. The R
2
expresses the
Esena, 2013
H
0
: b
1
= b
2
=.b
k
= 0
goodness of fit or the coefficient of multiple
determination. In this case it expresses the proportion of
the total variability on dependent variables (sales and
profits) attributable to the dependence of sales and profit
on the joint independent variables. The greater the
proportion (near unity), the better the goodness of fit of
the values of joint independent variables around their
mean.
In conclusion, it should be noted that, while the t
values determine the significance of the respective
independent variables, the F-value determines the overall
(or collective) significance of the independent variables
of the results obtained from the computer. The R
2

determines coefficient of multiple determination of the
regressors (independent variables).
Economic Theory and a Priori Expectations
Certain independent variables were included in
the sales (Equation 1.1) and the profit functions
(Equation 1.2). The reasons for inclusion of these
variables may be explained by the fact that some were
variables to be tested in the hypotheses. Others were
findings from the field research while the rest were
derived from literature review and also responses from
respondents as factors affecting the control of animal
trypanosomiasis.
Among the variables included in the equations,
expectations were made on the signs of each as they
could affect sales and profit. For example, in equation
1.1 coefficients b
1
(value of inputs) and b
2
(cost of
services) were expected to have negative signs. This is
because profitability of the use of trypanocides is
determined by the cost of inputs (drugs) and services/
treatments (Brandl, 1988). Jahnke (1974) and Adelheim
(1980) estimated the cost of treatment to be between 50
and 100% of the cost of drugs. In Uganda for example,
(Jahnke, 1974) estimated that the cost for trypanocides
used by pastoralists amounted to 50% of their family
incomes. The age of cattle business b
3
(Enterprise) and
b
4
(management experience) were expected to be
positive because most of the herdsmen have many years
of experience. Hisrich and Peters (1992) have explained
that entrepreneurial experience is one of the best
predictors of success, particularly when the new venture
is in the same field as the entrepreneurs (herdsmans)
new experience.
The herd size (coefficient b
5)
was expected to be
positive and the dose rate b
6
negative. Appropriate
dosage rate in the field is difficult because procedures
depend on the accurate estimation of body weight
(Connor, 1992). The coefficients b
7
(education of
herdsmen) was expected to have positive signs because
as noted by Harper (1984), educational background or
training normally equip the entrepreneur (farmer) with
knowledge to plan and manage his business and thereby
survive in economically turbulent times (Anheier and
Siebel 1987). Furthermore Swallow (2000) found that
migratory pastoralists with higher education raise more
livestock as compared with less educated. Extension
training (b
8
) was expected to be positive because this
could assist the farmer with the knowledge to increase
productivity. Business ownership type (b
9
) was expected
to be negative in the area. Sole and family
proprietorships are unable to meet adequately the
financial needs of Small Scale Enterprises SSEs (Popiel
1994; Soyibo 1996; Aryeetey 1995). On credit they are
constantly being discriminated against obtaining credit
(Liedholm and Mead 1987) and they are unable to meet
the cost of inputs.
The presence of tsetse (b
10
) is expected to be
negative because as livestock pass through high-risk
areas they are infected with trypanosomiasis that could
deteriorate animal health and decrease productivity
(Brandl, 1988). Knowledge of trypanocides (b
11
) and
professional advice (b
12
) are both expected to be negative
because the herdsman or owner carries out the treatment
without regular Government Veterinary supervision.
Dilution (b
13
) of drugs and injection techniques (b
14
) are
both expected to be negative because of the difficult
Esena, 2013
nature of making up solutions correctly on the field
(Connor, 1993) and the difficulty of getting access to the
use of appropriate needles.
Treatment interval (b
15
) and the use of sanative
pairs of drugs (b
16
) are expected to be negative because
they are generally done without regular Veterinary
supervision. The amount of trypanocidal drugs used in
Africa is known to be small in relation to the numbers of
animals at risk (Anheier and Siebel 1987). (Trail, Murray
et al., 1984). Although the concept of a sanative pair
of drugs is known to be effective against trypanosomes
(Brandl, 1988) drug use among farmers depends on
availability. Selective treatment (b
17
) is expected to be
positive because mass treatment is now known to have
led to the appearance of resistant trypanosomes (Geerts
and Holmes 1998). Prophylactic drug use (b
18
) is
expected to contribute positively in the control of the
disease (Lee and Maurice 1983). Antibiotic use (b
19
) is
expected to contribute negatively because of the
likelihood of drug misuse (Roderick, Stephenson et al.,
2000). The use of the pour-on (b
20
) is expected to be
positive because it prevents infection with trypanosomes
and thereby improve animal health to increase
productivity (Brandl, 1988). Trypanosomiasis control
requires an integrated approach using drugs and vector
control to reduce the tsetse challenge (Peregrine, 1994).
Criteria for treatment (b
21
) are expected to be negative
because farmers were not trained to identify the disease.
Sales and Profit Function Results
The findings of sales and profit functions
indicate that the signs of the coefficients were all similar
except for cost of services (b
2
), education of herdsmen
(b
7
) and the criteria for trypanosomiasis treatments (b
21
)
which were positive for profit models. Contrary to
expectations, the coefficient b
1
(value of input) was
positive. The cost of service (b
2
) was negative for the
profit model as expected. Management experience (b
4
)
was positive as expected and herd size (b
5
) was positive
for both sales and profit. Other findings were that: age
of enterprise (b
3
), dosage of Berenil
(b
6
) and business
ownership (b
9
) were positive while education of
herdsmen (b
7
), Presence (or encounter) of tsetse were
negative as expected. Contrary to expectation,
Knowledge of trypanosomiasis (b
11
) was positive for
both sales and profit. Dilution of drugs (b
13
), injection
techniques (b
14
) and treatment intervals b
15
were all
positive in the model. Furthermore, it was observed that
the following coefficients were positive as expected:
sanative pair of drugs (b
16
), selective treatments (b
17
),
prophylaxis (b
18
), and pour-on technique (b
20
). The
criteria for treatment (b
21
) was negative as expected.
Antibiotic use (b
19
) turned out to be positive.
Re-estimation of the models
In this study, only certain variables turned out as
expected in the previous equations (Equation 1.2 and
1.4), Apart from the variables that were dropped by the
computer itself probably due to collinearity, those
variables that had very low t-values (p > 0.05) were also
dropped from the subsequent equation to re-estimate the
model. The reason was that, these variables were
unreliable.
Re-estimated Sales and profit function results
The re-estimated sales model is presented in
Table 1 and while the re-estimated model for profit is
presented in Table 2. The re-estimated models for
trypanosomiasis prevalence and dosage of Berenil
by
herdsmen are presented in Table 3 and Table 4
respectively.

DISCUSSION
Constraints associated with drug use by herdsmen
The findings of this model have been compared
to the objectives, hypothesis, and literature review and
are discussed below. The focus of this discussion is
mainly on the constraints associated with the use of
Diminazene aceturate (Berenil
) by herdsmen for the

Esena, 2013
control of cattle trypanosomiasis.
Important issues have emerged in this model.
Firstly, it has been observed that, there is a significant
(p < 0.05) impact of the joint regression between sales
and the independent variables and also a significant (p <
0.05) impact on the joint regression between profit and
the independent variables. Similar findings were
observed for trypanosomiasis prevalence and dosage of
Berenil
as dependent variables in relation to the

respective independent variables. However only certain
independent variables were identified to have significant
(p < 0.05) impacts on sales, profit, trypanosomiasis
prevalence and dosage of Berenil
. Although some
variables were insignificant (p > 0.05) others had
positive impacts on productivity. For example, it was
observed that cattle management experiences (p <
0.001), age of kraal (p < 0.001), farm size (p < 0.001),
dosage of Berenil
(p < 0.001) and prophylactic use of

drug (p < 0.001) had positive impacts on sales. This
establishes an important equation which explains that
those who adopt prophylaxis and an increased dosage of
Berenil
have higher chances of increasing their output

for sales and profit margins.
Farm size was observed to have a positive impact
on productivity (Table 1). In other words large scale
farmers (> 99 cattle) appear to have more outputs and
benefits than medium (50-99 cattle) and small scale
farmers (<50 cattle). The results show that for every unit
of increase (1%) in farm size increases sales by 0.002
and profit increases by 0.00176. This is an encouraging
finding for farmers whose priority is cattle population
increase. However some workers believe that as
livestock population increases and/or tsetse free areas
are taken up by other forms of land use, it may become
necessary for livestock owners to enter tsetse infested
areas and there is a tendency for some of the cattle to
acquire trypanosome infections (Lee and Maurice, 1983).
Jordan (1986) explained that as challenge increases the
problem of administering drugs effectively and the
consequent risk of a high incidence of drug resistance
developing also increase. The result further shows that
farm management experience had a significant (p <
0.001) impact on profit. The issue of farm management
has been noted by other researchers (Trail, Sones et al.,
1985). They showed that a good farm management and
an efficient trypanosomiasis monitoring programme
(chemoprophylaxis) is highly effective in maintaining
cattle in areas of high tsetse challenge.
On the issue of farm management, (Sadhu and
Singh 1995) explained that the farmer normally acts as
entrepreneur or proprietor of the farm business and is
responsible for framing the general policy or plan of his
business or his system of farming. Indeed some writers
(Haaijer-Ruskamp and Dukes 1993) have noted that
these social and cultural setting influence peoples
response to the drug. They further explained that
pharmacology, epidemiology and social sciences
determine drug use. There is no doubt that in areas of
ariables Beta t-value p-value
Constant (K) 2.3420 24.219 0.001
Farm size 0.1760 7.488 0.001
Age of enterprise (kraal) 0.2640 3.545 0.001
Prophylaxis 0.0082 2.761 0.006
Management experience 0.1680 2.655 0.008
Dosage of Berenil
0.0074 3.105 0.002

Extension training -0.0071 - 2.376 0.018
Business/cattle ownership 0.0035 2.117 0.035
Table 2: Re-estimated Profit model of herdsmen
Esena, 2013
Variables Beta t-value p-value
Constant (K) 2.3890 26.5500 0.001
Farm size 0.2000 8.9810 0.001
Prophylaxis 0.1000 3.5990 0.000
Age of enterprise (kraal) 0.2060 2.9840 0.003
Dosage of Berenil
0.0056 2.6640 0.008

Table 1: Re-estimated sales model of herdsmen
low trypanosomiasis challenge, it is more economical to
control the disease by chemotherapy than by tsetse
control (Jordan, 1986).
Brandl (1988) has added that, the prevention of
loss of performance of animals as a consequence of
trypanosomiasis has economic significance for the
livestock enterprise and for the national economy. The
cultural setting determines how society views drug use in
terms of its social acceptability and its social
significance (Haaijer-Ruskamp and Hemminki, 1993).
Non-compliance has become an important issue in
medical, veterinary and socio-scientific research. It
becomes more pronounced where the prescribed
treatment is complex (Hingson, 1981) and long (Sackett
and Snow 1979) or where there are side effects
(Christensen, 1978). Haaijer-Ruskamp and Hemminki
(1993) clarified this issue by explaining that health care
systems vary widely from country to country because
they are embedded in different historical, social, cultural
and political values of the country. For example, the
principle of equal access to drugs is associated with a
more general emphasis on social equality and with a
socio-political structure that more readily accepts
governmental control.
Prominent among the constraints associated with
drug use was the dose of Berenil
used by farmers and

its positive impact on trypanosomiasis prevalence. For
the fact that dosage of Berenil
had a positive impact on

trypanosomiasis prevalence suggests that there could be
a threat of resistance of trypanosomes to the drug
(Berenil
) in the study area. Dosage of Berenil

however had a significant (p < 0.05) impact on both sales
and profit. Although dosage was expected to have a
negative (p < 0.001) impact on both sales and profit, it
was contrary. But the survey showed that only two
districts (Akatsi and AMA) used the appropriate dose
(3.5 to 7.0 mg/kg body weight of Berenil
). One of the
main difficulties in the field is to achieve correct dosage
rate because appropriate dose depends on the accurate
estimation of body weight which is difficult to achieve.
When subcurative doses of trypanocides are
given by livestock owners or herdsmen, there is the
danger of selecting resistant trypanosomes (Connor,
1993). Weight estimation by eye is a method which is
prone to inaccuracy and perhaps the greatest source of
error in the accurate administration of drugs (Boyt,
1984). This method is ineffective (Connor, 1993)
especially with trypano-susceptible cattle. The reason is
that the animals have to be treated several times if sub-
therapeutic doses are given. In fact it is a method which
requires skills that can only be acquired by training
which only few livestock owners and veterinary staff
have the opportunity to acquire (Connor, 1993). The risk
associated with frequent treatment of cattle with
trypanocidal drugs especially in cattle with poor body
condition has been noted in Kenya by Stevenson and
Sones et al., (1995).
The effects of trypanocide dilution and treatment
intervals on trypanosomiasis were both inversely
proportional and tend to decrease trypanosomiasis
Constant (K) 1.1530 17.984 0.001
Treatment intervals -0.0088 - 3.080 0.002
Dilution -0.2140 - 2.992 0.003
Dosage of Berenil
0.1070 2.394 0.017

Selective treatment 0.1110 2.084 0.038
Table 3: Re-estimated trypanosomiasis
prevalence model
Esena, 2013
Constant (K) 3.131 6.833 0.001
Education of herdsmen 0.543 4.919 0.001
Pouron technique -0.652 -3.683 0.001
Districts 0.00528 2.161 0.032
Ownership of business -0.177 -1.990 0.048
Table 4: Re-estimated model; dosage of Berenil

usedby herdsmen
prevalence (Table 3). The survey indicates that most
farmers had two blanket treatments yearly; the dilution
was a sachet of Berenil
in 125 mls of distilled water. It

was usually measured with a syringe that were
recommended for the appropriate amounts. Therefore
preparation of injectable solution was not a problem
among farmers in the study area as expected. However
the appropriate dose was not administered by all farmers.
Surveillance is necessary in addressing the problem of
dosage and in determining the treatment intervals of
chemoprophylactic regimes. Although drug surveillance
schemes were set up in 1964 to identify risks WHO
(1972) it is not effective in developing countries. The
need for treatment is judged by the farmer. The farmers
response generally is to treat only problem animals i.e
those with clinical disease that are recognised as sick and
whose productivity or life is visibly threatened (Connor,
1993).
(Brandl, 1988), explained that under normal
circumstances herd treatment should be carried out
through regular administration of a curative dose of
Berenil
or Samorin
as a prophylaxis. But the cost of

monitoring and logistical requirements limit the
efficiency of prophylactic regimens. The requirements
today of farmers to pay for such treatments make it less
likely that herd prophylaxis will be widely practised
under traditional management systems. The explanation
is that, there is a general belief that the cost of
trypanocidal drugs and their use is high. Trail et al.,
(1985) argued that notions of high cost of trypanocidal
drugs and their use is a reasonable but unfounded
assumption because there is little published information
on the economics of use of trypanocidal drugs on
livestock productivity. But some writers (Haaijer-
Ruskamp and Dukes 1993) believe that alongside the
medical/veterinary and social determinants of drug use
economic factors play an important role. They argued
that money has always been relevant to the use of drugs
and indeed the best medicines were available only to the
wealthy. On the cost factor, Kimbel (1993) added that
although it concerns national administration it is a matter
that must concern the health professionals as a whole. In
the light of this argument one observes that drug
utilisation can make an important contribution by
striking a balance between the benefits and the risk of
drug use (Haaijer-Ruskamp and Dukes, 1993).
The age of cattle business/enterprise (Kraal)
(Tables 1 and 2) had positive impacts on sales and profit
respectively. In fact the entrepreneurial age (age of
herdsmen reflected in experience) and their
chronological age are the best predictors of success
particularly when the new venture is in the same field as
enterpreneurs (herdsman) new experience (Hisrich and
Peters, 1992). Cattle farming as an enterprise has been
noted to be an old business among Fulani herdsmen in
particular (Dickson and Benneh, 1995) and this could
have an advantage in enhancing productivity.
Certain factors had positive impacts on the
dosage of drug use (Table 4): Education of herdsmen had
positive impacts on the use of Berenil
. Extension
training was inversely correlated with profit. Extension
training and educational background in general normally
equip the herdsman with knowledge to plan and manage
a business. This is however not the case in the study area
where extension training has not yet been given to most
of the farmers.
Pour-on techniques and farm/business ownership
had negative impacts on drug use. In other words farmers
with a higher education level who used pour-ons (jointly
with drugs) tend to decrease the dosage of Berenil
used
and communal farms did not comply with appropriate
doses as compared to farms that were family owned or
solely owned. It is like farms that where farms were
communally owned, different farmers attempted to
influence the herdsmens practices. Other constraints
were identified in the model and are were presented in
the model itself. Antibiotic use in conjunction with
Berenil
had some positive impacts on sales and profit

Esena, 2013
and even decreased trypanosomiasis prevalence. The use
of antibiotics mixed with trypanocides has had also been
noted among cattle farmers (massai pastoralists) in
Kenya by (Roderick, Stephenson et al., 2000). These
farmers used homidium or diminazene in conjunction
with oxytetracycline in the absence of Veterinary
supervision. There were other factors correlated with
trypanosomiasis prevalence in the model but these were
not significant (p > 0.05). These were the poor injection
techniques and criteria for treatment. Other factors had
negative impacts on trypanosomiasis prevalence. These
factors were: knowledge of trypanocides, professional
advice, sanative pair of drugs and prophylactic drug use.
The variable criteria for trypanosomiasis treatment
tends to increase trypanosomiasis prevalence. This
implies that the diagnosis and treatment of cattle
trypanosomiasis among farmers have been questionable.
Farmers normally attribute anaemia to trypanosomal
infection but it is important to note that there are other
important anaemia causing pathogens such as
gastrointestinal helminths that affect cattle productivity
(Agyemang, Dwinger et al., 1997). Farmers and
veterinarians normally resort to treatment of only sick
animals with trypanocides based solely on certain
retrospective symptoms (Connor, 1993), but the presence
of concurrent diseases could mask trypanosomiasis and
complicate the clinical picture. However, some of the
basic symptoms generally adopted by farmers in the
study area are anaemia, rough hair coat and diarrhoea
(Aning, Karbo et al., 1998).

CONCLUSION
This research has shown that there is no control
of drug use, especially trypanocide (Berenil
) by cattle
farmers. The effect is that there are constraints
associated with trypanosomiasis control limiting the
expansion of livestock expansion in the study area. This
model has identified some constraints associated with
trypanocide drug use by herdsmen. Some of these
constraints pose threats to the emergence of resistance
strains of trypanosomes. To address these problems,
there is the need for a trypanocide classification system
as a tool for comparative studies of both supply/
marketing and use. Such a system will provide a solid
basis on which to compare trypanocide drug use among
farmers in the study area. Furthermore, the veterinary
department and the Ghana standards board in
consultation with the government should promote the
accreditation of Veterinary drug stores at national,
regional and district levels. The Ghana Veterinary
Medical Association should be encouraged to promote
professional ethical standards by formulating a code of
ethics assuring quality of services provided for the
community.

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Article Citation:
Girish Chopra, Anil K. Tyor and Seema Kumari
A study on the wetland avian species of Sultanpur National Park Gurgaon, Haryana
(India)
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A study on the wetland avian species of Sultanpur National Park
Gurgaon, Haryana (India)
Keywords:
Wetland, Wetland Species, Water Birds, Water Associated Birds, Sultanpur
National Park.
ABSTRACT:

The present study was conducted in Sultanpur National Park Gurgaon,
Haryana (India) from February, 2011 to January, 2013 to analyze the avian diversity
along with its status and abundance. Duri ng the study peri od, a total of 79 wetland
species belongings to 10 orders, 23 families and 56 genera were identified. The order
Anseriformes was the most dominant represented by 18.9% of the total identified
wetland avian species followed by Charadriiformes (17.72%), Passeriformes (16.45%),
Ciconiiformes (15.18%) and Pelecaniformes (5.06%). The order Apodiformes and
Podicipediformes were the least represented order (1.26%) with one species each,
namely, Swift, Apus apus and Little Grebe, Tachybaptus ruficollis respectively. Out of
total 79 wetland avian species, 31 were occasional species, 13 were uncommon
species, 12 were abundant species, 11 were common species and 12 were rare
species. Based on the frequency of sighting, Pied King Fisher, Ceryle rudis;
Chestnut Headed Bee-Eater, Merops leschenaultia; Cotton Pygmy Goose,
Nettapus coromandelianus; Eurasian Spoonbill, Platalea leucorodia; Little-ringed
Plover, Charadrius dubius; Pheasant-Tailed Jacana, Hydrophasianus chirurgus were
rarely sighted wetland species.
1032-1040 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 5
An International
Authors:
Girish Chopra,
Anil K. Tyor and
Seema Kumari
*

Institution:
Department of Zoology,
Kurukshetra University,
Kurukshetra- 136119,
Haryana (India)

Seema Kumari

Email Id:

Web Address:
Dates:
Received: 24 July 2013 Accepted: 30 July 2013 Published: 23 Aug 2013
Original Research
INTRODUCTION
The wetlands can be defined as transitional lands
between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem where the
water table is near the surface or land is covered by
shallow water (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1986). One of the
best functions of wetlands is that these provide the best
preferred ground for feeding, breeding, nesting, roosting
for birds as well as rearing site for their young ones
(Stewart, 2007). According to Vyas, (1992), freshwater
wetland alone support 20% of known range of
biodiversity in India Therefore, monitoring of these sites
provides valuable information about the ecological
health and status thereof, which can be a key tool for
developing awareness regarding the importance and
conservation value of wetlands. wetlands are used by
birds for the purpose of feeding, nesting and roosting and
these birds are generally classify as water birds or
popularly known as waterfowls and waders. According
to Kumar et al., (2011), bird groups like kingfishers,
raptors and some passerines are also ecologically depend
on wetlands, hence known as wetland dependent/
associated birds. These birds are the essential component
of wetland ecosystem, as they form important links in the
food web and nutrient cycles.
From time to time various ornithologists have
studied flora and fauna in various wetland ecosystems in
protected areas (Saxena, 1975; Hussain et al., 1984;
Singh and Roy, 1990; Hosetti et al., 2001; Bhat et al.,
2009; Chopra and Sharma, 2012).
Sultanpur National Park is one of the famous
wetlands in northern India. This national park is
considered as a major habitat for the cross boundary
migratory birds. Keeping in view of the conservational
values of wetland birds, systematic efforts have been
made during the present study with an objective to
prepare the exhaustive checklist of wetland and wetland
dependent/associated birds of Sultanpur National Park.

Sultanpur National Park (2828 N latitude and
76 53 E longitudes) (Fig. 1) is located in a
predominantly agricultural landscape with an area of
13,727 ha and includes its core area of 143 ha of low-
lying marshes, which were notified as a bird sanctuary
Chopra et al., 2013
Fig. 1(a) Location of study site within the
map of Haryana
Fig.1(b) Diagrammatic presentation of
Sultanpur National Park
by the Haryana State Government in 1971 (Kalpavriksh,
1994). Sultanpur Lake is a seasonal lake with irregular
margins and fluctuating water level throughout the year,
being maximum water level in rainy season and winters,
and nearly dried condition during hot summer season.
Periodic fortnightly visits were conducted from
February, 2011 to January, 2013 in terrestrial and aquatic
habitats in the area in the early morning and later in the
evening to record avian species. Line transects method
(Sale and Berkmuller, 1988) and point count methods
(Blondel, et al., 1981) were used to enumerate the
population of birds species. Binoculars (Nikon 750
CF) were used to locate/identify the distant birds, Sony
handy cam models DCR-HC-42E and digital camera
Nikon L-120 model were used to take photograph of the
birds encountered. Later, the wetland populations were
identified with the help of different field guides (Ali and
Ripley, 1987; Grimmett et al., 1998 and Inskipp et al.,
1999).
Seasonal variation in avian diversity was
recorded in different seasons viz., winter, summer,
monsoon and autumn seasons. On the basis of frequency
of sighting, the observed birds were segregated following
Srinivasulu and Nagulu (2002), as Ab-abundant
(encounter rate 95 % to 100 %); Cm- common
(encounter rate 65% to 95%); Uc- uncommon (encounter
rate 40% to 60%) Oc - occasional (encounter rate 20% to
40%); and Rr- rare (encounter rate less than 20%).
Status of the birds were categorized as: RS- resident
species (found in the study area throughout the year);
WM- winter migrant species (found in the study area
only in winter season); LM- local migrant species (found
irregularly in study site but resident of India); SM-
summer migrant species (found in the study area only
during summer season) and SU- status unknown species
(not observed in any of the above mentioned categories).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Besides being ideal indicators of the health of
wetland, the wetland birds play a significant role in
human lives culturally, socially and scientifically
(Stewart, 2007). As a wetland ecosystem, Sultanpur
National Park provided varied habitats, including forest
patch and low laying marshy areas for nesting and
feeding of various types of birds.
During the study period of two years from
February, 2011 to January, 2013, 79 wetland species
belongings to 10 orders, 23 families and 57 genera were
reported from Sultanpur National Park (Table 1). These
include both water bird species and water associated bird
species; former were significantly more than latter. A
checklist of the wetland birds observed during the study
period along with their conservation status and
abundance is represented in Table 1.
Earlier studies have also revealed the existence
of significant number of wetland avian species in the
wetland area of Haryana (Harvey, 2003; Gupta and
Kaushik, 2008; Gupta et al., 2011 and Chopra and
Sharma, 2012). Harvey (2003) reported a total of 102
wetland avian species which includes 58 species
occasional and 44 species of uncommon bird in the
wetland of Sultanpur region of Gurgaon district
(Haryana). Gupta and Kaushik, (2008) reported a total of
80 wetland avian species belonged to 10 orders and 20
families in northern Haryana. Gupta and Kaushik, (2011)
reported 47 species of wetland birds belonging to 9
orders and 13 families in the wetland area of
Yamunanagar District (Haryana). Chopra and Sharma,
(2012) reported 88 wetland avian species belonging to 17
orders and 32 families in the wetland area of Panchkula
district of Haryana.
During the present study, out of total reported 79
wetland avian species, 20 (25.3%) were resident
species and 59 (74.6%) were migrant species. The
migrant species included 11 (14%) local migrants, 43
(55%) winter migrants and only 5(6%) summer migrants
Chopra et al., 2013

Chopra et al., 2013
Order Family Common name Zoological name Status Abundance
1.Podicipediformes Podicipedidae Little Grebe 1.Tachybaptus ruficollis RS Oc
2.Pelecaniformes Phalacrocoracidae Little Cormorant 2.Phalacrocorax niger RS Cm
Great Cormorant 3. Phalacrocorax carbo LM Oc
Indian Cormorant 4. Phalacrocorax fuscicollis RS Cm
Darter 5. Anhinga melanogaster LM Oc
3.Ciconiiformes Ardeidae Grey Heron 6. Ardea cinerea LM Uc
Purple Heron 7. Ardea purpurea RS Oc
Indian Pond Heron 8. Ardeola grayii RS Ab
Great Egret 9. Casmerodius albus LM Oc
Little Egret 10. Egretta garzetta LM Uc
Cattle Egret 11. Bubulcus ibis RS Ab
Intermediate Egret 12. Mesophoyx intermedia LM Oc
Ciconiidae
Painted Stork
Black Necked Stork
13. Mycteria leucocephala
14. Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus
RS
WM
Ab
Rr
Open Billed Stork 15. Anastomus oscitans LM Uc
Threskiornithidae Black headed Ibis 16. Threskiornis melanocephalus WM Oc
Eurasian Spoonbill 17. Platalea leucorodia SM Rr
4.Anseriformes Anatidae Greylag Goose 18. Anser anser WM Ab
Bar Headed Goose 19. Anser indicus WM Ab
Spot Billed Duck 20. Anas poecilorhyncha WM Ab
Common Pochard 21. Aythya ferina WM Cm
Eurasian Wigeon 22. Anas penelope WM Ab
Tufted Pochard 23. Aythya fuligula WM Uc
Cotton Pygmy Goose 24. Nettapus coromandelianus WM Rr
Ruddy Shelduck 25. Tadorna ferruginea WM Uc
Northern Pintail 26. Anas acuta WM Oc
Mallard 27. Anas platyrhynchos WM Cm
Gadwall 28. Anas strepera WM Cm
Northern Shoveler 29. Anas clypeata WM Ab

Lesser Whistling
Duck
30.Dendrocygna javanica WM Cm
Common Teal 31. Anas crecca WM Cm
Garganey 32. Anas querquedula WM Cm
5.Falconiformes Accipitridae Black Kite 33. Milvus migrans LM Oc
Black Eagle 34. Ictinaetus malayensis LM Rr
Shikra 35. Accipiter badius RS Uc
Brahminy Kite 36. Haliastur Indus LM Oc
Black winged Kite 37. Elanus caeruleus WM Uc
Sparrow Hawk 38. Accipiter nisus WM Oc
Pied Harrier 39. Circus melanoleucos LM Oc
Table 1: Systematic position, status and abundance of wetland species in Sultanpur
National Park Gurgaon, Haryana (India).
(Fig 2). The present study revealed that local migrants
such as, Great Egret (Casmerodius albus), Open Billed
Stork (Anastomus oscitans) and Pacific Reef Egret
(Egretta sacra) were observed irregularly from the study
site. Maximum numbers of migrant species were
reported in the winter season because migratory water
birds species like Bar headed Goose (Anser indicus),
Grey Leg Goose (Anser anser), Cotton Pygmy Goose
Chopra et al., 2013
6.Gruiformes Gruidae Sarus Crane 40.Grus antigone
RS
Oc
Rallidae White Breasted Waterhen 41.Amaurornis phoenicurus
WM
Oc
Common Moorhen 42.Gallinula chloropus
WM
Oc
Purple Swamphen 43.Porphyrio porphyrio
WM
Cm
Common Coot 44.Fulica atra
WM
Ab
7.Charadriiformes Charadriidae Little-ringed Plover 45.Charadrius dubius
WM
Rr
Red-wattled Lapwing 46.Vanellus indicus
RS
Ab
White-tailed Lapwing 47.Vanellus leucurus
WM
Oc
Jacanidae Pheasant-Tailed Jacana 48.Hydrophasianus chirurgus
SM
Rr
Scolopacidae Common Redshank 49.Tringa tetanus
WM
Uc
Spotted Redshank 50.Tringa erythropus
WM
Uc
Common Sandpiper 51.Actitis hypoleucos
WM
Oc
Wood Sandpiper 52.Tringa glareola
WM
Oc
Green Sandpiper 53.Tringa ochropus
WM
Oc
Marsh sandpiper 54.Tringa stagnatilis
WM
Rr
Little Stint 55.Calidris minuta
WM
Rr
Ruff 56.Philomachus pugnax
WM
Uc
Recurvirostridae Black-winged Stilt 57.Himantopus himantopus
RS
Ab
Black-necked Stilt 58.Himantopus mexicanus
WM
Rr
8.Apodiformes Apodidae Swift 59.Apus apus
RS
Oc
9.Coraciiformes Alcedinidae White Throated Kingfisher 60.Halcyon smyrnensis
RS
Cm
Pied Kingfisher 61.Ceryle rudis
WM
Rr
Meropidae Green Bee-eater 62.Merops orientalis
RS
Cm
Blue Cheeked Bee-eater 63.Merops persicus
R
Oc
Chestnut Headed Bee-eater 64.Merops leschenaulti
SM
Rr
Coraciidae Indian Roller 65.Coracias benghalensis
RS
Oc
Bucerotidae Indian Grey Hornbill 66.Ocyceros birostris
RS
Oc
10.Passeriformes Hirundinidae Red Rumped Swallow 67.Hirundo daurica
WM
Oc
Plain Martin 68.Riparia paludicola
RS
Oc
Oriolidae Eurasian Golden Oriole 69.Oriolus oriolus
WM
Uc
Dicruridae Black Drongo 70.Dicrurus macrocercus
RS
Ab
Muscicapidae Hodgson Bush Chat 71.Saxicola insignis
WM
Oc
Orange Headed Thrush 72.Zoothera citrina
WM
Oc
Blue-throat 73.Luscinia svecica
WM
Oc
Rusty-tailed Flycatcher 74.Muscicapa ruficauda
SM
Uc
Red -throated Flycatcher 75.Ficedula parva
SM
Oc
Motacillidae Paddy-field Pipit 76.Anthus rufulus
RS
Oc
White Wagtail 77.Motacilla alba
WM
Oc
Large -pied Wagtail 78.Motacilla maderaspatensis
WM
Uc
Yellow Wagtail 79.Motacilla flava
WM
Rr
RS = Resident species LM = local migrant species SM = summer migrant species WM = winter migrant species
Ab = abundant species Oc = occasional species Cm= common species Uc = uncommon species Rr rare species

(Nettapus coromandelianus), Gadwall (Anas strepera)
and Eurasian Wigeon (Anas Penelope) visit this place
from December to February. Minimum numbers of water
bird were observed in the month of May and June.
Wetland species adapt differently to different
water levels as the food preference of water birds
changes with fluctuation in the water level (Mukherjee,
1972). Red Wattled Lapwing (Vanellus indicus) and
Black Winged Stilt (Himantopus himantopus) (Order-
Gruiformes) were observed at variable water levels of
the lake but other representatives of this avian order,
namely, Spotted Sandpiper (Tringa erythropus),
Common Red Shank (Tringa tetanus) and Ruff
(Philomachus pugnax) occupied the lake only in shallow
regions. Their arrival coincided with the reduction in
water level in the lake so that, they could avail the food
easily by probing into the mud. Similar observations
were made earlier on water birds of Sunderban
(Mukherjee, 1972) and Anekere wetland of Karnataka
(Bhat et al., 2009). The present study also revealed that
Painted Stork (Mycteria leucocephala) (Order-
Ciconiformes) was observed throughout of the year even
when the water level in the lake was drastically reduced
in summer months (May and June), while another
representative of this order, i.e., Black neck Stork
(Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus) was sighted during the
starting of winter season when the water level in the
Sultanpur lake was elevated.
During the present study among 79 wetland
species, 12 (15%) species were abundant, 11(14%)
species were common, 31 (39%) species were
occasional, 14 (18%) species were uncommon and 11
(14%) species were rare (Fig 3). On the basis of
frequency of sighting common wetland species included
Little Cormorant (Phalacrocorax niger), Indian
Cormorant (Phalacrocorax fuscicollis), Common
Pochard (Aythya ferina), Mallard (Anas platyrhyncos),
Gadwall, (Anas strepera), Lesser Whistling Duck
(Dendrocygna javanica), Common Teal (Anas crecca),
Garganey (Anas querquedula), Purple Swamphen
(Porphyrio porphyrio) on the other hand, Grey Heron
(Ardea cinerea), Little Egret (Egretta garzetta), Open
Billed Stork (Anastomus oscitans), Tufted Pochard
(Aythya fuligula), Ruddy Shelduck (Tadorna ferruginea),
Common Redshank (Tringa tetanus), Spotted Redshank
(Tringa erythropus), Ruff (Philomachus pugnax) were
the uncommon wetland birds and Pied King Fisher
(Ceryle rudis), Chestnut Headed Bee-Eater (Merops
leschenaultia), Cotton Pygmy Goose (Nettapus
coromandelianus), Eurasian Spoonbill (Platalea
leucorodia), Little-ringed Plover (Charadrius dubius),
Pheasant-Tailed Jacana (Hydrophasianus chirurgus)
were rarely sighted wetland species. Maximum wetland
bird species in the study area belonged to order
Chopraet al., 2013
Fig 2: Percentage composition of residential status of
wetland bird species of Sultanpur National Park,
Gurgaon (India)
Fig 3: Percentage composition of abundance status
of wetland bird species of Sultanpur National Park,
Gurgaon (India)
Anseriformes (15, 18.9%) followed by Charadriiformes
(14, 17.72%), Passeriformes (13, 16.45%),
Ciconiiformes (12, 15.18%), Falconiformes (7, 8.86%),
Gruiiformes (5, 6.32%) and Pelecaniformes (4, 5.06%)
while the representative of the order Apodiformes and
Podicipediformes were represented by single species, i.e,
Swift (Apus apus) and Little Grebe (Tachybaptus
ruficollis) respectively (Tables 1 and 2). All the 15
members of order Anseriformes belonged to the single
family, i.e., Anatidae constituting 18.9% of the total
wetland avian species, whereas representative of the
order Charadriiformes belonged to 4 families namely,
Charadriidae (3), Jacanidae (1), Scolopocidae (8) and
Recurvirostridae (2) consitituting 3.79%; 1.26%; 10.12%
and 2.53% respectively. The families, Bucerotidae,
Coraciidae (Order- Coraciiformes); Oriolidae, Dicruridae
(Order- Passeriformes); Apodidae (Order- Apodiformes);
Gruidae (Order- Gruiiformes) and Jacanidae (Order-
Charadriiformes) were represented by single species
(Table-2). In the terrestrial habitats, majority of the
reported avian species belonged to order Passeriformes
and representative of this order utilize grassland and
terrestrial ecosystem for feeding, breeding and roosting
purpose (Sundar, 2005; Urfi et al., 2005 Shahabuddin et
al., 2006; Sultana et al., 2007; Pande et al., 2007, Chopra
et al., 2012). However, during the present study in
Sultanpur National Park only 13 wetland avian species,
i.e., 16.45% of the total sighted wetland avian fauna
represented this order (Table 2).
During the present study most of wetland avian
species were observed near the submerged vegetation of
wetland area and utilized these vegetation for nesting,
roosting and feeding ground whereas, Painted Stork
(Mycteria leucocephala), Open Billed Stork (Anastomus
oscitans) and Black-headed Ibis (Threskiornis
melanocephalus) were found to utilize the wetland area
for feeding purpose and trees were mainly used for
nesting and roosting by these species.

CONCLUSION
It is revealed that a total of 79 wetland species
were observed which includes 12 species of abundant
Chopra et al., 2013
Order No. of species (%) Family No. of species (%)
1.Podicipediformes (1) 1.26 % Podicipedidae (1) 1.26 %
2.Pelecaniformes (4 ) 5.06 % Phdlacrocoracidae (4) 5.06 %
3.Ciconiiformes (12) 15.18 % Ardeidae (7) 8.86 %
Ciconiidae (3) 3.79 %
Threskiornithidae (2) 2.53 %
4.Anseriformes (15) 18.90 % Anatidae (15) 18.90 %
5.Falconiformes (7) 8.86 % Accipitridae (7) 8.86 %
6.Gruiiformes (5) 6.32 % Gruidae (1) 1.26 %
Rallidae (4) 5.06 %
7.Charadriiformes (14) 17.72 % Charadriidae (3) 3.79 %
Jacanidae (1) 1.26 %
Scolopacidae (8) 10.12 %
Recurvirostridae (2) 2.53 %
8.Apodiformes (1) 1.26 % Apodidae (1) 1.26 %
9.Coraciiformes (7) 8.86 % Alcedinidae (2) 2.53 %
Meropidae (3) 3.79 %
Coraciidae (1) 1.26 %

10. Passeriformes

(13) 16.45 %
Bucerotidae
Hirundinidae
(1) 1.26 %
(2) 2.53 %
Oriolidae (1) 1.26 %
Dicruridae (1) 1.26 %
Muscicapidae (5) 6.32 %
Motacillidae (4) 5.06 %
Table 2: Per cent distribution of avian species belonging to different orders and families
category, 11 species of common category, 31 species of
occasional category, 13 species were of uncommon
category with 12 species were rare sighted wetland
species. Though, Sultanpur National Park has a rich
diversity of flora and fauna and important attracting
wetland area for Anseriformes, increased anthropogenic
factors such as habitat fragmentation and destruction,
tourism pressure and scarcity of water during the
summer season impose threats to these avian fauna.
Besides, the herds of Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus),
Stray dogs and wild cattle also occasionally trampled the
chicks and eggs of water birds in this national park.
Successful conservation of the avian species will depend
on improved understanding of ecological requirements
and number of visitor birds. Further survey and intensive
studies in different seasons will be helpful in drafting
conservational strategies of the wetland in general and
wetland birds in particular.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are grate full to Wildlife Department
Panchkula for giving permission to work in protected
area. The corresponding author dully acknowledges
UGC fellowship for financial support.

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Article Citation:
Reuben K. Esena
Empirical validation of reliability of triangulation methods of mixed-method mode
research: Quality improvement strategies for trypanosomiasis control.
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Empirical validation of reliability of triangulation methods of mixed-method
mode research: Quality improvement strategies for trypanosomiasis control
Keywords:
Triangulation, Tsetse, Trypanosomiasis, Berenil, Dosage, Mixed-Method.
ABSTRACT:

This paper presents a continuum of triangulation designs ranging from
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), surveys, parasitological to satellite data for a
holistic approach to a research on trypanosomiasis a disease affecting human and
livestock. The purpose is to combine several methods to improve the quality of
trypanosomiasis control in the coastal savannah. This is the most extensive work on
trypanosomiais in an African coastal savannah ecosystem, covering eleven districts in
Ghana. In this study, quantitative results were supplemented by qualitative methods
to improve on the validity and reliability. The study focused on farmers production
objectives, constraints associated with the use of Berenil to control trypanosomiasis,
and satellite data for mapping areas at the risk of diseases for appropriate targeting,
predictions and control. This mixed-method studies seeks convergence (triangulation),
of results by examining different aspects of a phenomena (complementarity) on using
methods sequentially (development) on discovering paradox and fresh perspectives
(initiation), and on adding breadth and scope to a project (expansion). In this paper,
issues of triangulation, validity and reliability has been discussed.
1041-1053 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 5
An International
Authors:
Reuben K. Esena

Institution:
Department of Health Policy
Planning and Management,
School of Public Health,
University of Ghana, P. O.
Box LG 13 Legon Accra,
Ghana

Reuben K. Esena

Email Id:

Web Address:
Dates:
Received: 13 July 2013 Accepted: 07 Aug 2013 Published: 28 Aug 2013
Original Research

INTRODUCTION AND PROBLEM STATEMENT
Multiple methods have in social science
a distinct tradition of research strategy. This study
adopts a multimethod/multitrait (Campbell and Fiske,
1959; Creswell, 1994), or triangulation (Webb et al.,
1966). These notions share similar conception that there
is the need to combine qualitative and quantitative
methods as complementary. But combining methods
alone has been viewed as somewhat controversial
(Hilton, 2002) because there are other types of
triangulation that need to be addressed for confirmation
and completeness. Some of these triangulations are
theory, data sources, methods and analysis. The reason
for such mixed-methods is that limitations in single
methods do not manifest in mixed-methods
(triangulation) and this could improve the validity of
research findings (Mathison, 1988). It is not the simple
combination of different kinds of data that matters but
the attempt to relate them so as to complement each
other and counteract the threats to validity in each. This
is what the current paper seeks to explain. It gives an in-
depth analysis and explanation and exemplifies how
multi-methods could be used to converge and validate
data for a holistic approach as evidence for decision
making on trypanosomiasis planning and control.
Problem Statement
Tsetse and trypanosomiasis control are public
health programmes in Ghana, but sustainable control
has not yet been achieved. Several unsuccessful
attempts have been made in the past to control
the disease (Stewart, 1937, 1946, 1954;
Nowosielki-Slepowron, 1962; Ghana Ministry of Food
and Agriculture, 1996) but currently some 60 % of the
country is still infested with various species of tsetse flies
(Ghana Ministry of Food and Agriculture, 2009).

The control of the disease is a complex
(and multifaceted) and requires investigation into
several aspects for a holistic approach. This study is
one such example adapting several methods
to arrive at a coherent result for targeting and control.

RESEARCH METHODS AND RESULTS
Rationale for Research Approach and Methodology
This research, combines qualitative and
quantitative design as the most appropriate method of
analysis. In support of the mixed methodology design in
procedure and data analysis, Morse (1991) stated, a
project must be either theoretically driven by the
qualitative methods incorporating a complementary
quantitative component, or theoretically driven by the
quantitative method, incorporating a complementary
qualitative component.
The main purpose of this research was to explore
the views of cattle farmers on the importance of
trypanosomiasis in relation to their production objectives
and to find out how farmers controlled cattle
trypanosomiasis in the area. This research was to develop
a model that could identify the constraints affecting
control of trypanosomiasis by farmers in the study area
as well as predictions of the disease. Therefore a mixed-
methodology design of both qualitative and quantitative
approaches was adopted. As qualitative research occurs
in natural settings where human behaviour and events
occur, it was rightly used for certain aspects of the study
although supplemented occasionally with quantitative
tools.
In certain aspects of the research, the qualitative
suggestions of (Marshall and Rossman, 1989) and the
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) Techniques
(Grandin and Young 1994; Hadgu, Yisehak, and Tekle
1992; Kirsopp-Reed and Hinchcliffe, 1994) were
adopted. This is because the focus of this research was
on respondents perception and experiences (Locke,
Spiriduso, and Silverman, 1987, Fraenkel and Wallen,
1990; Merriam, 1988; IAEA, 1998) especially of major
animal health problems (Catley, 1997), and to assess the
success of disease control measures (Catley, 1997;
Esena, 2013
Ghirotti, 1993; McCracken, Pretty, and Conway, 1988).
This approach is appropriate for understanding multiple
facts, characteristics and constraints of trypanosomiasis
control, livestock diseases and the development of a
forecasting tool. Therefore the purpose of this
methodology design was to seek convergence
(triangulation) by examining different aspects of the
research and adding breadth and scope to the project
(Greene, Caracelli, and Graham, 1989).
The quantitative method of this research are
concerned with measurements and evaluation of the use
of Berenil
and the prevalence of trypanosomiasis (lab

studies) as well as the use of satellite data for prediction
and control. Therefore, the emphasis is on numerical data
and measurable variables. It was appropriate to use
multivariate analysis and GIS (ArcView) to analyse
certain aspects of the data to develop epidemiological
models. Hence a multi-method approach was adopted
for this research as a strategy for validation.
Population and sample
The respondents consisted of 250 herdsmen
representing 15.14% of the total population of herdsmen
in the study area. The number of cattle farms owned in
the study area is 1651 (Ghana, 2009). They were grouped
into various districts as follows:
In the central region there are 112 farms at
Awutu-Efutu-Senya (AES) district and 139 in Gomoa
District. In the Greater Accra Region, there are 20 in the
Accra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA); 185 in Dangme
East 429 in Dangme West and 205 in Tema District. In
the Volta region, 198 in Akatsi district 33 in Keta district
46 in Ketu and 119 in Sogakope (South Tongu) district.
Of this total number of farms, 250 were selected for the
study and the respective herdsmen were identified as
respondents and interviewed. In a survey design, a
sample of 10 to 20% of the accessible population is
enough to generate confidence in the data collected and
the subsequent generalization (Ary, Jacob, and Razavieh
1979). It was noted that 30 cases is minimum for
statistical data analysis (Bailey, 1982), and some
techniques can be used with fewer than 30 cases
(Champion, 1970). For the Participatory Rural Appraisal
(PRA) technique, 850 farmers comprising drovers,
herdsmen and owners were interviewed for matrix-
scoring of the production objectives and the effect of
animal diseases on livestock and their products.
For the purpose of trypanosomiasis prevalence
studies a current cattle population census of the various
districts was obtained from records of the respective
Veterinary Offices. A minimum sample size of all herds
(kraals) was chosen at a 95% confidence level, an
assumed (estimated) prevalence of 20% (Ghana, 1999)
and within a precision (margin of error) of 5%
(Lemeshow et al., 1990; Lwanga and Lemeshow, 1991).
In each herd (within the kraals) the required
number of animals was selected by simple random
sampling so as to ensure that each animal had an equal
chance of being selected.
In this survey, 1,830 cattle were sampled. But
the research also adopted a total of 6,902 samples for
analysis as secondary data from the Tsetse Control Unit
(Veterinary Department of the Ministry of Food and
Agriculture) to strengthen the validity of the research
findings.
Procedure
Participatory Rural Appraisal Surveys (PRA)
The PRA survey relied on a technique known as
preference ranking of variables within a matrix (Kirsopp-
Reed and Hinchcliffe, 1994). Participants were asked to
rank the importance of different cattle production
parameters and also their perceptions of the importance
of livestock diseases. Parameters included hide, beef,
milk, manure as well as customary and ceremonial uses.
The criteria were listed in the rows of a matrix with the
classes of livestock in columns. Within each cell of the
matrix, participants could specify the relative importance
of every category by placing between zero and ten maize
seeds within the matrix. The production objectives,
Esena , 2013

farmers perceptions of the importance of livestock
diseases, livestock disease types in relation to
trypanosomiasis and cattle diseases affecting
productivity (i.e. the rows of a matrix) were determined
after discussion and pre-testing with farmers.
The survey was carried out in 75 villages within
11 districts (Figure 1) as follows: five districts in the
Greater Accra Region, four districts in the Volta Region
and two districts in the Central Region.
In each village, participants were asked to divide
themselves into groups according to their ethnic origin
and wealth relative to cattle herd size: small < 50 herds,
medium 50-99 herds and large > 99 herds (Ghana, 2009).
Each completed the matrix separately. Contract
herdsmen completed the matrices as groups separate to
the owners of the herd. Herders were also asked to
complete the matrices according to herder types and the
type of ownership (sole ownership, family ownership
and communal ownership). Prioritization process was
followed by informal discussions to clarify issues
relating to the matrices, cattle disease, treatment and
constraints for each type of livestock.
Ground Surveys:
Glossina spp. Tsetse fly sampling was done in
the study area (where PRA surveys and parasitological
studies were conducted) using 20 unbaited biconical
traps (Challier and Laveissiere, 1973) in each area for
24 hours. The species, sex and numbers of tsetse were
identified (Geoffoy et al., 1993; WHO, 1988) and
photographed, recorded and stored in the database as
flies per trap per day. The data were supplemented with
those of the National Livestock Survey Project. The
Global Positioning System (GPS) was used to locate the
longitudes, latitudes and altitudes of the study sites.
Land use and climatological data
It is important to examine the interaction
between trypanosomiasis risks and agricultural activities
such as crop and livestock production. To achieve this,
digitized land use maps of the study area were obtained
from the Department of Geography and Resource
Development (University of Ghana, Legon), while
Climatological data were obtained from the Ghana
Meteorological Headquarters (Accra) for analysis.
Satellite data
Normalised Difference Vegetation Indices
(NDVI) (Rouse et al., 1974) derived from the Advanced
Very High Resolution Radiation (AVHRR) on board the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA) satellites were used for the period 1999. The
indices were simplest and most convenient way to
monitor vegetation cover, and allowed rapid estimation
of vegetation cover properties from remotely sensed
data.
The significant (p < 0.05) Normalised Difference
Vegetation Index (NDVI) band affecting tsetse
distribution was RANGEDVI and the equation could be
represented as,
Equation (1) shows that for a unit (1.0 %)
increase in RANGEDVI, the tsetse density increased by
0.0033. The relationship between NDVI and tsetse was
represented by,
Equation (2) shows relationships between
RANGEDVI, MINNDVI and trypanosomiasis
prevalence. A unit increase (1.0 %) of RANGEDVI
increases trypanosomiasis risk by 0.0186 and with a 1.0
% decrease in MINNDVI decreases Trypanosomiasis
risk by 0.01364. Thus the distribution of tsetseflies
Glossina palpalis and trypanosomiasis risks were
influenced by changes in RANGEDVI and MINNDVI
bands respectively.
The indices were simplest and most convenient
way to monitor vegetation cover, and allowed rapid
estimation of vegetation cover properties from remotely
sensed data.
Esena , 2013
1044 Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5):1041-1053
TSETSE
Distribution =
- 3.097 + 0.33 RANGEDVI.. (1)
=
0.993+1.186 RANGEDVI1.364 MINNDVI(2)
Trypanosome identification in cattle
The techniques adopted (Murray et al., 1983) are
based on the premise that following blood centrifugation,
trypanosomes are concentrated mainly in the buffy coat
zone. Each animal was bled from the jugular vein into a
herparinized vacutainer tube (10 mls) and from the ear
vein into a haematocrit capillary tube which were
transported to the laboratory on ice at 4 C. The capillary
tubes containing blood were microscopically examined
for trypanosomes using the Buffy Coat Technique, BCT
[Woo method] (Woo, 1969). The buffy coat prepared in
a microhaematocrit capillary tube and centrifuged as for
measurement of Packed Cell Volume (PCV) was
examined for trypanosomes as follows:
The capillary tube was cut with a diamond
pointed pen 1mm below the buffy coat to include the
upper layer of the red blood cells, and 3cm above to
include the plasma. Using a microhaematocrit capillary
tube holder, the contents of the capillary tube were
gently expressed on a slide, mixed and covered with a
cover slip (22 x 22 mm). The preparation was then
examined using the following microscopic set up:
A Leitz SM microscope, periplan GF x 10 eyepieces,
P.V. 25/0.50m objective and Heine phase contrast
condenser. The entire coverslip area was then examined
for about five minutes.

The identification of trypanosome species were
made on morphology of the parasites (Hoare, 1972;
Itard, 1989) the behavioural pattern observed in the
buffy coat dark ground illuminated preparations, and
mensural characteristics: The species identified were:
Trypanosoma congolense, T. vivax and T. brucei.
Trypanocide usage and the constraints in the control
of trypanosomiasis by livestock keepers
Knowledge of diagnosis and treatment
procedures of trypanosomiasis by herdsmen was
assessed by questionnaire and results presented in
Figure 2. Respondents, were interviewed on the use of
trypanocides to treat cattle trypanosomiasis. Records
included the volume of Berenil
administered to cattle.
The data were supplemented by relevant records and
information from the following sources: Department
of Veterinary Services, Veterinary Technical officers
(Community Animal Health Officers/Frontline Staffs),
District veterinary doctors and the National Head of
Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Control Unit.
Quality of care of Veterinary drug services
Farmers were asked to rank quality of drug
services using Likert scale. The farmers view of drug
services were presented in tabular form and ranked
as follows: excellent [5], good [4], fair [3], undecided [2]
and poor [1]. The variables used were: general
satisfaction, coverage of needs, satisfaction of needs,
Esena , 2013
Fig 1. The study area showing Gomoa, AES, Ga, AMA, Tema, Dangbe West, Dangbe East,
Sogakope (Tongu) Akatsi, Keta and Denu (Ketu) Districts in Ghana

presentation of treatment methods, effectiveness
of treatment, information given, understanding of
drugs, language gap, sellers follow up and regularity of
follow up.
Data processing and analysis
Participatory Rural Assessment (PRA)
The data were analyzed using a linear-mixed-
model that included the effects of regions, districts,
villages within districts, ethnic groups, herd size and
whether the respondents were cattle owners or herdsmen,
business-ownership of cattle (sole, family, communal)
and vegetation type of each study site.
regions, districts, ethnic group, herd size and vegetation
were regarded as fixed factors, whereas village within
district was regarded as a random factor. The data were
standardized to ensure that relative ranking of objectives
and disease type by different groups of respondents was
similar. For example, one group of farmers might only
use a range of zero to five maize seeds, whereas another
group the full range of zero to 10. In the first group, a
trait with a score of five is the most important, although
it will be an intermediate score in the second group. The
data for each herd and animal group were transformed
using the formula:
Where Y
org
= original score of trait
n = number of recorded traits
Thus the standardized trait measures the
importance of this trait relative to all scored traits within
each herd. An F-test was used to test the significance of
the various factors and the LSD-test to investigate the
differences of levels within a factor. The results are
presened in Table 1 and clearly shows that among
herdsmen, the production objectives were ranked as
milk, acquisition of cattle, beef, manure and hides. The
importance attached to milk by herdsmen might be
Esena , 2013
Y
ijklmno
= Region
i
+ district
j
+ village
k
+ ethnic group
l
+
herd size
m
+ ownership
n
+ vegetation
o
+ e
ijklmno

Y
std
= Y
org
/(n/Y
org

Fig 2. Trypanocide (Berenil) usage in relation to Trypanosomiasis prevalence in Ghanas coastal savannah
motivating factor to control trypanosomiasis without
technical guidance.
Constraints associated with the control of
trypanosomiasis by herdsmen
To empirically estimate the marginal effect of
constraints affecting the control of trypanosomiasis,
multiple regression equations were run on the PC-SPSS
programme by the Ordinary Least Squares (OLS)
analysis. In this analysis, the general to specific
approach of Hendry (Johnston and DiNardo, 1997;
Kennedy, 1998; Koutsoyiannis, 1977; Thomas, 1993;
Zar, 1984) was adopted in order to arrive at coherent
regression results. The results as presented in Table 2
shows the factors and relative impacts.
Quality of care of drug services
The data were transformed semi-quantitatively
by assigning values to the variables. The qualities of the
likert-scale were assigned values as follows: excellent =
5, good = 4, fair = 3, undecided = 2 and poor = 1. The
PC Programme SPSS was used to run multiple
regression to test the significance of the impact of the
farmers view of the qualities of drug services.
Furthermore, the Spearmans rho () was used
for a two-tailed test for possible correlations between the
variables. The results showed that although cattle
farmers were generally satisfied with the effectiveness
of treatment using trypanocide drugs purchased, yet
their perception on drug effectiveness is not very
satisfactory. In some districts, the cattle farmers ranked
drug services as poor or undecided.
Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis surveys
The GIS ArcView and ArcInfo Programmes
were used to map the current distribution of the flies
(Figure 3) and trypanosomiasis (Figure 4) in the study
area. Glossina palpalis was the only species found in the
area Trypanosomiasis vivax was found in 61% of cattle.

Esena , 2013
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Cryopreservation of Trypanosome-infected blood
samples for future drug (trypanosome) susceptibility
analysis
This section was conducted at The Noguchi
Memorial Institute of Medical Research (Legon-Accra,
Ghana) as follows:
Trypanosome-infected blood samples from cattle
in selected areas were treated with anticoagulant, heparin
(0.005%). One volume of dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO)
sterilized stock (20%) solution was added to three
volumes of blood, to give a final concentration of 5%
and mixed well. The samples were aliquoted in 0.8 mls
[8 x 10
-3
litres] cryotubes, screwcapped, labelled with
stabilate codes and frozen in liquid nitrogen by
progressively sinking the tubes in the vapourphase of the
liquid nitrogen container.

DISCUSSION AND POLICY IMPLICATION OF
STUDY
Multimethod approach, convergence of results and
tests for validity and reliability
The various mixed-method of techniques
comprising data sources, methods, analysis theory and
instruments generated a rich and comprehensive picture
of trypanosomiasis prevalence in the study area. It is a
range of quantitative and qualitative perceptions
designed to converge results. The output of the analysis
were presented as maps, tables, graphs, statistical
analysis, and models then tested for validity and
reliability.
In seeking explanations for diverse results, the
researcher may come out with unexpected findings. For
example the Participatory Rural Appraisal [PRA] data in
this research helped to explore the reason for
indiscriminate use of trypanocides by herdsmen: they
were rewarded mainly with milk (by cattle owners) as
the main source of remuneration. The ground surveys
1048 ournal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1041-1053
Esena , 2013
Constant (K) 2.342 24.219 0.001
Farm size 0.176 7.488 0.001
Prophylaxis 0.0082 2.761 0.006
Dosage of Berenil
0.0074 3.105 0.002

Extension training -0.0071 -2.376 0.018
Business/cattle ownership) 0.0035 2.117 0.035
Table 2: Re-estimated profit model of herdsmen
Fig 3. Glossina palpalis distribution (catches/trap/day) in relation to mean for decadal
NDVI for year 1999 in the Coastal savannah;
together with satellite data made it possible to accurately
map areas most affected by trypanosomiasis for
predictions, it was also a relevant information for land
use patterns. The cryopreservation of Trypanosome-
infected samples was for future drug susceptibility
analysis and to test for probable identifications of
resistant strains associated with the control procedures.
In effect, multi-method approach gives a holistic view of
the disease and identifies the appropriate strategies for
targeting control.
In effect, the triangulation seeks a logical pattern
in results and to test for validity and reliability of the
findings. The belief is that once the researcher merges
qualitative and quantitative methodologies, the internal
validity of the research is strengthened (Bowen, 1996).
It has been argued that one can rely on the use of only
two methods for maximizing the credibility of research
findings (Bowen, 1996), But expanding on this notion,
some researchers have suggested the need to statistically
test the validity and reliability of research findings
(Schmidt, Hunter, and Urry, 1976).

Validity and Reliability
The issue of validity is to draw attention to the
extent that the findings really measure the concept that it
purports to measure and reliability (repeatability)
measures the accuracy and consistency of the tests. All
approaches to investigate validity have been designed to
establish convergent validity (Campbell and Fiske
(1959). But this notion of validity is currently
controversial (Trochim, 2002) and has been argued as the
best available approximation to the truth of a given
proposition, inference or conclusion (Trochim, 2002).
But the concept of validity and reliability should be seen
as a collective whole (comprising all components) with
the view to ensuring consistencies. This paper therefore
examines the tests and accuracies of these measurements.
In this research, the reliability of the tests
(internal validity) were calculated using Crobanchs
alpha (a) for possible split-half reliability (Bryman and
Cramer, 1997) and found to be 0.81. For convergent
validity of this research the maximum possible validity
coefficient test (French and Michael, 1966) was used to
test for the internal validity of the samples. The result
was 0.78 and indicates a good validity.
Esena , 2013
Fig. 4 Trypanosomiasis prevalence (%) in relation to mean of decadal NDVI for year 1999 in the study area
Residual (difference between the observed and
expected) probability plots followed a normal
distribution; the data were found to fit the assumptions of
the research model. Residual analysis was used to
identify individual subjects whose values on the outcome
variable do not fit with other subjects (outliers). With
large samples, (250 as in this research) multivariate
models are sufficiently robust (Katz, 1999) and therefore
the results can be generalized to another situation in the
new situation.
In this study, econometric model was developed
to explore the views of herdsmen on the quality of drug
use and the impact of control procedures on profit
margins. In this model, the test of significance of
parameter estimates was carried out by the use of the
student t-test. In econometric applications, researchers
(Koutsoyiannis, 1977) test the null hypothesis for each
parameter against the alternative hypothesis. The
decision rule (for significance tests) is that the t-values
associated with independent variables that are equal to or
greater than theoretical value (t.
05

(2)n-k
) are considered to
have significant effects on the dependent variables and
are retained in the model. While the t-values determine
the significance of the respective independent variables,
the F-values determine the overall significance of the
independent variables of the results. In this study, only
certain variables turned out as expected in the equations.
Apart from variables that were dropped by the computer
itself (probably due to collinearity) variables with very
low t-values (p 0.05) were also dropped from the
subsequent equation to re-estimate the model.
Findings of the PRA indicate that milk is the
most dominant production objective of farmers
(normally sold for cash or savings) and were most
affected by trypanosomiasis. Some of the constraints
identified as associated with the use of trypanocide were
inappropriate dosage of Berenil
and pour-on
techniques, the lack of extension training and wrong
dilution methods of trypanocide drugs. Others were
inappropriate criteria for treatment and wrong treatment
intervals. Constraints associated with quality of drug
services were inadequate information given to farmers,
language gap, and inability of drug sellers to follow up
and the lack of presentation of treatment methods.
An aspect of this research focused on the quality
of drug services among the 250 farmers. Some of the
variables were: general satisfaction of services, coverage
of needs, presentation of methods and effectiveness of
treatment. Others were: information given, understanding
of drugs, language gap, sellers follow up and regularity
of follow up.
Contrary to the relevance of validity and
reliability for ensuring the strengths of researches, some
writers (Trochim, 2002) have criticized the notion of
validity as measures, and that samples and designs dont
have validity; only propositions, inference or conclusions
can have validity. Instead, Trochim (2002) subdivided
validity into four types as (external, construct, internal,
conclusion) that build on one another. The external
validity relates the ability to generalize to other persons,
places and time; the construct validity concerns the
ability to generalize to other constructs and the internal
validity concerns the causal relationships.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
This article has discussed the need for multiple
triangulation methods and exemplified the theory of
triangulation and analysis to enhance the quality and
validity of research findings. Each taps a different
dimension of a problem and captures a more complete
and holistic view of research. An illustration of a mixed-
methodological triangulation involved the use of
Participatory Rural Appraisal technique (PRA) to
explore farmers production objectives and their
perceptions of the importance of diseases in relation to
trypanocide use. Ground surveys (using unbaited
Challier-Laveissier biconical traps) determined the
distribution and density of Glossina palpalis and
Esena, 2013
trypanosomiasis prevalence obtained from cattle.
Econometric model assisted in identifying the constraints
associated with drug use by cattle farmers while The
Geographical Information System (GIS) ArcView
programme was used to map the risk areas for accurate
targeting and control. All these multi-method approach
helped to give a holistic view of cattle trypanosomiasis in
the study area and convergence of information on
trypanosomiasis risk areas for predictions, monitoring
and planning of policy and control.
It is evident from this research that, the multi-
method approach is the most appropriate strategy for
disease control because it enhances the validity and
reliability of the findings. Furthermore, it gives all-round
information to inform decision in planning and
appropriate policy for integrated disease control
programmes.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to acknowledge the following
people for various contributions to this work: Professor
D.H. Molyneux, of the Liverpool School of Tropical
Medicine, UK for his comments on this project. I also
wish to express my thanks to Dr David Haran and Julia
Kemp both at the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine
for their good advice and useful comments on the
qualitative aspects of this research.
I thank Professor Bob Cheke of the NRI, UK for
useful advice and comments on the ecological aspects of
this work and to Dr J. J. Bennison, Livestock specialist
formerly at NRI, who assisted with technical advice and
for introducing me to the LinearMixed Model and
Preference Ranking techniques of the Participatory Rural
Appraisals (PRA).

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Aim and Scope

) and a control group.

) and Isometamedium chloride (Samorin

dose rate) and

i.e. 1 sachet of Berenil

prior to the Period for highest

) by herdsmen for the

as dependent variables in relation to the

(p < 0.001) and prophylactic use of

have higher chances of increasing their output

0.0074 3.105 0.002

0.0056 2.6640 0.008

used by farmers and

had a positive impact on

) in the study area. Dosage of Berenil

0.1070 2.394 0.017

in 125 mls of distilled water. It

as a prophylaxis. But the cost of

had some positive impacts on sales and profit

and the prevalence of trypanosomiasis (lab

0.0074 3.105 0.002

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