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The document discusses sources and management of occupational stress and burnout among school psychologists. It begins by outlining individual factors like personality and experience level that can impact burnout, as well as organizational factors. Burnout is defined as a multidimensional phenomenon consisting of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment. Studies have found that around 25% of school psychologists report high levels of emotional exhaustion and 12% report reduced accomplishment. Both personal characteristics and environmental factors are believed to contribute to burnout risk.
The document discusses sources and management of occupational stress and burnout among school psychologists. It begins by outlining individual factors like personality and experience level that can impact burnout, as well as organizational factors. Burnout is defined as a multidimensional phenomenon consisting of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment. Studies have found that around 25% of school psychologists report high levels of emotional exhaustion and 12% report reduced accomplishment. Both personal characteristics and environmental factors are believed to contribute to burnout risk.
The document discusses sources and management of occupational stress and burnout among school psychologists. It begins by outlining individual factors like personality and experience level that can impact burnout, as well as organizational factors. Burnout is defined as a multidimensional phenomenon consisting of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment. Studies have found that around 25% of school psychologists report high levels of emotional exhaustion and 12% report reduced accomplishment. Both personal characteristics and environmental factors are believed to contribute to burnout risk.
12 OVERVIEW The purpose of this chapter is to discuss sources and management of occupational stress among school psychologists. First, the nature and correlates of school psychologists stress and burnout reactions are delineated. Both individual and organizational fac- tors are addressed. Second, strategies to prevent job stress and promote emotional resilience are provided. Although a model of well-being is presented that incorporates environmental as well as personal vari- ables, the authors believe that school psychologists can exert inuence over their professional destinies, provided that they proactively attend to their own needs as well as those of their clients. For many years, studies of occupational stress and burnout have been prominent in the organizational psychology literature. Nevertheless, only a handful of studies of stress and burnout has been reported in the school psychology literature. Given that many school psychologists are interested in expanding their direct and indirect intervention-related service activities, it is surprising that school psychology researchers and practitioners have shown little attention to the affec- tive reactions of the service deliverer (i.e., the school psychologist). Knowledge of counselors affective states has long been considered central to a complete understanding of counseling processes and outcomes (Corey, 1996). The emotional well-being of coun- selors and other related professionals, such as school psychologists, may facilitate or impede effective ser- vice delivery. For example, an optimistic, emotionally resilient school psychologist may interact very differ- ently with clients than a pessimistic, emotionally stressed school psychologist. School psychologists have undertaken extensive explorations of numerous aspects of intervention- related services, such as consultation with teachers and parents. Although studies have investigated a variety of parameters of the consulting relationship (e.g., consultee characteristics, consultation process variables, intervention integrity), few studies have directly explored the affective and motivational char- acteristics of the consultant. Such neglect could undermine school psychologists efforts to imple- ment, evaluate, and understand the effectiveness of their services. Similarly, such neglect could also impede their efforts to develop systematic change strategies to promote emotional resilience and/or improve their work environments. Occupational stress and well-being have been rec- ognized by some authors as important areas of con- cern among people-oriented service professionals, including school psychologists (e.g., Huebner, 1992; Wise, 1985). Among psychologists, occupational stress has been operationalized and studied mostly through the use of occupational burnout measures. Initially dened in relation to crisis workers (Freudenberger, 1974), the burnout concept as been elaborated upon by various researchers, most notably by Christina Maslach and her colleagues (e.g., E. Scott Huebner University of South Carolina Tammy Dew Gilligan and Harriet Cobb James Madison University 173 Best Practices in School Psychology IV 174 Maslach & Goldberg, 1998). In its broadest terms, the concept relates to affective responses by profes- sionals to the chronic stresses of working in a profes- sional relationship with others in need. More specically, Maslach argues that burnout is multidi- mensional, composed of three related, but differen- tiable, constructs: emotional exhaustion, deper- sonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment. Emotional exhaustion relates to feelings of being emotionally overwhelmed by the demands of the job. Individuals experiencing emotional exhaustion feel emotionally depleted and often reduce their involve- ment with others, including clients and co-workers. Depersonalization is experienced through negative, detached responses to clients. For example, school psychologists may develop cynical attitudes toward some consultees and/or clients and blame the vic- tims for their difculties. Reduced personal accom- plishment refers to feelings of decreased professional competence. For example, school psychologists may develop feelings of helplessness with respect to their ability to make a difference and to assist those in need. Current research suggests a developmental model of burnout, in which emotional exhaustion occurs initially, followed by depersonalization responses, while reduced professional efcacy occurs separately (Maslach & Goldberg, 1998). Taken together, these burnout dimensions reect a develop- mental transition from a positive problem-solving approach toward job responsibilities to a negative, avoidant approach. Such a transition is consistent with Freudenbergers (1974) notion that burnout- prone individuals begin their careers as highly moti- vated, idealistic, and caring. The consequences of burnout can be varied. Burnout reactions have been related to physical prob- lems, psychological disorders, drug and alcohol abuse, and interpersonal difculties, at home and on the job (Maslach & Goldberg, 1998). Furthermore, burnout has been shown to predict the experience of subsequent occupational stressors (Mills & Huebner, 1998). Although some psychologists may leave the profession, others may remain, but operate at a level of reduced productivity. Such outcomes are particu- larly tragic for professionals who begin their careers with high levels of motivation, skill, and enthusiasm. Whatever the case, such outcomes negatively impact the many consumers of school psychological services, which include individuals (e.g., child, teacher), groups (e.g., parent groups), and organizations (e.g., school districts, community agencies). A few studies of the prevalence of burnout among school psychologists have been conducted. In the most recently reported national (U.S.) survey of prac- ticing school psychologists, Huebner (1993) found that more than 25% of the respondents reported high emotional exhaustion, 3% reported high depersonal- ization, and 12% reported a reduced perception of professional accomplishment. A total of 35% of the sample reported some level of desire to leave the pro- fession within the next 5 years. Compared to a sam- ple of consulting psychologists, school psychologists reported higher levels of emotional exhaustion and depersonalization as well as lower levels of profes- sional accomplishment. Compared to a sample of clinical/counseling psychologists, the school psychol- ogists reported equivalent emotional exhaustion, lower levels of depersonalization, and lower levels of personal accomplishment. Thus, school psycholo- gists may be at greater risk for various forms of burnout than other psychological service providers. BASIC CONSIDERATIONS Recent models of burnout incorporate personal and contextual variables. In these models, stress and burnout reactions develop as the result of the inter- actions between individual difference variables (e.g., demographic characteristics, personality factors, skills and training differences) and environmental variables (e.g., organizational and interpersonal vari- ables). In other words, burnout is conceptualized as a mismatch between the person-job t. In these mod- els, attention is thus directed toward both personal and situational sources of stress and burnout. In our model, burnout is conceptualized as a function of risk/resiliency factors. Borrowing from the current paradigm in developmental psychopathology, risk factors for problems interact with individual strengths and vulnerabilities to predict the degree of resilience an individual possesses (Cicchetti & Garmezy, 1993). Protective mechanisms in the envi- ronment may serve to mediate risks and vulnerabili- ties to produce wellness and some immunity to burnout. For school psychologists, an analysis of the risk factors, personal strengths and vulnerabilities, and protective mechanisms may help in the under- standing and prevention of the process of burnout. Preventing and Managing Stress and Burnout 175 Personal Risk/Resiliency Factors Personal risk factors include demographic variables and personality characteristics (both strengths and vulnerabilities). The variables of school psycholo- gists age and years of experience have been the only demographic variables to demonstrate robust rela- tionships with burnout. Younger, less experienced school psychologists are more likely to report emo- tional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced professional accomplishment (Huebner, 1993). School psychologists age level has also been linked with the experience of job-related stressors, such as interpersonal conict and time management dif- culties (Huebner & Mills, 1997), again with younger school psychologists more likely to experi- ence stressors. Personality factors have also been associated with burnout reactions. Introversion and disagreeableness both relate to feelings of emotional exhaustion. In addition, introversion relates to reduced professional efcacy, and disagreeableness relates to depersonal- ization (Mills & Huebner, 1998). Sandoval (1993) found that persons who reported overall low self- esteem, narrow interests, and difculty coping with ambiguity were more likely to report burnout reac- tions. Conversely, extraversion, exibility, and opti- mism were personal characteristics associated with strength and resilience. Organizational Risk Factors The school psychology literature has identied orga- nizational factors, specically job stressors, that are quite deleterious. Wise (1985) reported the following nine stressful factors: 1. Interpersonal conict (interactions with resistant teachers or uncooperative administrators) 2. High risk to self and others (dangerous or crisis sit- uations, due process hearings, child abuse cases, teachers strikes) 3. Obstacles to efcient job performance (inexible and/or incompetent supervisors, inadequate secre- tarial help, feeling caught between the childs needs and administrative constraints, lack of contact with professional colleagues) 4. Public speaking (inservice workshops, public speak- ing engagements, parent groups) 5. Time management (backlog of reports or referrals, feeling behind) 6. Legal mandates (due process, compliance with reg- ulation issues) 7. Hassles (carrying materials between schools in bad weather, driving) 8. Professional enrichment (difculty keeping up with the literature in the eld) 9. Insufcient recognition of work (not enough strokes) Additionally, other organizational factors are risks. They include: 1. Role conict 2. Role ambiguity 3. Role overload 4. The t between the person and the job Role conict is a crucial organizational variable in burnout reactions (Pierson-Hubeny & Archambault, 1987; Wright & Thomas, 1982). Role conict occurs when two or more conicting job demands impinge on school psychologists in their delivery of psycho- logical services. For example, role conict may occur when school psychologists advocate for particular services for a child with special needs (e.g., inclusion) in the face of opposition from others, such as a prin- cipal who wants a child excluded from the regular classroom environment. Role ambiguity is also a crucial variable in the development of burnout (Huberty & Huebner, 1988). Role ambiguity refers to a lack of clarity con- cerning the school psychologists roles and responsi- bilities, privileges, status, objectives, etc. For example, school psychologists continue to debate their most important roles and functionsnow and for the futurein the face of severe short- and long- term shortages of practitioners and trainers. This lack of agreed upon identity may be confusing to con- sumers, thus serving as a continuing source of frus- tration for school psychologists who seek to increase the perceived value of their services. Role overload has also been implicated in burnout (Huberty & Huebner, 1988). Role overload can relate to quantitative or qualitative overload. Quantitative overload is dened as too many job demands relative to the amount of time available to meet them. Quali- tative overload involves task complexity; that is, tasks that are difcult to complete effectively. Both quanti- tative and qualitative overload are interrelated with the quality and quantity of organizational resources available to school psychologists (Huebner, 1993). Examples of stressors related to qualitative overload among school psychologists include dealing with child abuse cases, suicide cases, working with difcult par- ents or teachers, and a lack of appropriate services for children (Huebner & Mills, 1997). Examples of quan- titative overload for school psychologists include high student-to-school psychologist ratios (Huebner & Mills, 1994), heavy report writing responsibilities, pressure to complete a prescribed number of cases, and keeping up with the professional literature (Hueb- ner & Mills, 1997; Wise, 1985). Interestingly, in one study of quantitative over- load, school psychologists actual caseloads did not predict burnout responses whereas the discrepancy between their actual and ideal caseloads did predict burnout (Huebner & Mills, 1994). Such a nding underscores the notion that although contextual fac- tors are important in occupational adaptation, it is the t between the person and the job that must be understood. Roles and Functions Studies of the relationships among the frequency lev- els of various job functions and burnout have also supported the role of organizational factors. In one study, the number of hours spent in assessment- related activities correlated negatively with a sense of professional accomplishment, whereas the number of hours spent in intervention-related activities corre- lated positively with a sense of professional accom- plishment (Huberty & Huebner, 1988). In another study, the perceived importance of consultation and counseling activities, but not assessment activities, correlated signicantly with professional accom- plishment. Nevertheless, the perceived importance of assessment activities was related signicantly to emo- tional exhaustion and depersonalization reactions (Huebner, 1993). The latter ndings suggest that changes in roles and functions must be considered carefully because they relate differentially to burnout dimensions. For some school psychologists, it is thus possible that increases in intervention activities along with a concomitant decrease in assessment activities could increase self-perceived professional accom- plishment while also increasing the potential for emo- tional exhaustion or depersonalization reactions. For other school psychologists, increases in assessment- related activities could lead to decreases in emotional exhaustion along with increases in boredom or frus- tration. Such reactions may be associated with the rel- ative frequency with which school psychologists encounter occupational ow states (Csikszentmi- halyi, 1990) in which the level of job difculty is opti- mally matched to their skills, with tasks being neither too easy (leading to boredom) nor too difcult (lead- ing to anxiety and frustration). Analysis of these multiple factors that relate to school psychologists well-being can help elucidate individuals risk of burnout. Consider three individ- ual school psychologists with differing risks, strengths and vulnerabilities, and protective mecha- nisms (see Figure 1). Alice is a generally optimistic person (strength) who has a tendency to be somewhat anxious (vulnerability). Job expectations have felt overwhelming at times, and indeed her testing load for special education eligibility is excessive (organi- zational risk factor). However, she has a supportive supervisor who serves as a buffer between Alice and some inexible administrators (organizational pro- tective mechanism). When Alice initiated a focused discussion with her supervisor about role overload, she received emotional support and suggestions for renegotiating her caseload with one particular prin- cipal. Generally, aside from some anxiety during the last 2 months of the school year, Alices overall sense of well-being is strong. She is at low risk for burnout. Mark, on the other hand, has two organizational risk factors: an excessive workload and an ineffective supervisor. Furthermore, while his organizational and time management skills are good (strength), he is somewhat pessimistic (vulnerability). His family is emotionally supportive (organizational protective mechanism), however, and after participating in indi- Best Practices in School Psychology IV 176 Preventing and Managing Stress and Burnout 177 vidual therapy (protective mechanism), Mark moved from being at high risk to only mild risk for burnout. Susan is at great risk for burnout. Not only does she have role overload and an ineffective supervisor (organizational risk factors), she is caring for an aging parent (personal risk factor). While she characterizes herself as an extravert (strength), she has only been a school psychologist for 2 years (vulnerability), and is experiencing isolation both on the job and at home (risk factor). Without signicant intervention, she is at risk for depression and burnout. Intervention may need to include personal counseling as well as a major job change. BEST PRACTICES Preventing or mediating stress and burnout among school psychologists may be considered a dynamic process, with strategies in place to promote protec- tive mechanisms at the intrapersonal, interpersonal, and organizational levels within both pre-service and inservice environments. The common goal of these strategies is to increase resiliency in school psycholo- gists at the individual and systemic level. The follow- ing approaches should be considered as trainers, supervisors, and practicing school psychologists strive for optimal well-being and functioning on the continuum of professional burnout. Pre-service Environment Strategies for preventing and mediating stress and burnout at the pre-service training level include both student and training program responsibilities. A com- bination of these approaches can effectively serve as protective mechanisms and thus increase student resiliency at an early stage of their professional devel- opment. PROTECTIVE MECHANISMS OF EFFECTIVE TRAINING PROGRAMS Effective job skills mitigate job stress. Inadequate pre- service training in technical skills or social-emotional competencies can be risk factors for burnout. For example, school psychologists ratings of their self- perceived competence in providing consultation ser- vices have been related signicantly to all three burnout dimensions (Huebner, 1993). As school psy- chologists move to more diversied roles (e.g., crisis counseling, mental health consultant), appropriate- ness of pre-service preparation will likely become increasingly related to school psychologists experi- ence of stress. Training programs should strive to provide a milieu that emphasizes academic/skills training and interpersonal and intrapersonal growth. This empha- sis can begin with a program philosophy that recog- nizes the value in personal growth. Programs also should attempt to establish screening procedures of student applicants that consider intrapersonal and interpersonal characteristics to ensure a goodness of t between the student, program, and profession. One such procedure is the use of group interaction interviews. This type of screening procedure allows for an on the spot picture of an applicants exibility, tolerance for ambiguity, and agreeableness. As was mentioned previously, research indicates that specic personality factors are associated with burnout reac- Figure 1. Resiliency/Burnout Model for School Psychologists Risk Personal characteristics Protective factors (Strengths/vulnerabilities) mechanisms Risk for burnout (Alice) Optimistic Predisposition to Good supervisor Low Role overload tendencies anxiety (Mark) Good Pessimistic Personal Mild to moderate Role overload organizational tendencies counseling and and ineffective and time supportive supervisor management skills family (Susan) Extraversion Limited experience None High Role overload as a school and ineffective psychologist supervisor and divorce Best Practices in School Psychology IV 178 tions. Training programs consideration of potential students extraversion/introversion, disagreeable- ness, self-esteem, range of interests, and coping strengths (optimism and tolerance for ambiguity) could increase the likelihood that future school psy- chologists will be less vulnerable to stress and burnout. Faculty members play a crucial role in establishing a pre-service environment that prepares students to mitigate job stress and professional burnout. Faculty modeling of self-care, well-functioning, stress man- agement, and personal growth is a necessary compo- nent of student well-being and preparation. Faculty can also assist by embedding learning activities within the curriculum that promote intrapersonal and inter- personal development. These might include reective writing, experiential activities, opportunities for teamwork, and frequent self-assessments. Training programs should consider stress management and stress inoculation seminars or workshops as a regular aspect of their program. Programs can reduce the like- lihood of stress overload by fostering an atmosphere of cooperation rather than competition among stu- dents. A clear emphasis in the training milieu and cur- riculum on personal growth leads to frequent faculty evaluation of students progress and areas of strengths and weaknesses. Thus, faculty should be prepared and willing to make developmental or preventative rec- ommendations (e.g., participation in group or per- sonal therapy) as well as remedial intervention suggestions. Faculty should also require students to join professional associations and attend professional conferences early in their training. This emphasis on professional networking and continuing education hopefully initiates an unswerving appreciation for peer support and life-long learning. What follows provides a summary of protective components of effective training programs: 1. Up-to-date training 2. Program philosophy that emphasizes personal growth 3. Effective screening procedures to ensure goodness of t with training program 4. Faculty modeling of self-care, well functioning, and stress management 5. Curriculum that promotes intrapersonal and inter- personal development 6. Provision of remedial interventions for students having difculty 7. Atmosphere of cooperation and support 8. Requirements for student involvement in profes- sional associations RESPONSIBILITIES OF STUDENTS Students also assume responsibility in the pre-service environment for the development of effective stress management strategies and the prevention or media- tion of burnout. Most important, school psychology students should possess a general openness, exibility, and willingness to explore and develop intrapersonal and interpersonal characteristics. Students must be active participants in program components such as: 1. Peer mentoring 2. Stress management training 3. Conict management training 4. Professional process groups 5. Other self-awareness activities Students must be willing to hear, accept, and fol- low feedback and recommendations for personal development including developmental or remedial intervention suggestions for personal or group ther- apy. One example of the importance of the students role in mediating stress involved a second-year school psychology practicum student. This student felt that a faculty member did not fully appreciate her per- sonal circumstances that were interfering with the completion of practicum assignments. Although the student became increasingly upset and withdrawn from the faculty member, she did discuss her concerns during a regularly scheduled process group meeting. As a result of feedback and encouragement from the process group, the student came forward to the fac- ulty member in an emotionally mature manner to dis- cuss her concerns. This led to mutual understanding and a successful resolution of the problem. Inservice Environment As with the pre-service environment, approaches to preventing and mediating stress and burnout are the responsibility of both the individual school psychol- ogist and the system or organization. Combinations of protective mechanisms provided by the individual and the systems infrastructure can enhance resiliency of the professional school psychologist. PROTECTIVE COMPONENTS OF EFFECTIVE ORGANIZATIONS Continuing professional development is essential for the well-being of school psychologists. As Brown (this volume) states, new technologies, new informa- tion, and changing expectations mandate school psy- chologists life-long learning activities. Participating in NASPs CPD programs should contribute to a sense of competency and satisfaction on the job. Practicing school psychologists benet from super- vision and formalized peer support. Social support, especially from supervisors, is inversely related to depersonalization reactions of school psychologists (Huebner, 1994). Effective supervision can provide technical guidance, organizational integration, and nurturance (Russell et al., 1987). Supervision should involve a balance of task-oriented problem solving within the context of a positive work relationship. Recognition of the importance of supervisory sup- port, particularly from supervisors who have been psychologists themselves, is crucial given the docu- mented inadequacies of supervision experiences in school psychology (Zins, Murphy, & Wess, 1989). Such issues may be particularly important for practi- tioners in rural settings, many of whom report the lack of appropriate supervision services (Jacob- Timm, 1995). Support from peers and other related profession- als also helps to prevent burnout. Isolation from col- leagues reduces opportunities for various types of support (Last & Silberman, 1989), which can be only partially provided by supervisors who are in a posi- tion of formal authority. For example, formal and informal interactions with peers can involve support- ive functions, such as receptive listening, afrmation of competencies, technical information, emotional support, psychological insight, and social reality sharing (Pines, 1982). Professional peer support groups, such as those described by Zins et al. (1989) are particularly important given psychologists reluc- tance to seek professional treatment for themselves since helpers should need no help (Millon, Millon, & Antoni, 1986). Systematic, individualized mentor- ing programs, in which new professionals are teamed with seasoned veterans, are also likely to be bene- cial. The organizational infrastructure must encour- age effective supervisory and collegial interactions to prevent and/or manage burnout. As was previously discussed, burnout reactions have been connected to role conict (i.e., two or more conicting job demands impinge on service delivery), role ambiguity (i.e., lack of clarity concerning roles and responsibilities), and role overload (i.e., quanti- tative or qualitative complexity and demand). Orga- nizations employing school psychologists should work toward reduction or elimination of these fac- tors. Psychologists themselves can play an important role in facilitating a positive organizational structure for psychological services delivery. For lone school psychologists, good negotiating skills are essential. In summary, organizational approaches that enhance the professionals resiliency to stress and burnout include the following: 1. Good supervision opportunities 2. Formalized peer support groups 3. Minimal role conict 4. Clear delineation of roles and responsibilities 5. Avoidance of role overload RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE PROFESSIONAL SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGIST The practicing school psychologist also assumes per- sonal responsibility for preventing and mediating burnout. As with students in training, the profes- sional school psychologist should possess a general openness and willingness to evaluate levels of stress and burnout and explore intrapersonal and interper- sonal characteristics that may contribute to this process. An initial step is to conduct a personal assess- ment of stress and burnout and develop an individu- alized stress intervention plan (Huebner, 1993) or an individualized effectiveness plan (Thomas, 1995). School psychologists must take the reective time Preventing and Managing Stress and Burnout 179 necessary, however, to envision an individualized stress management plan. This may mean visiting a favorite quiet spot and contemplating what strategies or changes must occur or lunching with a colleague to provide mutual support for this activity. One organizational professional approach is for school psychologists to seek out and fully participate in supervision opportunities and peer-support groups. School psychologists should also maintain their membership and participation in professional associations because these provide valuable protec- tive networking opportunities and support of the professional identity. In a similar fashion, school psychologists should engage in meaningful profes- sional development activities throughout their career. Studies of relationships among the frequency lev- els of various job functions and burnout have also supported the role of organizational factors. Thus, it may be necessary for school psychologists to modify or change their daily work schedules to allow for breaks and spacing of desirable versus less desirable professional activities The professional school psychologist should also attempt to maintain a personal physical and mental health self-care plan. An appropriate balance of exer- cise, proper nutrition, and regular medical examina- tions is critical to this self-care plan. Individuals must also be willing to seek out appropriate physical and mental health interventions as needed. The ability to maintain a high level of wellness over the course of a career was reected upon by experi- enced school psychologists in a recent study by Guest (2000). A number of school-based practitioners in her study reported enhanced awareness and skills in self-care through a greater separation of their per- sonal and professional lives. Such experiences included an increased ability to set boundaries on how much they could do, greater ability to say no, and increased ability to set priorities that reected what they could realistically accomplish (Guest, 2000, p. 250). Other individual responsibilities for preventing and mediating stress and burnout include the use of cognitive reframing and maintaining a sense of humor and perspective throughout the work day (Thomas, 1995). School psychologists must remem- ber the important role of optimism in contributing to an overall sense of well-being. If optimism is elusive, then help or change is needed. Optimism can be learned at any point in time, as was noted in the pos- itive psychology movement (Seligman & Csikszent- mihalyi, 2000). The professionals responsibilities for tasks to mediating stress and burnout are summarized below: 1. Openness and willingness to self-evaluate current levels of stress and burnout 2. Commitment to design a personalized stress man- agement plan 3. Participation in supervision and peer-support groups 4. Participation in professional associations and pro- fessional development 5. Changing the daily rut of job functions and roles 6. Partnering with other school personnel to try new activities 7. Maintaining a personal and mental health self-care plan 8. Maintaining a sense of optimism and humor SUMMARY Burnout refers to the negative consequences of chronic job stress. It is composed of the affective experiences of emotional exhaustion, depersonaliza- tion, and a reduced sense of personal accomplish- ment. School psychologists are vulnerable to professional burnout and, according to research, may be at greater risk than other helping profes- sionals. Risk factors for burnout (e.g., role overload) interact with individual strengths (e.g., optimism) and vulnerabilities (e.g., introversion) to predict the degree of resilience an individual possesses. Protec- tive mechanisms in the environment, such as appro- priate supervision and peer support, may mediate these risks. Training programs have an obligation to select applicants who possess characteristics that are asso- ciated with the development of resilience. Training programs must then foster resiliency through a phi- losophy that promotes self-awareness, personal Best Practices in School Psychology IV 180 growth, and skill development. Graduates from resiliency-building programs have a responsibility to choose positions that offer a reasonable probabil- ity of job satisfaction (e.g., quality supervision, atmosphere of support, realistic role expectations, and continuing professional development). Further- more, it behooves school psychologists to continue throughout their careers to develop personal resiliency and to advocate for protective mechanisms within their organizations. Maslach and Leiter (1997) articulate an excellent model to guide profes- sionals, such as school psychologists, in the imple- mentation of organizational change efforts to promote enhanced person-job t. REFERENCES Cicchetti, D., & Garmezy, N. (1993). Prospects and promises in the study of resilience. Developmental Psy- chology, 5, 497502. Corey, G. (1996). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy (5 th ed.). Pacic Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper & Row. Freudenberger, H.J. (1974). Staff burnout. Journal of Social Issues, 30, 159165. Guest, J. (2000). Career development of school psycholo- gists. Journal of School Psychology, 38, 237257. Huberty, T. J., & Huebner, E. S. (1988). A national survey of burnout among school psychologists. Psychology in the Schools, 25, 5461. Huebner, E. S. (1992). Burnout among school psycholo- gists: An exploratory study into its nature, extent, and consequences. 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Role stress and perceived intensity of burnout among school psy- chologists. Psychology in the Schools, 24, 244253. Pines, A. (1982). Helpers motivation and the burnout syn- drome. In T. A. Wills (Ed.), Basic processes in helping relationships (pp. 453475). New York: Academic. Preventing and Managing Stress and Burnout 181 Russell, D. W., Altmaier, E. & Van Velzen, D. (1987). Job- related stress, social support, and burnout among class- room teachers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72, 269-274. Sandoval, J. (1993). Personality and burnout among school psychologists. Psychology in the Schools, 30, 321326. Seligman, M., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55, 514. Thomas, A. (1995). Best practices in facilitating profes- sional effectiveness and avoiding professional burnout. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes, Best Practices in School Psy- chology III (pp. 101108). Washington, DC: National Association of School Psychologists. Wise, P.S. (1985). School psychologists rankings of stress- ful events. Journal of School Psychology, 28, 3141. Wright, D., & Thomas, J. (1982). Role strain among school psychologists in the midwest. Journal of School Psychology, 20, 96102. Zins, J., Murphy, J., Wess, B. P. (1989). Supervision in school psychology: Current practices and congruence with professional standards. School Psychology Review, 18, 56 67. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Cherniss, C. (1995). Beyond burnout: Helping teachers, nurses, therapists, and lawyers recover from stress and disillusionment. New York: Routledge. In contrast to the more typical stress-related models of burnout, Cherniss discusses burnout from the perspective of a professionals varying nature and level of ideological com- mitment and moral purpose related to her or his career. This book is of particular relevance to school psychologists and includes an informative case study of one school psycholo- gists successful efforts at changing his role and function. Maslach, C. (1982). Burnout: The cost of caring. Engle- wood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. The reader should not be misled by the date of this text. It is one of the classics in the eld. Maslachs book remains full of useful individual, group, and organizational change ideas to assist human services professionals in the prevention and/or management of occupational stress and burnout. Maslach, C., & Leiter, M. (1997). The truth about burnout. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. This book is authored by two of the foremost researchers in the area of burnout and provides an excellent discus- sion of two problem-solving approaches (individual and organizational) to modifying person-job linkages to pre- vent job burnout and promote job engagement. Realistic case studies are included to illustrate the change process. Best Practices in School Psychology IV 182