Turbine systems (from Rolls-Royce, The Jet Engine)

Design criteria:

Match the design
Requiriments while
Minimizing: cost, weight,
Fuel consumption,
Emissions, delivery time.
Three-shaft turbine
System by RR.
On turbofan engines, the turbines drive both a low-pressure (LP) compressor
or fan (producing most of the engines thrust) and a high-pressure (HP)
compressor, which ingests and compresses air ready for the combustion
process. The three-shaft turbine drives another intermediate-pressure (IP)
compressor between the low- and high-pressure one.

To achieve this, the air flow is split: some is extracted from the fan and
passed through a duct outside the turbine and combustor; the remainder
passes through the core of the engine. The number of turbine stages depends
on the relation between the power required, the rotational shaft speed, and
the allowed turbine diameter.

As the gas is expanded, work is extracted and pressure and temperature
decreases along the turbine. Therefore, IP turbine does not need complex
cooling systems as HP turbine. Civil LP turbine may be desigend to be
uncooled. Turbine exit temperature from LP turbine is about 550 C.

Turbine cooling technology may reduce blade temperature by 400C.
Engine architecture
Example of a turbofan engine
Scheme of a turbofan engine
Turbine dimensions
Civil turbine (aircraft): length < 1.4 m; max. diameter < 1.3 m.

Military turbine (aircraft): length < 0.4 m (two-stage); diameter < 0.75 m.

Helicopter turbines are smaller.


Engine architecture

For delivering shaft power to an external system (energy or marine
applications), driving torque is derived from a free-power turbine. This
architecture allows the free-turbine to be run at its optimum speed as it is
mechanical independent of both the gas generator turbine and
compressor shaft.

Energy applications: the free-turbine drives a compressor, a pump, or an
alternator.

Marine applications: the free-turbine drives a propeller or an alternator.
Rotational speed

Alternators run at 3000 rpm (50 Hz) or 3600 rpm (60 Hz) and thus can
be generally direct drive (n = 60 f / p)

Below 30 MW, 4-pole alternators run at 1500 (1800) rpm.

For oil and gas applications, pumps and compressors tipically require
speeds between 5000 and 6000 rpm and are directly driven. For oil
extractions, pumps require double this and therefore a gearbox is used.

Ships may employ a gas generator to drive a power turbine for:

1) Mechanically driving the propeller via a gearbox.
2) Driving alternators which drive electric motors which drive the
propeller.
3) Driving a ducted pump which creates a water jet for propulsion.
Two types of power turbines: Heavyweight and aero-derivative

Heavyweight: custom designed, high speed
The gas-generator is not directly coupled to the power turbine. The gas generator
is removable for maintenance. The turbine is characterized by long life and high
rotational speed.
Two types of power turbines: Heavyweight and aero-derivative

Aero-derivative: based on the aero-engine LP turbine.
Typical three-shaft configuration. The LP turbine rotational speed typically
matches a driven alternator.
The importance of the flow swirl

The design of the turbine is such that the swirl of the flow will be removed
by its operation and so the flow at the exit of the turbine will be substantially
more axial as it flows into the exhaust system. Excessive residual swirl
reduces the efficiency of the exhaust system and can also produce
vibrations. This also explains why each stage of a conventional turbine
requires a nozzle guide vane (NGV) to recondition the flow with appropriate
swirl and axial velocity for the receiving downstream rotor.

Counter-rotating (statorless) turbines

This kind of turbine have been designed using the latest aerodynamic
methods. The upstream rotor exit velocities and remaining swirl are tailored
to suit the inlet requirements of the following rotor, which will counter-rotate to
maintain efficiency. The benefits of such a design are: weight reduction;
minimized engine length; reduction in the number of components. In military
engines, the HP turbine rotates counter to the IP one (in three-shaft engines)
or to the LP one.
Example of a counter-rotating turbine
Turbine cooling

HP turbine may work at temperatures of about 2000 K, greater than the
melting point of the leading nickel-based alloys from which they are cast.
Therefore, the HP blades, NGVs, and seal segments are cooled internally
and externally using cooling air from the exit of the HP compressor at a
temperature of about 1000 K (achieved through compression) at a pressure
which is only about 2 bar greater than the inlet turbine pressure.
The decision about cooling a blade row depends on: the material; the use of
a thermal barrier coating (TBC); performance requirements; engine cost.

Casting

Nickel alloys are an almost universal solution for high temperature turbine
blades and NGVs due to their high temperature creep resistance and
strength retention. The turbine design and material selection is dependent on
the trade balance between temperature, life, and component cost.
Three common turbine blade casting options with increasing performance
(reducing cost): 1) equiax; 2) directionally solidified; 3) single crystal alloy
Equiax
Directionally
solidified
Single crystal
Creep limit
HP turbine blade cooling flow
HP NGV cooling flows
Turbine components
A typical turbine assembly may be broken up into five main component
types: 1) casings and structures, 2) discs, 3) shafts, 4) NGVs, 5) blades.
1) Casing and structures

The casings form the outer structure of the turbine and enclose the hot
gases exiting the combustor. They are normally constructed from forged steel
or nickel alloys strong enough to contain the internal gas pressure. The
casing must contain any debris if a component fail. Casing are designed to
transmit and react to axial and torsional loads imposed by the turbine
assembly. Structures are designed to connect these casings to internal shaft
bearing supports, transmitting the bearing loads into the case and stiffening
the assembly. Air and oil systems, to lubricate and cool the bearings, pass
through casings and structures. Other static components fit into the casing:
NGVs, seals, supporting rings. Seal segments typically form a peripheral
ring of abradable material around the blades rotating tips. It is essential to
control the thermal movement of the seals so that optimum blade tip running
clearance is maintained. The thermal expansion is controlled by
compressed cooling air fed into the case-mounted cooling manifold. Access
ports are provided within the casing for monitoring devices such as
thermocouples and borescopes.
Seal segment


2) Discs

The main function of the turbine discs is to locate and retain the rotating blades
enabling the circumferential force to be transmitted through the central shaft.
Each row of blades is retained in the rim of a disc via a root fixing, commonly of
fir-tree design, designed to withstand the enormous centrifugal loads. Discs are
typically formed from nickel alloy forgings, selected and inspected for lack of
defects to mitigate the risk of disc failure. Design criteria on ultimate tensile
stress, proof stress, creep, and fatigue all have to be satisfied.
3) Shafts

The turbine shafts have three main functions: transmitting torque; transmitting
axial loads to the compressor and location bearings; supporting the discs and
blade assemblies. They are carried on oil-cooled and lubricated bearings
mounted within the structure. On a modern three-spool engine the three shafts
each rotate concentrically within one another at their optimum speed. Typically at
take off the LP shaft rotate at 3000 rpm, the IP shaft at 6000 rpm, and the HP
drum at 10000 rpm. Military engine are smaller and rotate much faster.

4) NGVs

NGVs are shaped to swirl the gas flow in the direction of rotors rotation. They are
static components mounted into the casings, designed both to with stand the axial
torque loads imparted form the gas stream and to react thermally without inducing
high internal stresses within the assembly. NGVs are designed to achieve
optimum stage efficiency and for compatibility with compressor and combustor
design. They are of an increasingly complex curved aerorfoil shape. In modern
systems, HP and IP NGVs tend to be cooled, whereas LP NGVs are often run
uncooled. Cooling air is flowed into the vane aerofoils (and sometimes the
vane platform) at a higher pressure than that of the surrounding gas path. This
pressure differential flows the cooling air through rows of machine cooling holes,
Bathing the components gas-washed exterior in a film of cool air (film cooling).
Without this film, the vane temperature would quickly exceed the melting point of
the alloy. To minimize the amount of cooling air, modern HP and IP NGVs are cast
using single crystal nickel alloy and are typically coated in a ceramic TBC.

5) Blades

Turbine blades are designed to generate power by translating circumferential
aerodynamic forces on the aerofoils to the rotating disc. The blades rotate with a
typical tip speed of 460 m/s. The power output of a single HP blade for civil
applications is ten times higher than the one of a small car and the centrifugal
force transmitted into the disc is about 18 tonnes with a centripetal acceleration
of about 60000g. The hottest blades are cast in high-temperature nickel alloys
using the lost wax casting method and are often coated in a ceramic TBC on
their aerofoils and platforms. Operating temperature dictate the need of internally
cooling the HP blades. Cooling flow is detrimental to turbine performance and is
regulated very carefully. The blades glow red-hot during engine running. They
must resist also to fatigue, thermal shock, corrosion, and oxidation. Blades may
incorporate a shroud at tip forming an outer annulus ring when assembled.
Shroudless blades can be run at higher rotational speed due to their lower mass
but suffer from a larger overtip leakage and resultant performance effects. Due
to creep, blade length increases in time. Useful time limit for civil applications
is 35000 hours (for an airliner: 14 hours flight per day, means 6 years).
HP turbine blades
Major seal types
Seals and bearings
Non-isentropic adiabatic flow in a duct (Fanno line)
(from Sandrolini, Naldi, Macchine, I vol., Pitagora Ed.)
Non-isentropic adiabatic flow in a duct (Fanno line)
Non-isentropic adiabatic flow in a duct (Fanno line)
Non-isentropic adiabatic flow in a duct (Fanno line)
Non-isentropic adiabatic flow in a duct (Fanno line)
Labyrinth seals (from Sandrolini, Naldi, Macchine, I vol.)
Labyrinth seals
Labyrinth seals
Labyrinth seals
Fig. A 33
Labyrinth seals
* Infatti, gli stati che
rappresentano le
condizioni del fluido
nei vani hanno la
stessa entalpia e
temperatura, uguale
alla temperatura totale.
Labyrinth seals
Labyrinth seals
Steam turbine (from GE Report 3646D)
Modern steam turbine designs for electrical power generation are the result of
more than 90 years of engineering development. The product line of fossil-
fueled, reheat steam turbines for both 50Hz and 60Hz applications extends from
125-1100 MW and is based on a design philosophy and common characteristic
features that ensure high reliability, sustained high operating efficency and case
of maintainance.

Historically, increases in steam turbine ratings have been accompanied by longer
last-stage buckets in order to maintain an economical unit size. Longer last-stage
buckets (LSB) can accommodate larger steam flows and loadings at relatively
the same performance level by maintaining or reducing exhaust losses, without
increasing the number of low pressure turbine flows.

The longer LSBs include a 40-inch/1016 mm, 60 Hz titanium LSB and a 42-
inch/1067 mm, 50 Hz LSB.

The benefit of the increased annulus area associated with the longer last stage
buckets is demonstrated by a more compact steam turbine configuration.
Steam turbine (from GE Report 3646D)
Steam turbine (from GE Report 3646D)
Steam turbine (from GE Report 3646D)
Peak efficiency is obtained in an impulse stage with more work per stage than in
a reaction design (Figure 15), assuming the same diameter. For this reason,
impulse bladings are mounted at early stages to lower very fast pressure and
temperature inside the turbine.

Steam turbine (from GE Report 3646D)
Minimizing stage leakage flow is important to stage efficiency. With less pressure
drop across the buckets, the loss due to leakage at the bucket tip is obviously
much less for an impulse design than for a reaction design.

Greater pressure drop exists across the stationary nozzles in an impulse design
than in a reaction design. However, the leakage diameter is typically 25% less
and, therefore, the cross-sectional area for leakage is less. Also, with fewer
stages there is sufficient space between wheels to mount seals packings.
On a relative basis, however, the leakage losses on a reaction stage will always
be greater than those on an impulse stage designed for comparable application.

With more energy per stage, steam velocities in an impulse stage are higher
than in a reaction stage. These higher velocities have the potential of resulting in
profile losses that could offset the effects of reduced leakage loss if poor nozzle
and bucket profiles were used. This was a legitimate concern in the early days of
steam turbine development with only very simple bucket profiles used. Profile
losses, however, are very amenable to reduction with increased sophistication of
nozzle and bucket profiles. With current computer analysis methods and
aerodynamic testing techniques, significant gains continue to be made in
reducing profile and other secondary losses.
Steam turbine (from GE Report 3646D)
Because of the relatively large pressure drop that exists across the moving
blades in the reaction design, a very high thrust force would exist on the
rotor if the blades were mounted on wheels with faces exposed to the
pressure differential. A drum type rotor, as shown in Figure 17, is used in
reaction-type turbines to avoid excessive thrust.
This solution reduces leakage
flow losses and increase
efficiency.
This solution reduces thrust.
Steam turbine: off design (from Wikipedia)
Speed regulation

The control of a turbine with a governor is essential since some applications,
such as the generation of alternating current electricity, require precise speed
control. Uncontrolled acceleration of the turbine rotor can lead to an overspeed
trip, which causes the nozzle valves that control the flow of steam to the
turbine to close.
During normal operation in synchronization with the electricity network, power
plants are governed with a five percent droop speed control. This means the
full load speed is 100% and the no-load speed is 105%. This is required for the
stable operation of the network without hunting and drop-outs of power plants.
Normally the changes in speed are minor. Adjustments in power output are made
by slowly raising the droop curve by increasing the spring pressure on a
centrifugal governor. Generally this is a basic system requirement for all power
plants because the older and newer plants have to be compatible in response to
the instantaneous changes in frequency without depending on outside
communication.
Steam turbine: off design (from Weekipedia)
Speed regulation by lamination valve (reduction of total pressure).

Steam turbine: off design (from Wikipedia)
Partial admission of steam in the impulse turbine at the HP stage.