Class 1-3 Mca 102

A brief idea about management
Management as defined by Mary Follett is "the art of getting things done through
people". A manager is defined as a person who achieves the organizations goals by
motivating others to performnot by performing himself. Management comprises
the process of planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating and controlling
the efforts of the members of the organization to achieve common stated goals of the
organization. hether management is an art or a science is a very sub!ective "uestion.
#ut it can be said without doubt that modern management in the environment of
technology is becoming more of a science than an art.
$n the process of management, a manager uses human s%ills, financial resources,
technological resources, natural resources and scientific methods to perform all the
activities leading to the achievement of goals.
&he management process involves a continuous resolution of conflicts of one %ind or
the other which affects the achievement of goals. $n the management of any activity, a
manager comes across human conflict, conflict of goals, conflict between alternative
resources, conflict of time, conflict of approach or method and the conflict of choice.
&he manager uses a variety of tools, techni"ues and s%ills while e'ecuting the
management process of planning, organizing, staffing, coordinating and controlling.
Functions of the Manager
An individual who gets the things done is a Manager. $t is necessary to distinguish
between the tas%s and the functions. hile managing, a manager may perform the
individual tas%s such as accounting, selling, manufacturing, purchasing, etc. &hese
activities are called as tas%s and not as functions. Managers have the following
function(
)* Focuses on efficiency
+* ,ees that the organization is doing things right
-* Authorizes and approves all resources re"uired for success
.* /etermines, models, and enforces behavioral changes
0* Appoints effective change agents to manage implementation details
1* /evelops meaningful, achievable, measurable goals and ob!ectives
2* 3nsures implementation approach is realistic
4* Monitors progress
5* Approves mid6course corrections
3tc.
Processes executed by managers
&he processes that are e'ecuted through the managerial functions are 7lanning,
8rganizing, ,taffing, /irecting, 9oordinating and 9ontrolling.
1. Planning- 7lanning is basic to all managerial functions. $t determines the goals and
ob!ectives. $t is a process of selecting one course of action, from different alternatives,
for achieving the stated goals, ob!ectives and targets. $t is a decision ma%ing process
determining in advance what to do, how to do, when to do and who is to do. 7lanning
creates a frame of activity and events which are to happen or a runway for achieving
corporate goals, ob!ectives and targets. 7lanning process demands resource allocation
through decision6ma%ing. &he organization may have a plan: but "uestion is how
efficient ; effective the plan is. &he efficiency of a plan is measured by the amount it
contributes towards achievement of goals. &he plan is efficient if it achieves the goals
with less investment or with fewer resources. &herefore, efficient planning involves
selecting a plan among several alternative plans. An efficient plan enables the
management to handle uncertainty and ris% in the business. $t helps to handle the
change occurring in the environment and affecting the plan itself. 7lanning helps to
ma%e operations economical as it continuously evaluates the costs and outputs and
forces optimum use of resources. $t further helps to control business operations at all
levels with common reference to goals, ob!ectives and targets.
2. Organizing - 8rganizing, in companys point of view, is the management function
that usually follows after planning. $t involves evolving the structure of the people
wor%ing in the organization and their roles. $t deals with a "uantitative and a
"ualitative aspect of manpower in terms of placement, the roles they play and the
relations amongst them, with the aim that they wor% together effectively towards
accomplishing the goals, ob!ectives and the targets of the organization. $n essence, it
deals with organizing the manpower resources for a given plan of e'ecution.
. !taffing- the function ,taffing deals with manning the enterprise as per the
organization structure so that they together implement the process of management. $t
re"uires defining the manpower needs per position or center of activity. ,taffing
involves not only selection of persons but also their appraisal and development so that
they can perform their designated roles. &he selection of a person is a difficult tas%.
,taffing of enterprise should be for todays needs, as well as that of future. <owever,
the chance of selecting a wrong person is very less if a proper method is used. ,ince
people cannot be easily replaced because of socio6political and legal reasons, their
selection in terms of "uality and "uantity is of paramount importance.
". #irecting- after organizing the resources and stuffing for the planned activities, the
business plan is launched. &he process of implementing the plan is dynamic.
/irecting is a comple' tas% of implementing the process of management. /irecting
and leading are the methods, whereby the subordinates are lead to understand the
purpose of the activity, and by way of guidance, a direction is given to them to march
towards the goals. &heir difficulties and conflicts are resolved, bottlenec%s removed
and a clear path is created to progress on plan achievement. &he tas% of directing and
leading becomes more effective if the human side of the enterprise is ta%en care of by
motivating the people. &he manager is re"uired to create an environment in which
everybody can perform their best.
$. %oordinating- coordinating is the function, which brings a harmony and
smoothness in the various group activities and individual efforts directed towards the
accomplishment of goals. $t is a process of synchronizing individual actions and the
efforts which may differ because of the differences in the personal goals and the
common goals, the differences in the interpretation of methods and directions. $t is,
therefore, necessary to underta%e centrally a process of coordinating and reconciling
the differences in the approach, timing, efforts and interests towards a common goal.
&his tas% is to be carried out by the authority placed at a higher level in the
organization structure.
&. %ontrolling-the last but most important step in the process management is
controlling, for the successful e'ecution of management plan. ithout control, the
process becomes unproductive. &he purpose of the control is to regulate the process
in such a way that the process continuously strives for the achievement of the goals,
ob!ectives and targets. 9ontrolling is a process of measurement of an output,
comparing it with the goals, the ob!ectives and the target, and ta%ing corrective
actions, if the output is falling short of the standard norms. 9ontrolling ensures an
achievement of the plan. &he essence of the control lies in good planning. $t helps to
evaluate the performance, highlights abnormal deviations, and guides a manager to
ta%e specific corrective actions. &his may call for a change of plan, a reallocation of
resources, a modification of methods, procedures and even the organization structure.
&he control is central to the managerial function.
&he manager=s main function, therefore, is planning and control of the business
functions and operations. hile performing these functions, he resorts to the
scientific approach to the management.
'se of %om(uters For Managerial A((lications
Followings are a few e'amples of $ndustry ,egments where computer is used in
managerial application.
). Manufacturing
+. #an%ing ; Finance
-. .$nsurance
.. <ealth 9are
0. >tility ,ervice
1. 3ducation
2. &ransport
4. 7rofessional ,ervice
5. ?etail ,ervice
)@. /istribution
&he use of computer for managerial application in any industry segment can be divided
into #asic ; Advanced Aevel.
Manufacturing
#asic Aevel Advanced Aevel
). Accounting ). Forecasting
+. 8rder 7rocessing +.9omputer Aided Manufacturing
-. 7rocurement -. #udgeting
.. $nventory 9ontrol .. 9omputer Aided /esign
0. Mar%eting 0. Manufacturing ?esource 7lanning
1. Buality 9ontrol
)an*ing + Finance
). Managing ,avings Account ). Automated &eller Machine
+. 9hec% 7rocessing +. 7ortfolio Analysis
-.Money &ransfer -. 9ash Flow Analysis
..9ost 9ontrol ..9entralized File ,ystem
,nsurance
). 7remium 9alculation ). ?is% Analysis
+. 9ustomer #illing +. 7olicy Approach
-. #onus 9alculation -. $nvestment Analysis
.. Forfeiture 9alculation .. 9ash Flow Analysis
0. Agent 9ommission 0. Cew #usiness /evelopment
-ealth %are
). #illing ). 8.&. ,cheduling
+. $nventory 9ontrol +. $ntensive 9are unit scheduling
-. Accounting -. /iagnostic Aaboratory automation
.. 7atient <istory .. D6ray station Automation
0. <ealth care statistics
'tility !er.ice
>tility ,ervice
). 9ustomer #illing ). ?ate Analysis
+. Accounting +. Financial Modeling
-. Meter ?eading -. Aine Aoading
.. $nventory 9ontrol
/ducation
). Accounting ). Aibrary 9ataloging
+.Attendance +. ,tudent 9ounseling
-.Erading -. ,tudent scheduling
..Administration .. 9omputer aided instruction
0. Alumni records
0rans(ort
). 9ost 9ontrol ). &raffic 7attern analysis
+. ?ate calculation +. Automatic rating
-. Accounting -. ?eservations
.. Maintenance and ,cheduling

Professional !er.ice
). Accounting ). 9redit 9hec%ing
+. 9ustomer ?ecord +. /ata #ase Management
-. &as% preparation -. &echnical Analysis

1etail !er.ice
). 9ustomer #illing ).Fust $n &ime
+. Accounting +.3lectronics /ata &echnologies
-. ,ells Analysis -. 7oint 8f ,ale
.. $nventory ?eport .. ,ells Forecasting
0. Merchandising
#istribution
). 8rder 7rocessing ). ,ells Forecasting
+. 7urchasing +. Merchandising
-. arehouse 9ontrol -. Gehicle ,chedule
.. $nventory 9ontrol .. Aogistics
,nformation %once(ts
$nformation is a %ey resource used at every level of business organization. $n recent years
some specific trends have emerged, resulting into increased importance for information
as a %ey resource.
&he increasing comple'ity of the modern society in general and business in
particular is the first trend.

8rganizations are becoming larger. Many organizations today have global or international
presence. &he functioning of the organizations is becoming comple'. More comple'
organization, more importance of information is felt.
&he second trend is the rapid progress in the field of information technology.

9onstant improvement in computing power with a downward trend in costs of computing
is providing wider applications for information technology in business.
&he6increasing awareness of scientific management principles is another trend.

&he scientific approach of planning, controlling and decision ma%ing is resulting into
increasing awareness about the need for information and its application in management
process.
2hat is #ata3
&he word datum means raw fact. &he word data is plural of datum referring to more than
one fact. $n practice, however, people use data as both the singular and plural form of the
word.
/ata can e'ist in a variety of forms 66 as numbers or te't on pieces of paper, as bits and
bytes stored in electronic memory, or as facts stored in a person=s mind.
2hat is ,nformation3
hen data is organized in useful form it is considered as information. /ata is the
raw material. &he finished product is information. $nformation is a collection of
meaningful and relevant data that describe events and entities. hen data is arranged in a
meaningful manner, it is said that data has been converted into information.
H #istinguish bet4een #ata and ,nformation
#ata ,nformation
/ata is raw fact. $nformation is ripe.
/ata cant be understood or made use
by the users.
$nformation is understood and used by the
users.
/ata has no meaning of itself, i.e., it
has no significance beyond its
e'istence.
$nformation has been given meaning by way of
relational connection. &his "meaning" can be
useful, but does not have to be.
/ata is unprocessed information. $t is
generally disorganized and
disintegrated in the form.
hen data are processed, organized, structured
or presented in a given conte't so as to ma%e
them useful, they are called $nformation. e
can say information is processed data.
/ata doesnt depend upon information. $nformation is based upon and derived from
data.
3'ample)6 My goals this season 6
), ), +, -, ), @, +, @, +, ), -, ), ), +, -, .,
), -, 2, ., ), +6 is a set of numbers, i.e.,
data. $t is not useful.

3'ample)6$f $ process the data of left column, $
can say
Average I +.@.
,um I .0
<ighest I 2
Aowest I @
8r $ can stic% it on a graph versus time and
watch how $ progress. All these things can be
done to turn dull data into interesting
information.
3'ample+6 &he sales analysis activity
in a typical mar%eting organization
provides an ideal e'ample, to e'plain
the difference between data and
information. &he figures of sales
turnover registered by individual
salespersons and the regions are data.
&he sales turnover represents facts,
however these facts cannot be used in
its present form in the process of
planning and decision6ma%ing.
3'ample+6hen these facts or data are
processed through the data processing activity,
information about sales trends is available. $t is
clear as to which salesperson has produced
improved sales, in which area the sales have
registered a downward trend and which
product sales have improved. &his information
is meaningful for the mar%eting manager to
declare annual turnover rewards for the sales
force. &he mar%eting manager also uses this
information about the sales turnover to set the
sales targets for the ne't year.
$n computer parlance, a spreadsheet
generally holds data.
$n computer parlance, a relational database
ma%es information from the data stored within
it.
0he borderline bet4een data and information are not .ery clear. 2hy3

&he term information is generally used in imprecise manner. &he borderline between data
and information is difficult to define. $t can be said that one person=s information may be
another person=s data. At times, the information for one level in the organization is data
for the other level in the organization. At times information, which is an output of a given
data processing, activity is input for further data processing activity that produces
information. &here could be a series of such output as input situations.
3'ample( 6 hen the district administration sends information about the crops and their
current status to national body, it is information at district level but data at the national
level. &he term information can be considered to mean processed data in a meaningful
form for the user, which has an application or specific usage value.
3'ample( 6
$n the same sales analysis e'ample, the first data processing activity may be using sales
invoices as input and producing product wise sales statement as the output.
&he product wise sales statement along with the product wise sales target are processed in
the second stage of data processing to produce sales variance report as the output.
&his sales variance output comparing sales targets and actual sales is input for the
decision support system, which the manager uses for decision6ma%ing.

2hat is #ata (rocessing3
&he process of converting data into information is often termed as data processing. &he
ob!ective of data processing activities is to convert raw data into meaningful information
that can be put to use. /ata 7rocessing is a value added process since it adds value to
useless data to convert it valuable information.
$n data processing
)* /ata is arranged, manipulated, organized
+* $ts content is analyzed and evaluated
-* $t is placed in a proper conte't for human users.
$nformation is the finished product of the data processing 6 is useful only when it is put to
use in decision ma%ing, planning controlling etc.
Processing Model
$n the above diagram in JA* shows that the data captured is used as input for the
processing activity. &he input is processed to produce output for generation of meaningful
information.

&he diagram in J#* shows that in a business data processing activity, the dispatch data is
used as input to produce invoice, which is the output of processing activity.
H %lassification of information
&he information can be classified in a number of ways to provide a better understanding.
,uch as(
15 Action .ersus 6o-action information- &he information, which induces action, is
called action information. &he information, which communicates only the status of a
situation, is no6action information. KCo stoc%= reports calling a purchase action is an
action information but the stoc% ledger showing the store transactions and the stoc%
balances is a no6action information.
25 1ecurring .ersus non-recurring information- &he information generated at regular
intervals is a recurring information. &he monthly sales reports, the stoc% statements etc.
are recurring information. &he information doesn=t generated at regular intervals is a non6
recurring information. &he financial report on the mar%et research study is non6recurring
information.
5 ,nternal .ersus external information- &he information generated through the
internal sources of the organization is termed as an internal information, while the
information generated through the Eovernment reports, the industry surveys, etc. is
termed as an e'ternal information, as the sources of the data are outside the organization.
"5 0he information can also be classified as under7 in terms of a((lication.
Planning information
9ertain standards, norms and specifications are used in the planning of an activity. <ence,
such information is called the planning information. &he time standards, the operational
standards, the design standard are the e'amples of the 7lanning $nformation.
%ontrol information
?eporting the status of an activity through a feedbac% mechanism is called the control
information. hen such information shows a deviation from the goal or the ob!ective, it
will induce a decision or an action leading to control.
8no4ledge information
$t is a collection of information through the research studies to build up a %nowledge base
which is used as a information source for decision6ma%ing is %nown as %nowledge
information. Lnowledge is perceived as a power or strength of the organization.
H %ost of ,nformation
$t may include(
Ja* 9ost of ac"uiring data,
Jb* 9ost of maintaining data,
Jc* 9ost of generating information, and
Jd* 9ost of communicating information
H 9alue of ,nformation
$nformation plays a very important role in business organizations. ,mooth flow and
proper utilization of information is essential for the very e'istence of the organization.
$nformation by itself does not have a value attribute. &he value is gained through
appropriate use of the information in specific activities.

$nformation is a %ey input in decision6ma%ing activity. $f incorrect or incomplete
information is used as the basis for decision6ma%ing, the resultant decision itself will be
doubtful. &heoretically, value of information is considered to be the value of the change
in decision behavior resulted by the information less the cost of obtaining the
information. &he mathematical model of computing the value of information in decision6
ma%ing assigns the value in each decision behavior and the cost of obtaining the
information. hen new information results in a different decision, value of such change
in decision behavior is obtained by subtracting the value of previous decision from the
new decision. $f the new information does not result in a new decision the value of
information is considered to be nil.
&here are various attributes of $nformation that increase the value of information that is
generated through the data processing. ,ome of the important attributes are(
o Accuracy and degree of precision
o Authenticity
o 7resentation format
o ,cope of 9overage
o Fre"uency of updates
o $nformation ,ources
o &ime span coverage
o 9ontent 9overage
o Ade"uacy
$n addition to decision6ma%ing, information plays an important role in activities such as
planning, control, coordination, motivation etc. &he value of information in such
application areas may not necessarily be "uantified.
&he value of information in planning is manifested through the degree of correctness in
forecasting the future events, realistic estimations, success probability etc. $n case of
control activities the manifestation is in terms of response time for feedbac% control loop
completion, accuracy of measurement etc.
H :uality of ,nformation
Buality of information is very important in a business organization. &he term "uality is
defined as "conformance to the re"uirements".
$nformation is used in a variety of applications. $t is used for planning, controlling,
motivating, staffing, coordinating, decision6ma%ing etc. 3ach of these activities has a
certain set of re"uirements about the information. $f the information produced meets
these re"uirements, the information can be considered as "uality information. $f the
information used is not of the right "uality, it is bound to adversely affect the actions
based on such information.
&he content of information is normally a %ey element of the "uality re"uirements. Buality
information provides relevant information without creating a data overload and without
generating unwanted information. &oo much of information can cause diversion of
attention resulting into overloo%ing of vital issues. $nformation content should properly
organized eliminates the ris% of overloo%ing the vital issues. $t should direct the attention
towards %ey elements of information that are actionable.
&he presentation of the information and degree of detailing is another %ey element of the
"uality re"uirements. hen the information is aimed at operational level of management
the degree of detailing may be necessary. hen the information is aimed at tactical or
strategic levels the same degree of detailing may not be necessary.
,nformation /ffecti.eness Parameters
$nformation can be identified by effectiveness parameters. &he degree of importance for
each of these parameters would vary depending on organizational and environmental
factors. &he information parameters are as follows(
Accuracy-
&he information that is provided for Manager=s to ma%e decision must be sufficiently
accurate.
0iming-
&he information must be communicated to the actual user of the information at
appropriate time.
%ontents-
&he contents of information must be appropriate to meet the >ser re"uirements.
>nwanted information must be eliminated to avoid "$nformation 8verloadM leading to
confusion.
'nderstanding-
&he actual users should easily understand the information that is provided. &he simplicity
of understanding is essential for effective usage of information.
A((lication-
&he information should be designed based on the end application to which the
information is being put. $f the information is being used to base critical business
decisions, then the content, timing and accuracy re"uirements would be different than the
information which is being used for reference or routine control purposes.
Fre;uency-
&he fre"uency at which information updates are to be provided should be in line with the
usage of information or the time cycle of the activity. For e'ample the information that is
used for ma%ing decisions about monthly production plan need not be updated on a daily
basis.
%ommunication-
For effective use, information must be communicated from the source to the destination.
!ources of ,nformation
$nformation is obtained from different sources in a business organization.
&he sources of information can be classified by their nature, namely: $nternal and
e'ternal.
/xternal !ources of ,nformation
&he 3'ternal information sources are typically related to the environment in which the
business organizations function. $n practice the e'ternal sources of information include
Eovernment, trade organizations, published information, newspapers, news agencies,
ban%s and financial institutes, customers and suppliers, mar%et research agencies etc.
,nternal !ources of ,nformation
&he internal sources of information include the functional or departmental data
processing activities. &hese activities produce information, which is used at operational,
tactical as well as strategic levels in the organization. ithin organization information is
generated through reports.
3'amples( 6
a* A field salesperson prepares the daily report. &his reports provides the information
about the number of calls made, total sales, collection etc.
b* &he budgetary control report provides information about the budget amount and actual
e'penditures.
<ayers in the organization + %orres(onding ,nformation re;uirements
&he hierarchical structure of an organization may have several levels. &he entire structure
consisting of a number of levels can be grouped in three layers. &hey are(
&op management
Middle management
8perational level management
&he roles and responsibilities of these three levels are different, so are their information
needs.

&op management is involved in strategic activities, policy ma%ing and goal
setting. &hey need information support that helps in carrying out strategic level
activities. &he information re"uirement for these activities is future oriented and
involves e'ternal sources. &he information presentation is at abstract level and the
accuracy re"uirement is moderate.
&he middle management involved in tactical activities. &hey need information
support for tactical level. &he information re"uirement at this level involves
historical analysis and future trends and involves both internal and e'ternal
sources. &he information presentation focus shifts from abstract to more elaborate
and the degree of accuracy increases.
&he operating level=s management information needs are oriented towards day6to6
day management of operations. &he operational level information re"uirement is
mainly from internal sources. &he information presentation is elaborate with a
high degree of accuracy.
0y(es of ,nformation
&he information can be considered as strategic, tactical and operational information based
on the receiver and user of the information. 8n the basis of this classification there are
three types of information.
,trategic information
&actical information
8perational information
Figure 1 - Pictorial re(resentation of <ayers in the organization + the
%orres(onding ,nformation 6eeds
!trategic ,nformation
&he strategic information generally relates to the top management functions in a business
organization. &he strategic information deals with international and national topics,
trends in the industry, investment patterns, government regulations and policies,
competition strategies, technological trends etc. &he strategic information re"uirement
may be internal as well as e'ternal in nature. $t is generally observed that strategic
information from e'ternal sources plays more important role that internal information.
&he nature of strategic information is such that it helps in ta%ing the long term planning
activity. $t includes future pro!ections and forecasts etc. &he strategic information may
include items that are not a direct result of conventional data processing activity using
computers.
,ome of the e'amples of strategic information, which the top management uses, include(
N&he information about pro!ected demand trends for a given product based on population
trends. &he demand estimates are used in planning the plant capacity to meet pro!ected
demand.
N&he information about estimated cost of conventional fuels such as petroleum products
and coal in the ne't five years. $nformation about the estimated costs of fuels is used
ma%e a decision about the boiler the company is planning to install. $f the cost of coal
were e'pected to be increasing at a higher rate than petroleum products, the investment
decision would be in favor of an oil6fired boiler.
0actical ,nformation
&actical information generally relates to the middle management level in a business
organization. &he tactical information addresses short6term planning activity. &he
planning period addressed by tactical information is measurable in months and not years
as in the case of strategic information. &ypical e'ample of tactical information are those
of sales forecasts, cash flow pro!ections, financial results, sales analysis, budgetary
control and variance statements, capacity utilization plans, production plans etc.

,ome tactical information is obtained from e'ternal sources. For e'ample, the
information about product mi' changes effected by competition is a tactical information
collected from e'ternal sources.
$n a typical business environment ma!or portion of the tactical information generated
internally within the organization. &actical information is typical produced through data
processing activity.
O(erational ,nformation
&he operational information, as the name suggests, deals with specific operation within
an organization. &he operational information is often produced as a result of data
processing activity. ,pecific users, often limited in numbers are users of the operational
information. &he operational information is more specific than other types of information.
,ome of the more common e'amples of operational information are daily attendance
report, pending purchase orders statement, item wise stoc%s held, wor% in progress, shift
reports etc. &his operational information is used as a data for further processing to obtain
tactical information.

2hat is information (yramid3
7yramid is a structure which starts from a point and then increase step by step
towards a broad base. /ifferent types of information needed by an organization can
also be represented using a pyramid structure. For the representation purpose we can
partition the pyramid structure into three portions. e can represent operational
information using the bottom portion of the pyramid since volume of operational
information is large and also because representation of operational information is
elaborate. 8perational level manager who will actually use this type information are
also large in number. &hen we can represent tactical information using the middle
portion of the pyramid since the volume of tactical information is less than
operational information and it is more abstract in form than operational information.
&he middle level managers who use tactical information, are also few in number
compared to operational level managers. ,trategic information can be represented
using top portion of pyramid, because it is very small in volume compare to other two
types of information also it is also more abstract in form compared to tactical
information. >ser of strategic information that is number of top level manager is also
very few compared to middle level managers.

Picture of ,nformation Pyramid
&op Aevel Managers
A few solved e'amples
O
/xam(le 1 = Pro.ide a list of (ossible strategic7 tactical and o(erational
information needs for uni.ersity7 restaurants and chemical (lants
,olution(
'ni.ersity
,trategic

i* Fob prospect in respect of newPe'isting professional ; academic courses
ii* $nformation about grant from government or public
iii* Audit results of different departments
iv* &he latest trend in education
v* <ot topics and recent research
&actical
i* ,ocial and political event that affects e'amination schedule
ii* Cew trends in student facility e.g., housing or computing e"uipment
iii* ?e"uired teaching s%ill ; teaching s%ill development methods
iv* $nfrastructure of university and affiliated colleges
v* ,pecialized training re"uirement for professional course students
8perational
i* &otal seats of each course
ii* 3'amination schedule
iii* Cumber of faculties need to be recruited
iv* /esired "ualification of faculties
v* ?esults of students
1estaurant
,trategic
i* Aatest facilities provided by competitors in seminars, conference, meeting or
any personal events
ii* Free offers and discounts, which are attractive to customers
iii* Food culture of local people
iv* 7ea% customer season
v* Aatest popular dishes ; re"uirement for specialized coo%
&actical
i* ?oom decoration ; food items that able to draw customers attention
ii* 9ustomer demand for new items
iii* 9ustomer complaints about food or service "uality
iv* 9ustomer complaints about desired item unavailability
v* eather waiter maintainsP violates /iscipline and uniform
8perational
i* Already Fulfilled order ; pending orders
ii* 9ustomer reception style
iii* Art of conversation with Euest
iv* &odays menu and available foods items at every moment
v* 9ustomer bill
vi* ,toc% of supplies
vii* ?e"uired $tems need to be procured everyday
%hemical Plant
,trategic
i* 7ollution control law of government
ii* ,trategy applied by other plants to control pollution
iii* Availability of new techni"ue and tools, which can be used in transformation
and or separation of materials
iv* Cew research and development in this field
v* Annual production and sales summary
vi* #uying habits of potential customer
vii* Audit report
viii* Cew idea to test percentage of chemicals in finished products
&actical
i* ?aw material procurement procedure
ii* ?e"uirement of $ndividual customers and strategy applied to provide
customized product
iii* Fre"uently received customer complaints
iv* Buality control of finished product
8perational

i* $nventory status
ii* /ay6to6 day production plant report
iii* $nbound and outbound logistic operation
iv* /ay6to6day ,ales report
/xam(le 2 - >reat !urgers is a (o(ular first food chain in ,ndia7 mainly sell meat-
based fast food. !ince .egetarian mo.ement is getting stronger and fish is gaining
(o(ularity as ?brain food@7 the to( management decided to add .egetarian and fish
based items to the current menu. Pro.ide a list of (ossible decisions ta*en by
managers at different le.els
!olutionA -
#ecision made by o(erational le.el managementA

First operational level managers, generally who are attached to any one retail shops %eeps
trac% of following(
)* /aily sales of meat based items
+* /aily demands of vegetable and fish based items
-* &he number of vegetarian leave shop for unavailability of vegetable items
.* Cumber of customers agree to accept meat based food instead of vegetable and
fish based foods
0* 3conomic condition and Food habits of local customers
&hen they should send all the above information to the middle level managers.
#ecision made by middle le.el managementA
First middle level managers, generally who are responsible for proper management at a
particular area summarizes the information received from low6level managers.
&hey calculate the area wise sales of meat6based foods: area wise demand for vegetarian
and fish based products, number of unsatisfied customers etc. &hen they pass these
reports to the top6level management.
#ecision made by 0o(-le.el ManagementA
&op6level management who are generally responsible for strategic decision considers a
numbers of e'ternal and internal information.
3'ternal information for e'ample food offering by competitive food chains, number of
customers prefer competitors product because they provide varieties of items. &hen
9hoice of local peoples and their economic conditions of local people also need to be
considered by them. Ce't as internal information they should consider summarized area
or region wise sales of meat based items and demand for fish or vegetable items
&hen they may decide to introduce vegetarian and fish based food. &hey may decide to
introduce it through all over country or in some selected regions depending on demand.
&hey may decide to %eep menu of meat base items unchanged or change it depending on
sales history.
8rganizing /ata and $nformation
/ata are vital organizational resources that need to be managed li%e other important
business assets. &hat=s why organizations and their managers need to practice data
resource management.
<e.els of #ata
/ata may be logically organized into characters, fields, records, files, and databases, !ust
as writing can be organized in Aetters, words, sentences, paragraphs, and documents.
1. %haracterA From a user=s point of view, a character is the most basic element of
data Jwhich consists of single alphabetic, numeric or other symbol* that can be
observed and manipulated.
2. FieldA &he ne't higher level of data is the field, or data item. A field consists of a
grouping of characters. For e'ample, the grouping alphabetic characters in a
person=s name forms a name field. ,pecifically, a data field represents an attribute
of some entity Job!ect, person, place, or event*.
. 1ecordA ?elated fields of data are grouped to form a record. &hus a record
represents a collection of attributes that describe an entity.
". FileA A group of related records is a data file, or table. Files are fre"uently
classified by the application for which they are primarily used, such as a payroll
file or an inventory file.
$. #atabaseA &he highest level in the hierarchy is the database. A database is an
integrated collection of logically related files.
7ictorial representations of levels of /ata
Files
/atabase
7ayroll file
7ersonnel file
@@06)@61-+) ,antanu ?oy )@62610
0.56226)@@) Mrinmoy Larma%ar +6)2625
@546.@6)-2@ ,uman #howmic% )60640
J7ersonnel file*
/atabase6A collection of integrated and related files
File6A collection of related records
?ecord6A collection of related fields
Field6A group of characters
9haracter6#asic building bloc% of information, represented by a byte
2hat is database3
A database is an organized collection of interrelated information Jwhich is relevant for an
enterprise*, to meet users needs.

2hat are the desirable (ro(erties of database3
1. %ontrolled 1edundancyA ?edundant data occupies space and therefore, is wasteful. $t
also degrades performance. $f versions of the same data are in different phases of
updating, the system often gives conflicting information. A desirable aspect of database
design is storing data only once, which controls redundancy and improves system
performance.
2. /ase of <earning and 'seA A ma!or desirable feature of a database is how easy it is to
learn and use.
. More ,nformation at <o4 %ostA retrieving, storing, and modifying data at low cost
are important.
". #ata Program ,nde(endenceA An important database ob!ective is changing hardware
and storage procedures or adding new data can be done without having to rewrite
application programs.
$. Accuracy and ,ntegrityA &he accuracy of a database is important. $ntegrity controls
detect data inaccuracies where they occur.
&. Pri.acy and !ecurityA For data to remain private, security measures must be ta%en to
prevent unauthorized access. /ata base security means that data are protected from
various forms of destruction: users must be positively identified and their actions
monitored.
B. !haredA $n multi6user applications, it is e'pected that the database be designed such
that the data can be shared or accessed by different users.
?ecords
Fields
9haracters
Jbytes*
@546.@6)-2@ ,uman #howmic% )60640
)@@@@)@
JAast name field*
#howmic%
JAetter K# in A,9$$*
J?ecord containing 7ersonnel6
$/, last name, first name, date
of hire*
CA 1eco.ery from FailureA &he system must recover "uic%ly after it is down with no loss
of transactions. &his ob!ective also helps maintain data accuracy and integrity.
D. PerformanceA &his property emphasizes response time to in"uiries must be suitable to
the use of the data.
0y(es of #atabases
,i' ma!or types of databases that may be found in computer6using organizations are as
follows(
O(erational
#atabase
Analytical
#atabase
#ata
2arehouse
#atabase
#istributed
#atabase
/nd-'ser
#atabase
/xternal
#atabase
&hese
databases
store
detailed data
needed to
support the
operations
of the entire
organization
. 3'amples
are customer
database,
personnel
database,
inventory
database and
other
database
containing
data
generated by
business
operations.
&hese
databases
store data and
information
e'tracted
from selected
operational
and e'ternal
databases.
&hey consist
of
summarized
data and
information
most needed
by an
organization
s managers.
A data
warehouse
stores data
from current
and previous
years that
has been
e'tracted
from the
various
operational
and
management
databases of
an
organization
. $t is a
central
source of
data that has
been
standardized
and
integrated so
it can be
used by
managers
and other
end user
&hese are
databases of
local wor%
groups and
departments
at regional
offices,
branch
offices,
manufacturin
g plants, and
other wor%
sites. &hese
databases can
include
segments of
both common
operational
and common
user
databases, as
well as data
generated and
used only at a
user=s own
site.
&hese
databases
consist of a
variety of
data files
developed
by end users
at their
wor%stations
.
Access to
e'ternal
online
databases
or data
ban%s is
available
for a fee
from
commercia
l
informatio
n services,
or without
charge
from many
sources on
the
internet.
professional
s throughout
an
organization
.

/xam(le of databases - 3lectronic filing system is an e'ample of traditional database
system.
$n &he traditional file system, separate files are created and stored for each application
program.
#ra4bac*s
Of File system
#ata redundancy and inconsistency6 ,ince different programmers create the
files and application programs over a long period. ,ame information may be
duplicated in several places Jfiles*. /uplication of data in separate files leads to
higher storage and access costs. $n addition it may leads to data inconsistency that
is various copies of the same data may no longer agree.
#ifficulty in accessing data- &he point here is that conventional file6processing
environments do not allow needed data to be retrieved in a convenient and
7ayroll
$nventory
$nvoicing
Management
in"uiries
7ayroll programs
$nvoicing programs
$nventory control programs
Management in"uiries
programs
?eports
?eports
?eports
?eports
Files
'sers A((lications (rogram
Figure 2 = 0raditional File !ystem
efficient manner. #ecause whenever a new information need is generated, a new
application program needs to be written.
#ata isolation- because data are scattered in various files, and files may be in
different formats, writing new application programs to retrieve the appropriate
data is difficult.
,ntegrity (roblems- the data values stored in the database must satisfy certain
types of consistency constraints. /evelopers enforce these constraints in the
system by adding appropriate code in the various application programs. <owever,
when new constraints are added, it is difficult to change the programs to enforce
them. &he problem is compounded when constraints involve several data items
from different file.
Atomicity (roblems -A computer system, li%e any other mechanical or electrical
device, is sub!ect to failure. $n many applications, it is crucial that, if a failure
occurs, the data be restored to the consistent state that e'isted prior to the failure.
9onsider a program to transfer Q0@ from account A to account #. $f a system
failure occurs during the e'ecution of the program, it is possible that the Q0@ was
removed from account A, but was not credited to account #, resulting in an
inconsistent database state. 9learly, it is essential to database consistency that
either, both the credit and debit occur, or that neither occur. &hat is, the funds
transfer must be atomic6it must happen in its entirety or not at all. $t is difficult to
ensure atomicity in a conventional file6processing, system.
%oncurrent-access anomalies-For the sa%e of overall performance of the system
and faster response, many systems allows multiple users to update the data
simultaneously. $n such an environment, interaction of concurrent updates may
result in inconsistent data
!ecurity (roblems- not every user of the database system should be able to access
all the data. #ut, since application programs are added to the system in an ad hoc
manner, enforcing such security constraints is difficult.
Program-data #e(endence6 &his program6data dependence approach is very
infle'ible because it ma%es it difficult to modify the data Jbecause if the data need to
modify, we have to modify program also* and it also ma%es the data inaccessible to
other programs.
#atabase Management !ystem - A /atabase Management ,ystem J/#M,* is simply
the software that permits an organization to centralize data, manage them
efficiently, and provide access to the stored data by application programs.

As shown in following figure, the /#M, acts as an interface between application
programs and the physical databases. hen an application program calls for a data item,
the /#M, finds this item in the database and presents it to the application program.

Figure = #atabase Management !ystem
2ho is #)A3
8ne of the main reasons for using /#M,s is to have central control of both the data and
the programs that access those data. A person who has such central control over the
/atabase Management system is called a database administrator J/#A*.
Ad.antages of #atabase Management !ystem in a business information system
ithout a database management system organizing, controlling and cataloging data, an
information system would be an unorganized conglomeration of data. &he advantages
provided by /#M, are as follows(
). %ataloging of File !tructuresA - 0he process of cataloging files in a database
management system J/#M,* is e'tremely important. ithout the process of a file
structure, files would be hard to access and operate. A file structure within a
J/#M,* provides an orderly structure for file access and management.
+. 1eduction of 1edundanciesA - 9entralized control of data by the /#A J/ata
base Administrator* avoids unnecessary duplication of data and thus effectively
reduces the total amount of data storage re"uired, also eliminates the e'tra
processing ; the inconsistencies that tend to be present in redundant data files.
-. !haring #ataA -A /#M, allows the sharing of data by any number of
application programs or users
.. #ata ,ntegrityA - 9entralized control can also ensure that ade"uate chec%s are
incorporated in the /#M, to provide data integrity. /ata integrity means that the
data contained in the database is both accurate and consistent. &herefore, data
values being entered for storage could be chec%ed to ensure that they fall within a
specified range and are of the correct format. For e'ample, the value for the age
of an employee may be in the range of )4 to 1@.
0. !ecurityA 6 unauthorized persons must not access confidential data. /ifferent
levels of security could be implemented by /#M, for various types of data and
$nvoicing
programs
$nventory
control
programs
Management
in"uiries
programs
?eports
?eports
?eports
7ayroll /ata
$nventory /ata
$nvoicing /ata
8ther /ata
/atabase
Management
,ystem
?eports
7ayroll
programs
7hysical /atabase
$nterface
Application programs
>sers
operations.
1. #ata ,nde(endenceA -0he files may migrate from one type of physical media to
another or the file structure may change without any need for changes in the
application programs. Application programs need not be changed even if fields
are added to an e'isting record: nor do they have to be changed if fields not used
by application programs are deleted.
2. 1educed Programming %osts7 1educed #e.elo(ment and ,m(lementation
0ime7 1educed File Maintenance %ostsA - #ecause many of the $nputPoutput
Jfile definition and file maintenance* routines normally coded by the programmers
are now handled through the data base management system, the amount of time
and money spent writing an application program is reduced. /atabase
management systems reduce file Maintenance 9osts by performing file
maintenance in a more convenient and more efficient manner.
#isad.antage of #atabase Management !ystem
). A significant disadvantage of the /#M, system is cost. $n addition to the cost of
purchasing or developing the software, the hardware has to be upgraded to allow
for the e'tensive programs and the wor%spaces also re"uired for their 7rogram
e'ecution and storage
+. &he lac% of duplication re"uires that the database be ade"uately bac%ed6up so that
in the case of failure the data can be recovered.
-. &he data is accessible from a single source namely the database. &his increases
the potential severity of security brea%s. ,ingle source of data increases disruption
of the operation of the organization because of downtimes and failures.
2hat is schema-3 ,chema is logical database description i.e., overall chart of all the
data item types and record6types stored in database.
An e'ample R,ales /atabase
&able6 )( 9lientSmaster R >sed to store client information
9lientSnumber Came Address 9ity 7incode ,tate #alanceSdue
&able6 +( 7roductSmaster R >sed to store product information
7roductSnumbe
r
/escriptio
n
>nitSmeasur
e
BuantityS8nShan
d
?eorderSlv
l
,ellSpric
e
9ostSpric
e
&able6 -( ,alesmanSmaster R >sed to store information about salesman wor%ing in a
company
,alesmanSnumber Came Address 9ity 7incode ,tate ,alSamt &gtStoSget ActualSsales ?emar%s
&able6 .( ,alesSorder6 >sed to store 9lients order
8rderSnumber 8rderSdate 9lientSnumber /elySaddress ,alesmanSnumber /elyStype #illedS$n /elySdate 8rderSstatus
&able6 0( ,alesSorderSdetails table
8rderSnumber 7roductSnumber BtyS8rdered BtySdisp 7roductSrate
2hat is #ata #ictionary3
/ata dictionary is a part of /#M,. $t is used to manage metadatathat is, data that
describes the database structure, constraints, authorizations, and so on. A useful data
dictionary system should store and manage the following types of information(
/escriptions of the schemas of the database system
/etailed information on physical database design
/escriptions of the database users, their responsibilities, and their access rights
<igh6level descriptions of the database transactions and of the relationships of
users to transactions
&he relationship between database transactions and the data items referenced by
them
>sage statistics such as fre"uencies of "ueries and transactions and access counts
to different portions of the database
#atabase <anguages
#ata #efinition <anguage E##<5A &he data definition language is the formal language
used by programmers to specify the content and structure of the database.
#ata Mani(ulation <anguageE#M<5A Most /#M, have a specialized language called
a data manipulation language that is used in con!unction with some conventional third6or6
fourth6generation programming languages to manipulate the data in the database. &his
language contains commands that permit end users and programming specialists to
e'tract data from the database to satisfy information re"uests and develop applications.
#ata %ontrol language E#%<5-&he language used to control access to data in a
database.
2hat is a database transaction3 #escribe A%,# (ro(erties of transaction in brief.
A database transaction comprises a unit of wor% performed within a database
management system Jor similar system* against a database. &o ensure integrity of the
data, a database system re"uired to maintain the following properties of transaction.
Atomicity- 3ither all operations of the transaction are reflected properly in the database,
or none are.
%onsistency - A transaction enforces consistency in the system state by ensuring that at
the end of any transaction the system is in a valid state. $f the transaction completes
successfully, then all changes to the system will have been properly made, and the system
will be in a valid state. $f any error occurs in a transaction, then any changes already
made will be automatically rolled bac%. &his will return the system to its state before the
transaction was started. ,ince the system was in a consistent state when the transaction
was started, it will once again be in a consistent state.
,solation - 3ven though multiple transactions may e'ecute concurrently, the system
guarantees that, for every pair of transactions &i and &!, it appears to &! that either &!
finished e'ecution before &i started, or &! started e'ecution after &i finished. &hus, each
transaction is unaware of other transactions e'ecuting concurrently in the system.
#urability- After a transaction completes successfully, the changes it has made to the
database persist, even if there are system failures.
&hese properties are often called the A9$/ properties: the acronym is derived from the
first letter of each of the four properties.
2hat is #ata Model3 6
>nderlying the structure of a database is the data model. #y structure of a database we
mean the data types, relationships, and constraints that should hold on the data.
%ategories of #ata Models-
-igh-le.el or conce(tual data models6 7rovides concepts that are close to the
way many users perceive data.
<ogical Eor re(resentational5 data models- provides concepts that may be
understood by end users but that are not too far from the way data is organized
within the computer. $t hides some details of data storage but can be implemented
on a computer system in a direct way.
<o4-le.el or (hysical data models- 7rovides concepts that describe the details
of how data is stored in the computer
#atabase design Phases of a !oft4are-
!te( 1
$n ,oftware development, once all the re"uirements have been collected and analyzed,
the ne't step is to create a conceptual schema for the database, using a high6level or
conceptual data model. &his step is called conceptual design. &he conceptual schema is a
concise description of the data re"uirements of the users and includes detailed
descriptions of the entity types, relationships, and constraints. #ecause these concepts do
not include implementation details, they are usually easier to understand and can be used
to communicate with non6technical users. ,o the high6level conceptual schema can also
be used as a reference to ensure that all users data re"uirements are met and that the
re"uirements do not include conflicts.
&his approach enables the database designers to concentrate on specifying the properties
of the data, without being concerned with storage details. 9onse"uently, it is easier for
them to come up with a good conceptual database design.
!te( 2
&he ne't step in database design is the actual implementation of the database, using a
commercial /#M,. ,o the conceptual schema is transformed from the high6level data
model into the implementation data model. &his step is called logical design.
!te(
Finally, the last step is the physical design phase, during which the internal storage
structures, access paths, and file organizations for the database files are specified.
/ntity-relationshi( E/-15 Model 6
3ntity6relationship J36?* Model6 &he 3ntity6relationship J36?* Model is a high6level or
conceptual data model. $t is based on a perception of a real world that consists of a
collection of basic ob!ects, called entities, and or relationship among these ob!ects. &he
36? model employs three basic notations( entity set, relationship sets and attributes.
i* /ntity !ets-An entity is a thing or ob!ect in a real world that is distinguishable
from all other ob!ects. An entity set is a set of entities of the same type that
share the same properties or attributes. &he set of all persons who are
customers at a given ban%, for e'ample can be defined as the entity set
customer.
ii* Attributes6An entity is represented by a set of attributes. Attributes are
descriptive properties possessed by each member of an entity set. 7ossible
attributes for customer entity set are customer6id, customer6name etc.
iii* 1elationshi( !ets-A relationship is an association among several entities. A
relationship set is a set of relationships of the same type. For e'ample we can
define a relationship #orrow that associates customer entity and Aoan entity.
,uppose that ?am and A6)0 are two entities. ?elationship #orrow associates ?am with
loan A6)0. &his relationship identifies that ?am is a customer with loan number A6)0.
Ma((ing cardinalities6 9ardinalities of entity set A, e'press the number of instances of
entity set # that may be associated with each instance of entity set A.
For a binary relationship set ? between entity sets A and #, the mapping cardinality must
be one of the following(
One to one6an entity in A is associated with at most one entity in #, and an entity in # is
associated with at most one entity in A.
One to many6 an entity in A is associated with any number Jzero or more* of entities in
#. An entity in #, however, can be associated with at most one entity in A.
Many to one6 an entity in A is associated with at most one entity in #. An entity in #,
however, can be associated with any number Jzero or more* of entities in A.
Many to many- An entity in A is associated with any number Jzero or more* of entities in
#, and an entity in # is associated with any number Jzero or more* of entities in A.
/ntity-1elationshi( #iagram - 36? diagram represents entity sets, its attributes and
relationship sets graphically, i.e., 36? diagram can e'press the overall 9onceptual
structure of a database graphically.
&his diagram is simple and clear.
,ome notation of 3? /iagram
?ectangles, which represent entity sets
3llipses, which represent attributes
/iamonds, which represent relationship sets
Aines, which lin% attributes to entity sets and entity sets to relationship sets
$f 3) ; 3+ are two entity sets and ? is relationship set. &hen a directed line from the
relationship set ? to entity set 3+ specifies relationship is one6to6one or many6to6one
from 3) to 3+. An undirected line from the relationship set ? to entity set 3+ specifies the
? is either many6to6many or one6to6many relationship set from 3) to 3+.
An exam(le to illustrate /-1 #iagram
9onsider the entity6relationship diagram in Figure ., which consists of two entity sets,
customer and loan, related through a binary relationship set borrow. &he attributes
associated with customer are customer6id, customer6name, customer6street, and customer6
city. &he attributes associated with loan are loan6number and amount. Attributes of an
entity set that are members of the primary %ey must be underlined. &he relationship set
borrower may be many6to6many, one6to6many, many6to6one, or one6to6one.
$n figure ..A relationship set borrower is one6to6one from customer to loan
$n figure ..# relationship set borrower is one6to6many from customer to loan
$n figure ..9 relationship set borrower is many6to6one from customer to loan
$n figure ../ relationship set borrower is many6to6many from customer to loan

9ustomers
Aoans
#orrow
customerSid customerSnam
e
customerSstreet customerScity
loanSnumber
amount
Aoans
#orrow
e
loanSnumber
amount
".A
Figure "

<ogical #esign
Cow its the time to convert conceptual 36? model to one of the implementationP logical
data model. &hree commonly used Aogical data models are <ierarchical model, Cetwor%
model and ?elational model.
15 -ierarchical Model
&he hierarchical data model uses tree structures to represent relationship among records.
$t means there is a hierarchy of parent and child records, which are connected to each
other through lin%s. 3ach record is a collection of fields Jattributes*, each of the fields
contains only one data value. <ierarchical /#M,s were popular from the late )51@s,
with the introduction of $#M=s $nformation Management ,ystem J$M,* /#M,, through
the )52@s.
&he <ierarchical data model has the following features(
3ach hierarchical tree can have only one root record and this record does not have
any parent record.
&he root can have any number of child records and each of which can itself be a
root of a hierarchical subtree.
9ustomers
9ustomers
Aoans
#orrow
e
loanSnumber
amount
9ustomers
Aoans
#orrow
e
loanSnumber
amount
3ach child record type can have only one parent record type: thus an M( C
relationship cannot be directly e'pressed between two record types. 8nly)( C
relationship between record types is possible.
/ata in a parent record applies to all its children records
A child record occurrence must have a parent record occurrence: deleting a parent
record occurrence re"uires deleting its entire children record occurrence.
3'ample, an organization might store information about an employee, such as name,
employee number, department, and salary. &he organization might also store information
about an employee=s children, such as name and date of birth.
&he employee and children data forms a hierarchy, where the employee data represents
the parent segment and the children data represents the child segment. $f an employee has
three children, then there would be three child segments associated with one employee
segment.

9onsider a database that represents a customer6account relationship in a ban%ing system.
&here are two record types( customer and account. 9ustomer record has fields6 customer6
name, customer6street, customer6city. Account records have fields R account6number ;
balance.
A sample database appears in figure 0. $t shows that customer <ayes has account A6)@+,
customer Fohnson has accounts A6)@) and A6+@), and customer &urner has account A6
-@0.
Cote that the set of all customer and account records is organized in the form of a rooted
tree, where the root of the tree is a dummy node. A hierarchical database is a collection of
such rooted trees, and hence forms a forest.
&he content of a particular record may have to be replicated in several different locations.
#ecause a child branch Jrecord* cannot have more than one parent branch Jrecord* in a
tree, but in our customer6account ban%ing system an account may belong to several
customers. &he information pertaining to that account will have to be replicated.
Figurre0 shows the relationship
is one to many from customer
to account, a customer can
have more than one account, as
does Fohnson, who has both
accounts A6)@) and A6+@).
Figure 0

Only one-to-many and one-to-one relationships can be directly
represented in the hierarchical model. If the relationship is many to
many, then two separate tree-structure diagrams, T1 and T2, each of
which has the customer and account record types, should be created.
In tree T1, customer acts as the parent record; in tree T2, account acts
as parent record.
25 6et4or* Model-
&he networ% data model is a variant of the hierarchical data model. /atabases can be
translated from hierarchical to networ% and vice versa in order to optimize processing
speed and convenience. Ai%e a hierarchical database, networ% database consists of a
collection of records connected to one another through lin%s. 3ach record is a collection
of fields Jattributes*, each of which contains only one data value.
Cetwor% model depicts many6to6many relationships. $n other words, parents can have
multiple children and a child can have more than one parent.
As an illustration, we consider a database representing a customer6account relationship in
a ban%ing system. &here are two record types( customer and account. &he customer
record type consists of three fields( customer6name, customer6street, and customer6city.
,imilarly, the account record consists of two fields( account6number and balance.
Figure 1 shows the
relationship is many to
many from customer to
account, a customer can
have more than one
account, as does Fohnson,
,mith both have two
accounts. And the account
A6+@) belongs to both
Fohnson and smith
Figure 1
$f the relationship is many to many, for e'ample if Fohnson has accounts A6)@) and A6
+@) and that account A6+@) is owned by both Fohnson and ,mith. &hen the sample
database will be similar to the following figure.
3) Relational Model (RDBMS or Relational Database Management
System)
A relational Model consists of collection of tables each of which assigned a uni"ue name.
A table is two6dimensional structure called relations that are the logical e"uivalent of
files. Actually ?/#M, stores data in the form of related tables.
A row in a table represents a relationship among a set of values and a table is a collection
of such relationship. &he term TtupleM is used to represent a row. All rows of a table are
distinct. $n other words, no two rows which are identical in every column.
All tuples have same fields: the term TattributeM is used instead of TfieldM in case of
?elational model.
8rdering of rows ; columns within a table is immaterial
9onsider a database that represents a customer6account relationship in a ban%ing system.
&here are three relations( customer, account ; account6owner represented by three tables.
&he customer relation consists of three attributes( customer6name, customer6street, and
customer6city. &he account relation consists of two attributes( account6number and
balance. Account6owner consist of two attributes customer6name, account6number
0able - %ustomer
A sample database is shown
in figure 2. &he figure
shows <ayes has account
A6)@+, Fohnson has
accounts A6)@) and A6+@),
and &urner has account A6
-@0. <ere we mainly show
that relationship is one6to
many from customer to
account.
Figure B
%ustomer-name %ustomer-street %ustomer-city
<ayes Main <arrison
Aindsey 7ar% 7ittsfield
&urner 7utnam ,tamford
0able -Account
Account-
6umber
)alance
A6)@+ .@@
A6+++ 2@@
A6+@) 5@@
A6-@0 -0@
0able -Account-o4ner
%ustomer-name Account-6umber
<ayes A6)@+
Aindsey A6+++
&urner A6+++
Aindsey A6+@)
&urner A6-@0
2hich model is mostly used and 2hy3 -
$n the recent years, &he ?elational /atabase Model or relational database management
system J?/#M,* have been most widely accepted and are gaining popularity. $t has
attained its primary position because of its simplicity, which eases !ob of programmer, as
compared to other data models such as networ% model or hierarchical model. ,ome of the
ma!or advantages are(
3asy to understand
Fle'ibility in data retrieval
/ata can be manipulated 7recisely
,ecurity can be easily enforced
?educed data storage and redundancy
$ndependence of physical storage and logical data design
A high6level data manipulation language
2hat is !:< - ,BA commonly e'panded as ,tructured Buery Aanguage Jpronounced
as ",e"uel"*, is an 3nglish Ai%e computer language designed for the retrieval and
management of data in relational database management systems, database schema
creation and modification, and database ob!ect access control management. ,BA has been
standardized by both AC,$ and $,8.

&he first version of ,BA was developed at $#M. &his version, initially called ,3B>3A,
was designed to manipulate and retrieve data stored in $#M=s original relational database
product, ,ystem ?. &he ,BA language was later formally standardized by the American
Cational ,tandards $nstitute in )541. ,ubse"uent versions of the ,BA standard have been
released as $nternational 8rganization for ,tandardization J$,8* standards.
8eys in 1#)M!
8eys - A %ey allows us to identify a set of attributes that suffice to distinguish entities
from each other.
!u(er*ey - A su(er*ey is a set of one or more attributes that, ta%en collectively, allow us to
identify uni"uely an entity in the entity set.
9onsider the following relation(
For e'ample, consider a relation customer Jcustomer6id, customer6name, customer6street,
customer6city*. &he customer6id attribute of the entity set customer is sufficient to distinguish
one customer entity from another. &hus, customer6id is a super%ey. ,imilarly, the combination
of customer6name and customer6id is a super%ey for the entity set customer. &he customer6
name attribute of customer is not a super%ey, because several people might have the same
name.
%andidate *eys - &he concept of a super%ey is not sufficient for our purposes, since, as we
saw, a super%ey may contain e'traneous attributes. $f L is a super%ey, then so is any superset of
L. e are often interested in super%eys for which no proper subset is a super%ey. ,uch
minimal super%eys are called candidate %eys.
$t is possible that several distinct sets of attributes could serve as a candidate %ey. ,uppose that
a combination of customer6name and customer6street is sufficient to distinguish among
members of the customer entity set. &hen, both Ucustomer6idV and Ucustomer6name,
customer6streetV are candidate %eys. Although the attributes customer6id and customer6
name together can distinguish customer entities, their combination does not form a
candidate %ey, since the attribute customer6id alone is a candidate %ey.
Primary 8ey -e shall use the term primary %ey to denote a candidate %ey that is chosen
by the database designer as the principal means of identifying entities within an entity set.
#atabase 6ormalization
/atabase normalization is a techni"ue for designing relational database tables to
minimize duplication of information and, in so doing, to safeguard the database against
certain types of logical inconsistency.
Problems addressed by normalization- hen multiple instances of a given piece of
information occur in a table, the possibility e'ists that these instances will not be %ept
consistent when the data within the table is updated, leading to a loss of data integrity. A
table that is sufficiently normalized is not vulnerable to problems of this %ind, as its
structure prevents it from holding redundant information in the first place.
A table that is not sufficiently normalized can suffer from logical inconsistencies of
various types, and from anomaly involving data operations.
)* '(date anomaly-&he same information can be e'pressed on multiple records:
therefore updates to the table may result in logical inconsistencies.
+* ,nsertion anomaly 60here is circumstances in 4hich certain facts cannot be
recorded at all.
5 #eletion anomaly- &here is circumstances in which the deletion of data representing
certain facts necessitates the deletion of data representing completely different facts.
For e'ample, each record in an "3mployees=
,%ills" table might contain an 3mployee $/,
3mployee Address, and ,%ill: thus a change of
address for a particular employee will
potentially need to be applied to multiple
records Jone for each of his s%ills*. $f the
update is not carried through successfullyif,
that is, the employee=s address is updated on
some records but not othersthen the table is
left in an inconsistent state. ,pecifically, the
table provides conflicting answers to the
"uestion of what this particular employee=s
address is. &his phenomenon is %nown as an
update anomaly.
For e'ample, each record in a "Faculty and
&heir 9ourses" table might contain a
Faculty $/, Faculty Came, Faculty <ire
/ate, and 9ourse 9odethus we can
record the details of any faculty member
who teaches at least one course, but we
cannot record the details of a newly6hired
faculty member who has not yet been
assigned to teach any courses. 0his
(henomenon is *no4n as an insertion
anomaly.
$deally, a relational database table should be designed in such a way as to e'clude the
possibility of update, insertion, and deletion anomalies. &he normal forms of relational
database theory provide guidelines for deciding whether a particular design will be
vulnerable to such anomalies. $t is possible to correct an un6normalized design so as to
ma%e it adhere to the demands of the normal forms( this is called normalization.
Cormalization typically involves decomposing an un6normalized table into two or more
tables that, were they to be combined J!oined*, would convey e'actly the same
information as the original table.
16F 6A relation is in first normal form J)CF* if and only if the domain of an attribute
must include only atomic Jsimple, indivisible* values and that the value of any
attribute in a tuple must be a single value from the domain of that attribute. <ence,
)CF disallows having a set of values, a tuple of values, or a combination of both as an
attribute value for a single tuple.
A relation schema that is not in )CF
#/PA10M/60
#6AM/ #6'M)/1 #M>1/6O #<O%A0,O6!
?esearch 0 ---..0000 J#angalore, Cew /elhi,
<yderabad*
Administration . 54210.-+) J9hennai*
<ead"uarters ) 444110000 J<yderabad*

&o ma%e it in )CF we have to remove the attribute /A89A&$8C, that
violates )CF and place it in a separate relation /37&S A89A&$8C, along
with the primary %ey /C>M#3? of /37A?&M3C&. &he primary %ey of this
relation is the combination U/C>M#3?, /A89A&$8CV, as shown in
following Figure. A distinct tuple in /37&SA89A&$8C, e'ists for each
For e'ample the "Faculty and
&heir 9ourses" table described in
the previous e'ample suffers
from this type of anomaly, for if
a faculty member temporarily
ceases to be assigned to any
courses, we must delete the last
of the records on which that
faculty member appears. &his
phenomenon is %nown as a
deletion anomaly.
location of a department. &his decomposes the non6)CF relation into two )CF
relations.
#/PA10M/601
/CAM3 /C>M#3? /ME?3C8
?esearch 0 ---..0000
Administration . 54210.-+)
<ead"uarters ) 444110000
#/P0F <O%A0,O6!
/C>M#3? /A89A&$8C,
0 #angalore
0 Cew /elhi
0 <yderabad
. 9hennai
) <yderabad
Functional #e(endency- A functional dependency JF/* is a constraint between two sets
of attributes in a relation from a database.
Eiven a relation ?, a set of attributes D in ? is said to functionally determine
another attribute W, also in ?, Jwritten D X W* if each D value is associated with
precisely one W value.
&hus, given a tuple and the values of the attributes in D, one can determine the
corresponding value of the W attribute. &hus, a candidate %ey is a minimal set of attributes
that functionally determine all of the attributes in a relation.
26F - A relation schema ? is in +CF if it satisfies )CF and every nonprime attributes in
? are fully functionally dependent on the primary %ey of ?. &he test for +CF involves
testing for functional dependencies whose left6hand side attributes are part of the primary
%ey. $f the primary %ey contains a single attribute, the test need not be applied at all.
Following 3M7S7?8F relation is in )CF but is not in +CF.
3C8 7C>M#3? <8>?, 3CAM3 7CAM3 7A89A&$8C,
&he nonprime attribute 3CAM3, 7CAM3 and 7A89A&$8C violates +CF because of
partially dependent on the primary %ey U3C8, 7C>M#3?V of 3M7S7?8F.
3C8X 3CAM3
7C>M#3? X 7CAM3, 7A89A&$8C
&o ma%e the relation in +CF we brea% the above relation into three different relations,
each of which in +CF
3M7S7?8F)
3C8 7C>M#3? <8>?,
3M7S7?8F+
3C8 3CAM3
3M7S7?8F-
7C>M#3? 7CAM3 7A89A&$8C,
6F-
A relation schema ? is in -CF if it satisfies +CF and no nonprime attribute of ? is
transitively dependent on the primary %ey. $n other words relation should not have a
non%ey attributes functionally determined by another non6%ey attribute Jor by a set of
non%ey attributes*.
A functional dependency D X W in a relation schema ? is a transitive dependency if
there is a set of attributes Y that is neither a candidate %ey nor a subset of any %ey of ?,"
and both DX Y and YXW hold.
Following table in +CF since no partial dependencies on a %ey e'ists. #ut not in -CF.
3M7S /37&
3CAM3 3C8 /8# A//?3,, /C>M#3? /CAM3 /ME?3C8
&he dependency 3C8X/ME?3C8 is transitive through /C>M#3? in 3M7S/37&
because both the dependencies 3C8X/C>M#3? and /C>M#3? X /ME?3C8
hold and /C>M#3? is neither a %ey itself nor a subset of the %ey of 3M7S /37&.
$ntuitively, we can see that the dependency of /ME?3C8 on /C>M#3? is undesirable
in 3M7S/37& since /C>M#3? is not a %ey of 3M7S/37&.
&o ma%e the relation in -CF we brea% the above relation into two different relations, each
of which in -CF
3M7S /37&)
3CAM3 3C8 /8# A//?3,, /C>M#3?
3M7S /37&+
/C>M#3? /CAM3 /ME?3C8
'sers of the database -
&he database management system is responsible for controlling interaction between the
database and application software. &here are three distinct classes of users of the
database. &hey are(
). $nformation ,pecialist6 $nformation ,pecialists are responsible for the
designing of the database. &hey use database in application system that are
being designed and developed.
+. /atabase Administrator6 /atabase administrators use special features and
functions of the database management system to create, update and
maintain the database and ensure integrity controls.
-. Actual >sers6 the actual users of the database ma%e use of the database for their
functional assignments through "ueries.
<ecture ".1A #ata Processing
0y(es of #ata Processing
e can broadly classify data processing in two types. &hey are
). #atch 7rocessing.
+. Buic% ?esponse ,ystem.
)atch Processing
A batch is a se"uence of user programs. #atch processing is e'ecution of a series of
programs J"!obs"* on a computer without manual intervention.
$n #atch 7rocessing data for individual transactions are gathered and stored but are not
entered into the system immediately. Aater, either on a schedule or when a sufficient
number of transaction data have accumulated, this transaction data are sorted and in(ut
as a batch, also processed them to update database. #atch processing was the only
feasible form of transaction processing when data were stored only on punched cards or
tapes. #atch systems do not provide immediate responses. 8utputs are obtained later
when all processings are over. &hus considerable time can elapse from the transactions
are input into the computer to the time the response is obtained. &his method is suited to
situations where it is not critical that the actual processing ta%es place immediately and
the output will be distributed after a delay.
)atch Gobs are set u( so they can be run to com(letion 4ithout human interactionH
so all in(ut data is (re-selected through command-line (arameters. 0his is in
contrast to interacti.e (rograms7 4hich (rom(t the user for such in(ut.
#atch processing is currently used in some situations where the transaction data comes in
on paper, such as, processing a number of hourly wor% slips and generating pay slips for
labor.
/xam(le 1A - A Iche;ue (rocessing systemJ in a ban*. All the che"ue received in a
particular time frame, say, on a particular day, are grouped together to produce a batch of
transaction. &hey are then %eyed to tape and sorted into a transaction file by the account
number as indicated above. &his is then read in order by the &7, program. &he old master
file, which is also sorted by the account number, contains customer chec%ing account data
from the prior period. &7, program also reads the stored data, processes the transactions,
and data is updated to create the new customer master file. $n this process, it generates
reports. &he outputs may be overdrawn accounts, monthly summaries, suspicious activity
etc.
/xam(le 2A hen the total processing involves e'ecution of several programs, batch
processing underta%es each program in a se"uence. For e'ample, in preparing an $nvoice,
&he steps involved are(
). /ata entry of delivery documents
+. Galidations of delivery documents data
-. 9omputation of $nvoice
.. >pdating of delivery transaction file
0. 7rinting of $nvoice
1. >pdating $nvoice &ransaction File
$n batch processing, data about several delivery documents is accumulated and a batch of
transactions is created. &his batch of transactions is then processed in se"uence. &he
batch processing produces all invoices in one go when the batch is over.
/ata entry
of
accumulated
documents
$nput
J#atched*
8utput
Architecture of a batch transaction (rocessing A((lication
#atch processing has advantages and limitations.
)atch (rocessing has these ad.antagesA
$t shifts the time of !ob processing to when the computing resources are less busy.
$t avoids idling the computing resources without minute6by6minute human
interaction and supervision.
#y %eeping high overall rate of utilization, it better amortizes the cost of a
computer, especially an e'pensive one.
)atch (rocessing is economical 4hereA
). &ransaction volumes are very large
+. /edicated hardware is not available
-. $mmediate "uery replies are not needed
.. $nstant updates are not essential
)atch (rocessing has limitation such asA
,orted se"uential files are used. &ime spent on sorting the data as per re"uirement.
8utputs are available only in batches. $mmediate outputs are not available.
File updating is done at the end of processing cycle. $mmediate en"uiry will
produce wrong results.
/xam(les of useA
An electricity company produces its monthly bills for customers. All the meter reading
would be collected in or estimated over the month then the data batch processed and the
bills calculated and printed out.
:uic* 1es(onse !ystems
Buic% response systems are designed to provide response on time and effectively. ,uch
systems allow users to react more rapidly to changing conditions. Buic% response
systems can be categorized in four ma!or groups. &hey are(
8n6line systems
8n6line real time systems
&ime sharing
/istributed processing
On-line systems
&his concept of on6line processing is in contrast with batch processing. &ransactions are
input into the system as soon as they arise. &hey are used to process a single transaction
at a time. $t allows immediate computations and updating of files. 8nline transaction
processing involves a direct connection between the operator and the &7, program. <ere
the processing ta%es place, as the data is input but the system does not need to be instant,
a delay of a few seconds is not critical. &he limitations of batch processing had restricted
applications of computers in certain fields. 8n6line systems have opened up a vast
application area for computers. &he concept of on6line applied to commercial
applications resulted in a methodology termed as "on6line transaction processing" or
8A&7. 8A&7 has also been used to refer to processing in which the system responds
immediately to user re"uests.
On-line systems re;uirementsA

8n6line system re"uires some specific features in the hardware and software. &he
hardware features re"uired by on6line systems include increased memory, higher speed
and increased secondary storage. &he software features re"uired by on6line system
includes special record handling features, record loc%ing and archiving for crash
recovery.

&oday=s online transaction processing increasingly re"uires support for transactions that
span a networ% and may include more than one company. For this reason, new 8A&7
software uses clientPserver processing that allows transactions to run on different
computer in a networ%.
/xam(leA ,aving ban% accounting system

On-line 1eal 0ime !ystems
&he term real time means occurring immediately. ?eal time processing means that, not
only is input data processed immediately, but output results are available fast enough to
meet the immediate information needs of end users.
?eal6time processing is generally used in environments where a large number of events,
mostly e'ternal to the computer system, must be accepted and processed in a short time
or within certain deadlines. A primary ob!ective of real6time systems is to provide "uic%
event6response times. Applications embedded in telephone switching e"uipment, flight
control, robot etc.
Architecture of a online transaction (rocessing A((lication
<ere the computer responds immediately to incoming data and produces the appropriate
output. &his form of processing can be e'pensive, as it re"uires fast computer processors
and good networ% connections.

&he railway reservation system is an ideal e'ample on on6line real time system. ?ailway
reservation system cannot produce desired results in a batch mode operation. &his
application demands constant access and immediate updating to data files. &his is
possible only through the on6line systems. $t is an on6line real time system because the
activity of ?ailway reservations, wait6listing and capacity utilization of seats is monitored
through the system through constant access and immediate updating to data files.
A stand6alone or embedded computer in an automatic pilot system is an e'ample of 8n6
line real time system. <ere the inputs from sensors on the plane need to produce
immediate outputs to control the aircraft and avoid a crash.

0ime-sharing
&ime6sharing is the term used to describe a processing system where different tas%s share
the processing time. &hese tas%s are independent of each other. &he tas%s involve more
time in input and output with relatively less time re"uirement for processing of input to
produce output.

Mini computers installed in business organizations are a typical e'ample of time6sharing
systems. 8n a common mini computer system, different applications wor%. &hese
applications may be financial accounting, invoicing, order processing, payroll, purchase
ordering, goods receiving, inventory, accounting, fi'ed deposit accounting, share
accounting etc.
8ne form of time6sharing allows the concurrent use of a computer by a group of
individuals where many users share computer resources at the same time. ,chools often
adopt time6sharing systems to support their computer curriculums. $t allows many
students concurrent access to the same computer. &he student can create an online lin% to
the computer using a device called a terminal with a %eyboard for inputting and
outputting data

#istributed Processing
$n case of centralized processing single large machine is responsible for all aspects of a
process. $n distributed processing, in which a tas% is divided among multi ple
computers. /istributed ?efers to any of a variety of computer systems that use more than
one computer, or processor, to run an application. &his includes parallel processing, in
which a single computer uses more than one 97> to e'ecute programs. More often,
under distributed processing, the distinct machines are connected together into a
communication networ% Jusually by Aocal Area Cetwor%*, such that a single data
processing tas%s can span through several machines in the networ%. &he networ%
management software handles the communication between the machines. Most
distributed processing systems contain sophisticated software that detects idle 97>s on
the networ% and parcels out programs to utilize them. Another form of distributed
processing involves distributed databases, in which the data is stored across two or more
computer systems. &he database system %eeps trac% of where the data is so that the
distributed nature of the database is not apparent to users. A single application should be
able to operate transparently on data i.e., spread across a variety of different databases,
managed by different /#M,, running on variety of different communication networ%.
#ifferentiate bet4een batch mode and online mode (rocessing
)atch mode (rocessing Online mode (rocessing
#atch processing is a large scale of
processing which is done in batches and
inputs are also entered in batches by
%eyboard and stored in transaction files
8nline processing means users directly
enter information online Jusually, online, in
this case, means online to a central
processor, rather than its modern
connotation of the $nternet, but it could
mean both*
<ere the computer does not carry out any
processing or produce any output until all
the inputs have been collected in. ,o this
method is suited to situations where it is not
critical that the actual processing ta%es
place immediately.
<ere the processing ta%es place as the data
is input so it is suited when immediate
computations and output is needed. &he
system does not need to be instant, a delay
of a few seconds is not critical
&o ensure that all data is entered without
error or omission batches of inputs run
through a validation process before
processing.
/ata validation ta%es place at the time of
data entry. Co separate process is needed.
A batch process can be started
automatically or manually and once started
batch processing needs no human
intervention.
$t is an $nteractive processing i.e., a
number of human interactions are needed
for input and output se"uence.
#atch processing has aim for high resource
J97>Pmemory* utilization. 3fficient batch
processes will be 97>Pmemory bound not
$P8 bound. ,ince no $P8, no 97> time
waste and as a result it is very fast process.
&he online mode processes are mainly $P8
bound. &ime wasted to perform $P8 as a
result it is relatively slow than batch
processing.
,ince it is done without human interaction
it can be shifted the when the computing
resources are less busy. $t can be shifted in
less busy business hour or it can be run in
overnight.
,ince it is interactive, this can only be done
in office hour.
#atch processing can process huge amounts $t is not suited for huge amount of data
of data processing.
#atch processing is very cheap to run.
<ardware costs are lower because the time
ta%en to process the data is usually not
critical so the computer and networ% speeds
are not too important. Failures in hardware
would mean the data has to be processed
again.
$t is more e'pensive to set up than a batch
processing system as the hardware has to
cope with pea%s of demand and there must
be a reliable bac%up system.
File updating is done at the end of
processing cycle. $mmediate en"uiry will
$mmediate update is ta%e place after
computation. $mmediate en"uiry can be
handled.
2hat are the main differences bet4een batch (rocessing and real time
(rocessing3
)atch (rocessing 1eal time (rocessing
#atch processing is a large scale of
processing which is done in batches and
inputs are also entered in batches by
%eyboard and stored in transaction files
>sers directly enter information online
Jusually, online, in this case, means online
to a central processor, rather than its
modern connotation of the $nternet, but it
could mean both*
<ere the computer does not carry out any
processing or produce any output until all
the inputs have been collected in. ,o this
method is suited to situations where it is not
critical that the actual processing ta%es
place immediately.
<ere the computer responds immediately
to incoming data and produces the
appropriate output. <ence the processing
ta%es place immediately as the data is
input. &he best one will get is a few
milliseconds from input to response.
&o ensure that all data is entered without
error or omission batches of inputs run
through a validation process before
processing.
/ata validation ta%es place at the time of
data entry. Co separate process is needed.
A batch process can be started
automatically or manually and once started,
batch processing needs no human
intervention.
$t is an $nteractive processing i.e., a
number of human interactions are needed
for input and output se"uence. $t helps
monitoring or controlling specific activity
#atch processing has aim of high resource
J97>Pmemory* utilization. 3fficient batch
processes will be 97>Pmemory bound not
$P8 bound. ,ince no $P8, no 97> time
waste and as a result it is very fast process.
&he real time processes are mainly $P8
bound. &ime wasted to perform $P8 as a
result it is relatively slow than batch
processing.
,ince it is done without human interaction
it can be shifted the when the computing
resources are less busy. $t can be shifted in
,ince it is interactive, this can only be done
in office hour.
less busy business hour or it can be run in
overnight.
#atch processing can process huge amounts
of data
$t is not suited for huge amount of data
processing.
#atch processing is very cheap to run.
<ardware costs are lower because the time
ta%en to process the data is usually not
critical so the computer and networ% speeds
are not too important. Failures in hardware
would mean the data has to be processed
again.
&his form of processing can be e'pensive,
as it re"uires fast computer processors and
good networ% connections.
File updating is done at the end of
processing cycle. $mmediate en"uiry will
$mmediate update is ta%e place after
computation. $mmediate en"uiry can be
handled.
%lient-!er.er %om(uting Architecture
9lient6,erver Architecture J9,A* is a distributed, cooperative, processing environment
whereby entire tas% of processing is divided in such manner that if there is a demand on the
system through a client and there is a server in the system to serve this demand. &he
architecture has two components, client and server, where client ma%es a re"uest and the
server that processes the re"uest and serves the client by offering the result. &he clients
and servers are connected to each other through a networ% component, which handles
communications between the two. 3ach client or server connected to a networ% can also be
referred to as a node.

&he server typically is a high6end computer system that acts as a host to all the
clients, which are generally low6end computer systems .
&he high6end computer systems have large primary memory, faster
processing speeds and high volume secondary storage capacities.
&he low6end computer systems have limited secondary storage and
optimum primary memory.
,ince ma!or computational wor% is carried out on the server, the processing
speed of a client may be considerably lower when compared with the
server=s processing speed. &he operating system that supports the client
server architecture maintains communication between the server and the
clients and allows processing to be handled at both ends. &he server is
typically called as "bac%6end" and the clients are called "front6ends". &he
application software may reside partly on the server and partly on the
client, depending on the functional re"uirements.

%haracteristics of %lient + !er.er
%haracteristics of a client
$nitiates re"uests
aits for and receives replies
>sually connects to a small number of servers at one time
&ypically interacts directly with end6users using a graphical user interface
%haracteristics of a ser.er
7assive Jslave*
aits for re"uests from clients
>pon receipt of re"uests, processes them and then send replies
>sually accepts connections from a large number of clients
&ypically does not interact directly with end6users
&he whole point of client6server architecture is to distribute components of an application
between a client and a server so that, for e'ample, a database can reside on a server
machine Jfor e'ample mainframe* and its management is done by /#M,, a user interface
can reside on a client machine Ja des%top 79*, and the business logic can reside in either
or both components. &he client handles server independent tas%s through its stored
application logic and server handles clients re"uest, which are triggered after processing
in the client. <ence true client ,erver implementation re"uires, application programs split
in such manner that client level processing is done by the client and communicated to
server to carry out the rest and offer the feedbac% to the client with the processed result.
&he client6server model has become one of the central ideas of networ% computing.
Many business applications being written today use the client6server model. &he
communication between different computer systems in the networ% is
accomplished through use of standard protocols suite such as &ransmission
9ontrol protocol P $nternet 7rotocol J&97P$7*.
/xam(le of %lient-!er.er Architecture A
$n a ban%, the server may be placed in the bac% office and would contain the
database of customers and all the transactions. &he "client" computer would be
placed on the counter des% would have only a portion of the application
software. hen a customer approaches the counter for a transaction, the client
computer would ma%e a re"uest to the server to fetch the data about a given
customer and the re"uired transactions. &his re"uest will be processed on the
server and appropriate data will be sent to the client computer. &he client computer
would allow the user to register a new transaction that will then be sent to the server
for storing in the database.
04o-tier %lient !er.er Architecture E#iagram and #escri(tion5
&wo tier architectures consist of three components distributed in two layers( client
Jre"uester of services* and server Jprovider of services*. &he three components are
>ser ,ystem $nterface
7rocessing Management Jor #usiness rules*
/atabase Management
&he two6tier design allocates the user system interface e'clusively to the client. $t places
database management on the server and splits the processing management Ji.e., programs
to implement #usiness rules* between client and server, creating two layers.
0hic* and 0hin %lient
A fat client or thic% client is a computer Jclient* in clientRserver architecture which
typically provides rich functionality independent of the central server. $t still re"uires at
least periodic connection to a central server, but is often characterized by the ability to
perform many functions without that connection.

A thin client Jsometimes also called a lean or slim client* is a computer which depends
heavily on some other computer Jits server* to fulfill its traditional computational roles. A
thin client generally does as little processing as possible and relies on accessing the server
each time input data needs to be processed.
$n many two6tier designs, most of the application portion of processing is in the client
environment. &he database management server usually provides the portion of the
processing related to accessing data Joften implemented in store procedures*. 9lients
commonly communicate with the server through ,BA statements. $t should be noted that
connectivity between tiers could be dynamically changed depending upon the user=s
re"uest for data and services.
>sage 6 &wo tier software architectures are used e'tensively in non6time critical
information processing where management and operations of the system are not comple'.
&his design is used fre"uently in decision support systems where the transaction load is
light. &wo tier software architectures re"uire minimal operator intervention. &he two tier
architecture wor%s well in relatively homogeneous environments with processing rules
Jbusiness rules* that do not change very often and when wor%group size is e'pected to be fewer
than )@@ users, such as in small businesses.
Aimitation of &wo6&ier 9lient ,erver Architecture6
!calability- &he two6tier design will scale6up to service )@@ clients on a networ%. $t
appears that beyond this number of users, the performance deteriorates. &his is because
the client and server e'change "%eep alive" messages continuously, even when no wor% is
being done, thereby saturating the networ%.
1estricts flexibility and choice of #)M! - $mplementation of processing management
services using vendor proprietary database procedures restricts fle'ibility and choice of
/#M, for applications.
!ystem administration and configuration- &wo tier architectures can be difficult to
administer and maintain because when applications reside on the client, every upgrade
must be delivered, installed, and tested on each client. &he typical lac% of uniformity in
the client configurations and lac% of control over subse"uent configuration changes
increase administrative wor%load.
0hree-tier %lient !er.er Architecture -
&he three6tier software architecture overcomes the limitations of the two6tier. &he three
tiers of three6tier software architecture are as follows(
7resentation tier Jthe client or front6end*,
Application tier Jthe application server, or middleware* ;
/atabase tier J/ata ,erver*
&he application tier Jmiddle tier server* is between the presentation tier Jclient* and
database tier. &he three6tier design allocates the user system interface e'clusively to the
presentation tier. $t places database management e'clusively on the data server. &his
middle tier provides process management where business logic and rules are e'ecuted
and can accommodate hundreds of users Jas compared to only )@@ users with the two tier
architecture* by providing specialized functions.
A three tier distributed clientPserver architecture includes a user system interface
top tier where user services Jsuch as session, te't input, dialog, and display
management* reside.
&he middle tier servers are typically coded in a highly6portable, non6proprietary
language such as 9.
&he third tier provides database management functionality can be implemented
without using any proprietary database management system languages. &he data
management component ensures that the data is consistent throughout the
distributed environment through the use of features such as data loc%ing,
consistency, and replication.
$t should be noted that connectivity between tiers could be dynamically changed
depending upon the user=s re"uest for data and services.
&he middle tier server Jalso referred to as the application server* improves performance,
fle'ibility, maintainability, reusability, and scalability by centralizing process logic.
9entralized process logic ma%es administration and change management easier by
localizing system functionality so that changes must only be written once and placed on
the middle tier server to be available throughout the systems.
'sage - &hree tier architectures are used in commercial and military distributed
clientPserver environments.
6-tier architecture
An C6tier architecture Jwith C more than -* is really - tier architectures in which the
middle tier is split up into new tiers. &he application tier is bro%en down into separate
parts. hat these parts are differs from system to system. &he following picture shows it(
#istributed #atabase
$n recent years, distributed databases have become an important area of information
processing, and it is easy to foresee that their, importance will rapidly grow. &here are
both organizational and technological reasons for this trend( distributed databases
eliminate many of the shortcomings of centralized databases and fit more naturally in the
decentralized structures of many organizations.
&wo e"ually important aspects of a distributed database(
#istribution7 i.e., the fact that the data are not resident at the same site Jprocessor*, so
that we can distinguish a distributed database from a single, centralized database.
<ogical correlation, i.e., the fact that the data have some properties which tie them
together, so that we can distinguish a distributed database from a set of local databases or
files which are resident at different sites of a computer networ%.
#efinition of distributed databaseA A distributed database is a collection of
data, which are distributed over different computers of a computer networ%. 3ach
site of the networ% has autonomous processing capability and can perform local
applications. 3ach site also participates in the e'ecution of at least one global
application, which re"uires accessing data at several sites using a communication
subsystem.
/xam(lesA
9onsider a ban% that has three branches at different locations. At each branch a computer
controls the teller terminals of the branch and the account database of that branch. 3ach
computer with its local account database at one branch constitutes one site of the
distributed database: a communication networ% connects computers.
/uring normal operations the applications, which are re"uested from the terminals of a
branch, need only to access the database of that branch. &hese applications are
completely e'ecuted by the computer of the branch where they are issued, and will
therefore be called local applications. An e'ample of a local application is a debit or a
credit application performed on an account stored at the same branch at which the
application is re"uested.
$f we try to apply the definition of distributed databases to the situation described so far,
we find that it is difficult to say whether the logical correlation property holds. From a
technological viewpoint, it appears that the important aspect is the e'istence of some
applications, which accesses data at more than one branch. &hese applications are called
global applications or distributed applications. &he e'istence of global applications will
be considered the discriminating characteristic of distributed databases with respect to a
set of local databases.
A typical global application is a transfer of funds from an account of one branch to an
account of another branch. &his application re"uires updating the databases different
branches. Cote that this application is something more than !ust performing two local
updates at two individual branches Ja debit and a credit*, because it is also necessary to
ensure that either both updates are performed or neither.
2hy distributed databases architecture better o.er multi user center database
architecture3
&here are several reasons why distributed databases architecture better over multi user
center database architecture. &he following is a list of the main motivations.
). 8rganizational and economic reasons6 Many organizations are decentralized, and
a distributed database approach fits more naturally the structure of the
organization. ith the recent developments in computer technology, the
economy6of6scale motivation for having large, centralized computer centers is
becoming "uestionable. &he organizational and economic motivations are
probably the most important reason for developing distributed databases.
+. $nterconnection of e'isting databases6/istributed databases is the natural solution
when several databases already e'ist in an organization and the necessity of
performing global applications arises. $n this case, the distributed database is
created bottom6up from the pree'isting local databases. &his process may re"uire
a certain degree of local restructuring: however, the effort, which is re"uired by
this restructuring, is much less than that needed for the creation of a completely
new centralized database.
-. $ncremental growth6$f an organization grows by adding new, relatively
autonomous organizational units Jnew branches, new warehouses, etc.*, then the
distributed database approach supports a smooth incremental growth with a
minimum degree of impact on the already e'isting units. ith a centralized
approach, either the initial dimensions of the system ta%e care of future e'pansion
which is difficult to foresee and e'pansive to implement, or the growth has a
ma!or impact not only on the new applications but also on the e'isting ones.
.. ?educed communication overhead6 $n a geographically distributed database the
fact that many applications are local clearly reduces the communication overhead
with respect to a centralized database. &herefore, the ma'imization of the locality
of applications is one of the primary ob!ectives in distributed database design.
0. 7erformance considerations &he e'istence of several autonomous processors
results in the increase of performance through a high degree of parallelism.
1. ?eliability and availability6 &he distributed database approach, especially with
redundant data, can be used also in order to obtain higher reliability and
availability. &he autonomous processing capability of the different sites does not
by itself guarantee a higher overall reliability of the system, but it ensures a fault
tolerance property( in other words, failures in a distributed database can be more
fre"uent than in a centralized one because of the greater number of components,
but the effect of each failure is confined to those applications which use the data
of the failed site, and complete system crash is rare.
Features of #istributed .ersus %entralized #atabases
/istributed databases processing has different features from traditional, centralized
systems. $t is therefore useful to loo% at the typical features of traditional centralized
databases and to compare them with the corresponding features of distributed databases.
Features %entralized #atabase Processing #istributed #atabase Processing
9entralized
control
/atabase administrator has central
control over the database. &he
function of /#A include(
,chema definition
,torage structure ; access
method definition
,chema and physical6
organization modification.
Eranting authorization of
data access.
?outine maintenance
$n distributed databases, the idea of
centralized control is much less emphasized.
$n general, in distributed databases it is
possible to identify a hierarchical control
structure based on a global database
administrator, who has the central
responsibility of the whole database, and on
local database administrators, who have the
responsibility of their respective local
databases. <owever it must be emphasized
that local database administrators may have
a high degree of autonomy, up to the point
that a global database administrator is
completely missing and the inter6site
coordination is performed by the local
administrators themselves.
/ata
independence
3ssentially, data independence
means that the actual organization of
data is transparent to the application
programmer. 7rograms are written
having a "conceptual" view of the
data, the so6called conceptual
schema. &he main advantage of data
independence is that programs are
unaffected by changes in the
physical organization of data.
$n distributed databases, data independence
has the same importance as in traditional
databases: however, a new aspect is added
to the usual notion of data independence,
namely, distribution transparency. #y
distribution transparency we mean that
programs can be written as if the database
were not distributed. &he correctness of
programs is unaffected by the movement of
data from one to another: however, their
speed of e'ecution is affected.
?eduction of
redundancy
$n traditional databases, redundancy
was reduced as far as possible for
$n distributed databases, however, there are
several reasons for considering data
two reasons( first, inconsistencies
among several copies of the same
logical data may arise and the
re"uirement of storage space is
increased if the data are redundant.
redundancy as a desirable feature( first, the
locality of applications can be increased if
the data is replicated at all sites where
applications need it, and second, the
availability of the system can be increased,
because a site failure does not stop the
e'ecution of applications at other sites if the
data is replicated. $n general, the same
reasons against redundancy, which were
given for the traditional environment, are
still valid and therefore the evaluation of the
optimal degree of redundancy is re"uired.
As a very general statement, let us say that
the convenience of replicating a data item
increases with the ratio of retrieval access
versus update accesses performed by
applications to it. &he convenience of data
replication increases because if we have
several copies of item retrieval can be
performed on any copy, while updates must
be performed consistently on all copies.
7rivacy and
security
$n traditional databases, the database
administrator, having centralized
control, can ensure that only
authorized access to the data is
performed. 9entralized database
approach in itself, without
specialized control procedures, is
more vulnerable to privacy and
security violations
&wo peculiar aspects of distributed
databases are worth mentioning( first, in a
distributed database with a very high degree
of site autonomy, the owners of local data
feel more protected because they can
enforce their own protections instead of
depending on a central database
administrator: second, security problems are
intrinsic to distributed systems in general,
because communication networ%s can
represent a wea% point with respect to
protection.
#iscuss the meritsKdemerits of non-re(licated7 (artial re(licated and fully
re(licated database.
Merits of non -re(licated databaseA
)* Aess storage space re"uirement
+* $ncrease the performance of update access since because single copy of any
data need to be updated.
-* &he chance of inconsistency among several pieces of same data eliminated.
#emerits of non -re(licated databaseA
)* Availability of the system reduced because in absence of redundant data a
database crash cause stop e'ecution.
+* $f any data accidentally deleted, there is no way to get bac% it.
-* /ecease the performance of retrieval access.
Merits of (artial -re(licated databaseA
)* More storage space re"uirement than non6replicated database but less space
re"uirement than fully replicated database.
+* $f one copy of data accidentally deleted, it can be recovered if it was replicated
-* Availability of the system increased because of replication
.* $ncrease of performance for retrieval access than non6replicated database
#emerits of (artial -re(licated databaseA
)* /ecrease the performance of update access cause more than single copy of
any data needs to be updated. #ut its performance is more than fully
replicated database in case of update access.
+* &here is chance of inconsistency among several pieces of same data.
Merits of fully -re(licated databaseA
)* $ncrease of performance for retrieval access than non6replicated ; partial
replicated database because among several copies of item retrieval can be
performed on any copy
+* Availability of the system increased because of replication
-* $f one copy of data accidentally deleted, it can be recovered
#emerits of fully -re(licated databaseA
)* More storage space re"uirement than non6replicated and partially replicated
database
+* /ecrease the performance of update access cause more than single copy of
any data needs to be updated.
-* &here is chance of inconsistency among several pieces of same data.
2hat are the (ro(erties of #istributed #ata Processing3 /x(lain each of them
/istributed processing has following properties(
15 <ocal Autonomy- $n distributed processing it is possible to identify a hierarchical
control structure based on a global database administrator, who has the central
responsibility of the whole database, and on local database administrators, who
have the responsibility of their respective local databases. <owever it must be
emphasized that local database administrators may have a high degree of
autonomy, up to the point that a global database administrator is completely
missing and the inter6site coordination is performed by the local administrators
themselves. &his phenomenon is called Aocal Autonomy.
25 6o reliance on a centralized site - &here must not be any reliance on a central
master site for some central service, so that the entire system would dependent on
the central site. ?eliance of central site is undesirable for the reason that the
system would be vulnerable. A single failure can totally sto( total
(rocessing in case of centralized (rocessing because single (rocessor
and non-redundant data is used. ,n distributed (rocessing a((roach7
es(ecially redundant data and existence of more (rocessor can be
used to obtain higher reliability and a.ailability. 0he effect of each
failure is confined to those a((lications7 4hich use the data of the
failed site7 and com(lete system crash is rare.
5 %ontinuous O(eration6 &here should ideally never be any need for a planned
entire system shutdown. $ncorporating a new site into an e'isting distributed
system or removing an e'isting site from distributed system should not cause any
unnecessary interruptions in service.
"5 <ocation ,nde(endence->sers are not re"uired to %now the physical location of
the data in the distributed processing system: they should be able to find any data
as long as the data identifiers are supplied.
$5 1e(lication ,nde(endence->sers view each data ob!ect as logically uni"ue. &he
distributed system may replicate an ob!ect to increase either system performance
or data availability. >sers do not have to be concerned with what data ob!ects
have been replicated or where replicas have been placed.
&5 Fragmentation ,nde(endence-&he system partitions the relations into several
fragments, and stores each fragment at a different site. >sers are not re"uired to
%now how a relation has been fragmented.
B5 #istributed :uery Processing-$t is crucially important for a distributed
environment to choose a good strategy for distributed "uery processing since
"uery processing in a distributed system re"uire some amount of data
communication among sites along with local 97> and $P8 activity.
C5 #istributed 0ransaction Management- &wo ma!or aspects of transaction
management is recovery control and concurrency control re"uired e'tended
treatment in distributed environment since in a distributed system a single
transaction can involve the e'ecution of codes at multiple sites and can thus
involve updates at multiple sites.
D5 -ard4are ,nde(endence-
1L5 O(erating !ystem ,nde(endence-
115 6et4or* ,nde(endence-
>sers should be presented with the Tsingle system imageM regardless any particular
hardware platform, operating system and Cetwor%.
125 #)M! ,nde(endence- $deal distributed system should provide /#M,
independence.
#ata %ommunications and 6et4or*s
#efinition of #ata communications 6/ata communication is the e'change of data
between two devices via some from of transmission medium such as a wire cable. For a
data communication to occur, the communicating devices must be a part of
communication system made up of a combination of hardware Jphysical e"uipment* and
software Jprogram*. &he effectiveness of a data communication system depends on three
fundamental characteristics( delivery, accuracy, and timeliness.
). #eli.ery6 &he system must deliver data to the correct destination. /ata must be
received by the intended device or user and only by that device or user.
+. Accuracy6 &he system must deliver the data accurately. /ata that have been
altered in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
-. 0imeliness6 &he system must deliver data in a timely manner. /ata delivered late
are useless. $n the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data
as they are produced, in the same order that they are produced, and without
significant delay. &his %ind of delivery is called real6time transmission.
%om(onents of data communications system- A data communication system has
five components.
). Message- &he message is the information Jdata* to be communicated. $t can
consist of te't, numbers, pictures, sound, or video6or any combination of these.
+. !ender-&he sender is the device that sends the data message. $t can be a
computer, wor%station, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
-. 1ecei.er- &he receiver is the device that receives the message. $t can be a
computer, wor%station, telephone handset, television, and so on.
.. Medium6&he transmission medium is the physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver.
0. Protocol- A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communications. $t
represents an agreement between the communicating devices. ithout a protocol,
two devices may be connected but not communicating, !ust as a person spea%ing
French cannot be understood by a person who spea%s only Fapanese.
H 0y(es of 0ransmissions Media
&ransmission media can be divided into two broad categories( guided and unguided.
Euided media are those that provide a physical conduit from one device to another. A
signal traveling along any of this media is directed and contained by physical limits of the
medium. 3'amples are(
&wisted pair cable
9oa'ial cable
Fiber6optic 9able
04isted (air cable 6A type of cable that consists of two independently plastic insulated
Jnormally copper* wires twisted around one another. 8ne wire carries the signal while the
other wire is used only as a ground reference. &he receiver uses the difference between
the two levels. &wisted6pair cable is used by older telephone networ%s and is the least
e'pensive type of local6area networ% JAAC* cable.
&wisted pair cable is low in cost but twisted wire is relatively slow for transmitting data.
Cew software and hardware have raised the capacity of e'isting twisted6wire cables up to
)@ megabits per second, which is often ade"uate for connecting microcomputers and
other office devices.
%oaxial cable- 9onsists of an inner conductor wire surrounded by insulation, called the
dielectric. &he dielectric is surrounded by a conductive shield, which is surrounded by a
non6conductive !ac%et. &he cable=s insulation minimizes interference and distortion of the
signals the cable carries.
9oa'ial cable allow high6speed data upto +@@ megabits per second transmission and are
used instead of twisted6pair wire lines in high6service metropolitan areas, for cable &G
systems, and for short6 distance connection of computers and peripheral devices
Fiber-o(tic %able-Many e'tremely thin strands of glass or plastic bound together in a
sheathing which transmits signals in the form of light. Fiber optics has several advantages
over traditional metal communications lines(
04isted Pair %able
%oaxial %able
Fiber optic cables have a much greater bandwidth than metal cables. $ts
transmission rates transmission rates as high as -@ billion bits per second.
Fiber optic cables are less susceptible than metal cables to nosiness.
Fiber optic cables are much thinner and lighter than metal wires
/ata can be transmitted digitally Jthe natural form for computer data* rather than
analogically.
&he main disadvantage of fiber optics is that the cables are e'pensive to install. $n
addition, they are more fragile than wire. Fiber optics is a particularly popular technology
for local6area networ%s. $n addition, telephone companies are steadily replacing
traditional telephone lines with fiber optic cables. $n the future, almost all
communications will employ fiber optics.
'nguided media transport electromagnetic wave without using physical conductor. &his
type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication. ,ignals are
normally broadcast through air and thus are available to anyone who has a device capable
of receiving them.
Microwave 9ommunications J- L<z R ) E<z*
?adio wave 9ommunication J) E<z R -@@ E<z*
$nfrared transmission J-@@ E<z R .@@ &<z*
2hat is modem3
Modems are the most common type of communications processor. &hey convert the
digital signals from a computer or transmission terminal at one end of a communication
lin% into analog fre"uencies that can be transmitted over ordinary telephone lines. A
modem at the other end of the communications line converts the transmitted data bac%
into digital form at a receiving terminal. &his process is %nown as modulation and
demodulation respectively, and the word modem is a combined abbreviation of those two
words.
2hat is net4or*-A networ% is a set of devices Joften referred to as nodes* connected
by communication lin%s. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable
of sending andPor receiving data generated by other nodes on the networ%.
6et4or* %riteria6A networ% must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. &he
most important of these are performance, reliability, and security.
). Performance -7erformance can be measured in many ways, including transit
time and response time. &ransit time is the amount of time re"uired for a message
to travel from one device to another. ?esponse time is the elapsed time between
an in"uiry and a response. &he performance of a networ% depends on a number of
factors, including the number of users, the type of transmission medium, the
capabilities of the connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software.
+. 1eliability -$n addition to accuracy of delivery, networ% reliability is measured by
the fre"uency of failure, the time it ta%es a lin% to recover from a failure, and the
networ%=s robustness in a catastrophe.
-. !ecurity-Cetwor% security issues include protecting data from unauthorized
access.
6et4or* 0o(ology
&he term physical topology refers to the way in which a networ% is laid out physically.
&wo or more devices connect to a lin%: two or more lin%s form a topology. &he topology
of a networ% is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the lin%s and lin%ing
devices Jusually called nodes* to one another. &he most common topologies are(
)us- &he type of networ% topology in which all of the nodes of
the networ% are connected to a common transmission medium
which has e'actly two endpoints Jthis is the =bus=, which is also
commonly referred to as the bac%bone, or trun%* R all data that
is transmitted between nodes in the networ% is transmitted over
this common transmission medium and is able to be received
by all nodes in the networ% virtually simultaneously
Jdisregarding propagation delays*.
!tar- &he type of networ% topology in which each of the nodes
of the networ% is connected to a central node with a point6to6
point lin% in a =hub= and =spo%e= fashion, the central node being
the =hub= and the nodes that are attached to the central node being
the Kspo%es. All data that is transmitted between nodes in the
networ% is transmitted to this central node, which is usually some
type of device that then retransmits the data to some or all of the
other nodes in the networ%.

1ing 6 &he type of networ% topology in which each of the nodes of
the networ% is connected to two other nodes in the networ% and
with the first and last nodes being connected to each other, forming
a ring R all data that is transmitted between nodes in the networ%
travels from one node to the ne't node in a circular manner and the
data generally flows in a single direction only.
#ual-ring- &he type of networ% topology in which each of the
nodes of the networ% is connected to two other nodes in the
networ%, with two connections to each of these nodes, and with the
first and last nodes being connected to each other with two
connections, forming a double ring. &he data flows in opposite
directions around the two rings, although, generally, only one of
the rings carries data during normal operation, and the two rings
are independent unless there is a failure or brea% in one of the
rings, at which time the two rings are !oined Jby the stations on
either side of the fault* to enable the flow of data to continue using
a segment of the second ring to bypass the fault in the primary
ring.
0ree E-ierarchical5-&he type of networ% topology in which
a central =root= node Jthe top level of the hierarchy* is
connected to one or more other nodes that are one level lower
in the hierarchy Ji.e., the second level* with a point6to6point
lin% between each of the second level nodes and the top level
central =root= node. hile each of the second level nodes that
are connected to the top level central =root= node will also
have one or more other nodes that are one level lower in the
hierarchy Ji.e., the third level* connected to it, also with a
point6to6point lin%. &he top6level central =root= node being the
only node that has no other node above it in the hierarchy.
&he hierarchy of the tree is symmetrical, each node in the
networ% having a specific fi'ed number6 f, of nodes
connected to it at the ne't lower level in the hierarchy, the
number6 f, being referred to as the =branching factor= of the
hierarchical tree.
-ybrid - &he hybrid topology is a type of networ% topology that is composed of one
or more interconnections of two or more networ%s that are based upon different
physical topologies or same physical topology, but where the physical topology of the
networ% resulting from such an interconnection does not meet the definition of the
original physical topology of the interconnected networ%s.
Mesh EFully connected mesh5 - &he type of networ%
topology in which each of the nodes of the networ% is
connected to each of the other nodes in the networ% with a
point6to6point lin% R this ma%es it possible for data to be
simultaneously transmitted from any single node to all of the
other nodes.
Cote( &he physical fully connected mesh topology is
generally too costly and comple' for practical networ%s,
although the topology is used when there are only a small
number of nodes to be interconnected.
Mesh EPartially connected mesh5-&he type of networ%
topology in which some of the nodes of the networ% are
connected to more than one other node in the networ% with a
point6to6point lin% R this ma%es it possible to ta%e advantage
of some of the redundancy that is provided by a physical
fully connected mesh topology without the e'pense and
comple'ity re"uired for a connection between every node in
the networ%.
%ategories of 6et4or*s
&oday when we spea% of networ%s, we are generally referring to three primary
categories( local area networ%s, metropolitan area networ%s, and wide area
networ%s. $nto which category a networ% falls is determined by its size, its
ownership, the distance it covers, and its physical architecture.
<ocal Area 6et4or* E<A65 6 A local area networ% JAAC* is usually
privately owned and lin%s the devices in a single office, building, or campus.
/epending on the needs of an organization and the type of technology used, a AAC
can be as simple as two 79s and a printer in someone=s home office: or it can
e'tend throughout a company and include audio and video peripherals. 9urrently,
AAC size is limited to a few %ilometers.
$n addition to size, AACs are distinguished from other types of
networ%s by their transmission media and topology. $n general, a given
AAC will use only one type of transmission medium. &he most common
AAC topologies are bus, ring, and star.
Metro(olitan Area 6et4or* EMA65- A metropolitan6area networ% JMAC* is
designed to e'tend over an entire city. $t may be a single networ% such as a cable
television networ%, or it may be a means of connecting a number of AACs into a
larger networ% so that resources may be shared AAC6to6AAC as well as device6
to6device. For e'ample, a company can use a MAC to connect the AACs in all
its offices throughout a city. A MAC may be wholly owned and operated by a
private company, or it may be a service provided by a public company, such as a
local telephone company.
2ide Area 6et4or* E2A65- A wide area networ% JAC* provides long6
distance transmission of data, voice, image, and video information over large
geographic areas that may comprise a country, a continent, or even the whole
world .$n contrast to AACs Jwhich depend on their own hardware for
transmission*, ACs may utilize public, leased, or private communication
e"uipment, usually in combinations, and can therefore span an unlimited number
of miles.
2hat is ,nternet
A networ% is a group of connected communicating devices such as computers and
printers. An internet Jnote the lowercase letter i* is a two or more networ% that can
communicate with each other. &he most notable internet is called the $nternet Juppercase letter
$*, a collaboration of more than hundreds of thousands interconnected networ%s. 7rivate
individuals as well as various organizations such as government agencies, schools,
research facilities, corporations, and libraries in more than )@@ countries use the $nternet.
Millions of people are users.
,nternet Model or 0%PK,P Model
&he layered protocol stac% that dominates data communications and networ%ing today is
the five6layer $nternet model, sometimes called the &97P$7 protocol suite Jsee Fig )*. &he
model is composed of five ordered layers( physical Jlayer )*, data lin% Jlayer +*, networ%
Jlayer -*, transport Jlayer .*, and application Jlayer 0*.
0. Application
.. &ransport
-. Cetwor%
+. /ata Ain%
). 7hysical
3ach layer defines a family of functions distinct from those of the other layers. ithin a
single machine, each layer calls upon the services of the layer !ust below it. Aayer -, for
e'ample, uses the services provided by layer + and provides services for layer .. #etween
machines, layer ' on one machine communicates with layer ' on another machine. &his
communication is governed by an agreed6upon series of rules and conventions called
protocols.
3ach layer in the sending device adds its own information to the message it receives,
from the layer !ust above it and passes the whole pac%age to the layer !ust below it. At
layer ) the entire pac%age is converted to a form that can be transferred to the receiving
device. At the receiving machine, the message is unwrapped layer by layer with each
process receiving and removing the data meant for it.
Figure 1
Functions of <ayers
Physical <ayer -0he (hysical layer coordinates the functions re;uired to
transmit a bit stream o.er a (hysical medium.
#ata <in* <ayer -0he data lin* layer transforms the (hysical layer7 a ra4
transmission facility7 to a reliable lin*. ,t ma*es the (hysical layer a((ear
error-free to the u((er layers.
6et4or* - 0he net4or* layer is res(onsible for the source-to-destination
deli.ery of a (ac*et (ossibly across multi(le net4or*s. 2hereas the data
lin* layer o.ersees the deli.ery of the (ac*et bet4een t4o systems on the
same net4or*7 the net4or* layers ensures that each (ac*et gets from its
(oint of origin to its final destination.
0rans(ort- 0he trans(ort layer is res(onsible for (rocess-to-(rocess deli.ery
of the entire message. 0his layer ensures that the 4hole message arri.es
intact and in order7 o.erseeing both error control and flo4 control at the
(rocess-to-(rocess le.el.
A((lication <ayer- 0he a((lication layer enables the user7 4hether human or
soft4are7 to access the net4or*. ,t (ro.ides user interfaces and su((ort
for ser.ices such as electronic mail7 remote file access and transfer7 access
to the 2orld 2ide 2eb7 and so on.
O!, Model
&he 8pen ,ystems $nterconnection, or 8,$, model, was designed by the $nternational
8rganization for ,tandardization J$,8*. $t is a seven6layer model. 8,$ was never
seriously implemented as a protocol stac%, however: it is a theoretical model designed to
show how a protocol stac% should be implemented. Figure + shows the seven layers in the
8,$ model.
2. Application
1. 7resentation
0. ,ession
.. &ransport
-. Cetwor%
+. /ata Ain%
). 7hysical
8,$ defines two e'tra layers( the session and presentation layers.
&he session layer is designed to establish, maintain, and synchronize the interaction
between communicating systems.
Figure 2
&he presentation layer was designed to handle the synta' and semantics of the
information e'changed between the two systems. $t was designed for data translation,
encryption, decryption, and compression.
2hat is 0%PK,P3
&97P$7 is a communication protocol. $t is composed of two layers(
,P =&he $nternet 7rotocol J$7* is a protocol used for communicating data across a pac%et6
switched internetwor% using the $nternet 7rotocol ,uite.
$7 is the primary protocol in the $nternet Aayer of the $nternet 7rotocol ,uite and has the
tas% of delivering distinguished protocol datagrams Jpac%ets* from the source host to the
destination host solely based on their four6byte destination address Jthe $7 number*.
J&he first ma!or version of addressing structure, now referred to as $nternet 7rotocol
Gersion . J$7v.* is still the dominant protocol of the $nternet, although the successor,
$nternet 7rotocol Gersion 1 J$7v1* is being deployed actively worldwide.*
0%P Rhereas $7 handles lower6level transmissions from computer to computer as a
message ma%es its way across the $nternet, &97 operates at a higher level, concerned
only with the two end systems, for e'ample a eb browser and a eb server. $n
particular, &97 provides reliable, ordered delivery of a stream of bytes from a program
on one computer to another program on another computer.
2hat is , ntranet3
An intranet is a private computer networ% that uses $nternet standards and protocols, to
securely share part of an organization=s information or operations with its employees. &he
e'isting networ% JAAC* when loaded with these standards and supported by web server
and web browser becomes $ntranet for the organization. &o run intranet, four software
components are needed. &hey are &97, $7, eb server and eb browser.
&ypically, an intranet includes connections through one or more gateway
computers to the outside $nternet. An intranet=s eb sites loo% and act !ust li%e
any other eb sites, but the firewall surrounding an intranet fends off
unauthorized access. $t may consist of many interlin%ed local area networ%s and
also use leased lines in the wide area networ%. &he main purpose of an intranet
is to share company information and computing resources among employees.
2hat are different ty(es of a((lication of ,ntranet3
1. %ommunication and collaborationA -
&o communicate with others.
$ntranet groupware.
/iscussion group.
9hat rooms.
Audio6video conferencing.
2. )usiness o(eration and managementA -
Applications li%e order processing, inventory control, sales management
that can be implement on intranet.
3mployee with in the company can access and run such application
using web browser from anywhere on networ% whenever needed.
. 2eb PublishingA -
Cews letter, technical drawing, product catalogs can be published
through web pages, 36mail, net broad casting.
". ,ntranet management toolsA -
&hese provide solution for networ%, security and connectivity relating
problem.
2hat are the different ,ntranet ser.ers a.ailable3
3nterprise server, Mail server, Cews server, 9atalog server, /irectory server,
9ertificate server, 7ro'y server

)enefits of ,ntranets
). 2or*force (roducti.ityA $ntranets can help users to locate and view
information faster that is relevant to their roles and responsibilities. ith the
help of a web browser, users can access data held in any database the
organization anytime and from anywhere within the company wor%stations. $t
increases employees= ability to perform their !obs faster, more accurately, and
with confidence that they have the right information. $t also helps to improve the
services provided to the users.
+. A.oid ,nformation O.erloadA ith intranets, organizations can ma%e more
information available to employees on a "pull" basis Ji.e., employees can lin% to
relevant information at a time which suits them* rather than being deluged
indiscriminately by emails.
-. %ommunicationA $ntranets can serve as powerful tools for communication
within an organization. From a communications standpoint, intranets are useful
to communicate strategic initiatives. &he type of information that can easily be
conveyed is the purpose of the initiative and what the initiative is aiming to
achieve, who is driving the initiative, results achieved to date, and who to spea%
to for more information. #y providing this information on the intranet, staffs
have the opportunity to %eep up6to6date with the strategic focus of the
organization. eb publishing allows =cumbersome= corporate %nowledge to be
maintained and easily accessed throughout the company. 3'amples include(
employee manuals, benefits documents, company policies, business standards,
can be accessed using common $nternet standards JAcrobat files, Flash files*.
.. )usiness o(erations and managementA $ntranets are also being used as a
platform for developing and deploying applications to support business
operations and decisions across the internetwor%ed enterprise.
0. %ost-effecti.eA >sers can view information and data via web6browser rather
than maintaining physical documents such as procedure manuals, internal phone
list and re"uisition forms, which incurs cost.
1. Promote common cor(orate cultureA 3very user is viewing the same
information within the $ntranet.
2. /nhance %ollaborationA ith information easily accessible by all
authorized users, teamwor% is enabled.
<imitations of ,ntranet-
1. Performance <imitations - ,ome applications that have been well optimize
for conventional systems create a heavy system wor%load when migrating them
to an $nternet platform: this problem will reduce with enhanced $nternet
technologies and continuing improvements in hardware price6performance.
2. Presentational issues - ,ome people whose e'perience is rooted in paper
presentation want web pages to loo% li%e printed e"uivalents, and burden the
systems and their users with unnecessary and sometimes tedious "graphics",
which often get in the way of the information rather than ma%ing it more
accessible and attractive.
. 6ot all em(loyees may ha.e com(uter.
". May re;uire net4or* u(grades.
2hat is / xtranet3
An e'tranet is a private networ% that uses $nternet technology and the public
telecommunication system to securely share part of a business=s information or operations
with e'ternal entities li%e suppliers, vendors, partners, customers, or other businesses. An
e'tranet can be viewed as part of a company=s intranet that is e'tended to users outside
the company. An e'tranet re"uires security and privacy. 9ompanies can use an e'tranet
to(
3'change large volumes of data using 3lectronic /ata $nterchange J3/$*
,hare product catalogs e'clusively with wholesalers or those "in the trade"
9ollaborate with other companies on !oint development efforts
Fointly develop and use training programs with other companies.
7rovide or access services provided by one company to a group of other
companies, such as an online ban%ing application managed by one company on
behalf of affiliated ban%s.
,hare news of common interest e'clusively with partner companies.
#ifference of ,ntranet and /xtranet
,ntranet /xtranet
$ntranet is basically a private
computer networ% that uses
$nternet protocols within an
organization. An intranet acts
as an information portal.
$ntranets can be custom6
designed to fit the e'act needs
of businesses no matter where
they are situated.
8n the other hand an e'tranet is also a
private networ% but it involves the
organization as well as its partners li%e
suppliers, vendors, customers etc.
$t is designed specifically for
the internal communications
of small, medium or large
businesses, enterprises,
governments, industries or
financial institutions of any
size or comple'ity.
3'tranets are designed specifically to
give e'ternal, limited access to certain
files of computer systems to certain
large or privileged customers, selected
industry partners and ,uppliers and
subcontractors... etc.
$ntranet does not use 7ublic
telecommunications system
3'tranet may use 7ublic
telecommunications system
$ntranet doesnt wor% as #+#
or #+9 tool.
As it connects a business to its
business partners and customers,
3'tranet is a good #+# and #+9 tool
2hat do you mean by a (ortal3
According to 8'ford 3nglish /ictionary portal is a doorway, gate or other entrance,
especially a large and elaborate one. hen the term is used in conte't of $nternet, it
means a web site that the $nternet users use as a gateway or the ma!or site through which
they visit other sites on the orld ide eb. &ypically, the $nternet users tend to use a
portal as their "anchor" site.
Many of the popular portals offer a set of services to their users. A directory of web sites,
a search facility, e6mail, latest news and contents are some of the common services that
most of the portals offer. $n addition, individual portals would provide specific services
that are of interest to their users. &he services could include stoc% "uotes, weather
information, specific geographical or community related news, discussion forum etc.
WahooZ, 3'cite, Cetscape, Aycos, A8A, Microsoft Cetwor% are some e'amples of general
portals. 7ortals focus on advertising as a ma!or source of revenue.
%lassification of Portals-
-orizontal Portal - An $nternet portal site that offers a broad range of content and
services. ,ites li%e 3'cite, Cetcenter, and WahooZ etc appeal to a much broader audience
base and are considered horizontal portals.
9ertical Portal 6 An $nternet portal site that offers content and services aimed at a
specific functional area. Also called a Gortal. 3'ample6 salesforce.com
2ireless A((lication Protocol E2AP5
A7 is an open specification that offers a standard method to access $nternet6based
content and services from wireless devices such as mobile phones and 7/As J7ersonal
/igital Assistants*.
2AP Architecture
2AP A((lication /n.ironment E2A/5
A7=s application layer is the ireless Application 3nvironment JA3* and ireless
&elephony Application J&A*, which are the top6most layers in the A7 architecture.
&hey are the main interfaces to the client devices and specify a mar%up language, a
scripting language, and a telephony interface. A3 directly supports A7 application
development with ireless Mar%up Aanguage JMA* instead of <&MA and MA
,cript instead of Fava,cript. ireless &elephony Application J&A* that provides a
Application Aayer JA3*
,ession Aayer J,7*
&ransaction Aayer J&7*
,ecurity Aayer J&A,*
&ransport Aayer J/7*
#earer( E,M, 9/MA, 9/7/, fle' and many others
8ther services
and application
Figure
interface to telephones for initiating calls, sending te't messages, and other networ%ing
capability.
2ireless !ession Protocol E2!P5
A7=s session layer is the ireless ,ession 7rotocol J,7*. &he ireless ,ession
7rotocol J,7* has all the specifications for a session. A session mainly consists of three
phases( start of the session, transferring information bac% and forth and the end of the
session. Additionally, a session can be interrupted and started again Jfrom the point where
it was interrupted.*
,7 layer provides a consistent interface to A3 for two types of session service( a
connection mode, and a connectionless service. $t is important to note the services this
layer enables, such as the following(
9reating and releasing a connection between the client and server
3'changing data between the client and server using a coding scheme that is
much more compact than traditional <&MA te't
,uspending and releasing sessions between the client and server
2ireless 0ransaction Protocol E20P5
&7 provides transaction6level services for both reliable Jac%nowledgements are sent
from the receiving device* and unreliable Jno precautions are ta%en to guarantee that
information it sends* transports. $t handles ac%nowledgements so that one can tell if a
transaction succeeded .$t prevents duplicate copies of pac%ets from being received by a
destination, and it supports retransmission, if necessary, in cases where pac%ets are
dropped. $n this respect, &7 is analogous to &97.
2ireless 0rans(ort <ayer !ecurity E20<!5
&A, provides services to protect your data, and includes data integrity, privacy,
authentication and denial6of6service protection. /ata integrity guarantees that the data
sent is the same as received. A7 privacy services guarantee that all transactions
between the A7 device and the gateway are encrypted. Authentication guarantees the
authenticity of the client and application server. Finally, denial6of6service protection
detects and re!ects data that come in the form of unverified re"uests. &he ireless
&ransport Aayer ,ecurity J&A,* is a optional layer and used only when the content
server re"uires it.
2ireless #atagram Protocol E2#P5
A7=s transport layer is the ireless /atagram 7rotocol J/7*. /7 provides a
consistent interface to the higher layers of the A7 architecture so that they need not
concern themselves with the e'act type of wireless networ% the application is running on.
Among other capabilities, /7 provides data error correction.
2ireless %ommunications 6et4or*s E)earers5
&he bearers, or wireless communications networ%s, are at A7=s lowest level. A7 is
designed to run on a variety of networ%s, including ,hort Message ,ervices J,M,*,
circuit switched connections, and pac%et6switched networ%s. 3ach type of networ% has
pros and cons in terms of performance, delay, and errors.
rite some e'amples of A7 applications
8ffering consumer goods and customer order entry
/ownloading music
7laying battleship
Accessing stoc% status and customer order information
Mobile ban%ing
3mail by mobile phone
&rac%ing of stoc%6mar%et prices
,ports results
Cews headlines
2i-Fi
A wireless networ% or ireless Aocal Area Cetwor% JAAC* serves the same purpose as
a wired one to lin% a group of computers. #ecause "wireless" doesn=t re"uire costly
wiring, the main benefit is that it=s generally easier, faster and cheaper to set up. ireless
networ%s operate using radio fre"uency J) E<z R -@@ E<z* technology.
&he cornerstone of a wireless networ% is a device %nown as an access point JA7*. &he
primary !ob of an access point is to broadcast a wireless signal that computers can detect
and "tune" into. ,ince wireless networ%s are usually connected to wired ones, an access
point also often serves as a lin% to the resources available on the a wired networ%, such as
an $nternet connection. $n order to connect to an access point and !oin a wireless networ%,
computers must be e"uipped with wireless networ% adapters. &hese are often built right
into the computer, but if not, !ust about any computer can be made wireless6capable
through the use of an add6on adapter plugged into an empty e'pansion slot, >,# port.
i6Fi is the name of a popular wireless networ%ing technology that uses radio waves to
provide wireless high6speed $nternet and networ% connections. &he i6Fi Alliance, the
organization that owns the i6Fi Jregistered trademar%* term specifically defines i6Fi
as any "wireless local area networ% JAAC* products that are based on the $nstitute of
3lectrical and 3lectronics 3ngineers= J$333* 4@+.)) standards."
#escribe ,/// 2i-Fi standards CL2.11a7 CL2.11b7 CL2.11g
$n )552, the $nstitute of 3lectrical and 3lectronics 3ngineers J$333* created the first
AAC standard. &hey called it 4@+.)). >nfortunately, 4@+.)) only supported a
ma'imum networ% bandwidth of + Mbps 6 too slow for most applications. For this
reason, ordinary 4@+.)) wireless products are no longer manufactured.
CL2.11b - $333 e'panded on the original 4@+.)) standard in Fuly )555, creating the
4@+.))b specification. 4@+.))b supports bandwidth up to )) Mbps, comparable to
traditional 3thernet.
4@+.))b uses the same unregulated radio signaling fre"uency J+.. E<z* as the original
4@+.)) standard. Gendors often prefer using these fre"uencies to lower their production
costs. #eing unregulated, 4@+.))b gear can incur interference from microwave ovens,
cordless phones, and other appliances using the same +.. E<z range. <owever, by
installing 4@+.))b gear a reasonable distance from other appliances, interference can
easily be avoided.
Pros of CL2.11b 6 lowest cost: signal range is good and not easily obstructed
%ons of CL2.11b 6 slowest ma'imum speed: home appliances may interfere on the
unregulated fre"uency band
CL2.11a - hile 4@+.))b was in development, $333 created a second e'tension to the
original 4@+.)) standard called 4@+.))a. #ecause 4@+.))b gained in popularity much
faster than did 4@+.))a, some fol%s believe that 4@+.))a was created after 4@+.))b. $n
fact, 4@+.))a was created at the same time. /ue to its higher cost, 4@+.))a is usually
found on business networ%s whereas 4@+.))b better serves the home mar%et.
4@+.))a supports bandwidth up to 0. Mbps and signals in a regulated fre"uency spectrum
around 0 E<z. &his higher fre"uency compared to 4@+.))b shortens the range of 4@+.))a
networ%s. &he higher fre"uency also means 4@+.))a signals have more difficulty
penetrating walls and other obstructions.
Pros of CL2.11a - fast ma'imum speed: regulated fre"uencies prevent signal interference
from other devices
%ons of CL2.11a - highest cost: shorter range signal that is more easily obstructed
CL2.11g
4@+.))g 6$n +@@+ and +@@-, AAC products supporting a newer standard called 4@+.))g
emerged on the mar%et. 4@+.))g attempts to combine the best of both 4@+.))a and
4@+.))b. 4@+.))g supports bandwidth up to 0. Mbps, and it uses the +.. Ehz fre"uency
for greater range. 4@+.))g is bac%wards compatible with 4@+.))b, meaning that 4@+.))g
access points will wor% with 4@+.))b wireless networ% adapters and vice versa.
Pros of CL2.11g 6 fast ma'imum speed: signal range is good and not easily obstructed
%ons of CL2.11g - costs more than 4@+.))b: appliances may interfere on the unregulated
signal fre"uency
#asic concept of 3commerce
#efinition of /-%ommerce -

36commerce in simple terms is the capability of e'changing value electronically.
&his involves e'change of value 6 money, goods, services as well as information.
3lectronic e'change can ta%e place through $nternet or through other electronic medium
such as private networ%s etc.
2hat are the *ey differences bet4een traditional commerce and e-commerce3
All the commercial operations, which are performed in traditional commerce, are also
present in e6commerce but the %ey difference is where in traditional commerce they are
performed without usage of any electronic medium, in case e6commerce all the
operations are performed by properly using electronic networ%s.

9ommerceI #uying[ selling [ other operations Jinformation e'change [ $dentification
of items or services [ 7rice comparisons [ 7ayment details [ /elivery [ Feedbac%*
369ommerce I #uying [ selling [ other operations Jinformation e'change [
$dentification of items or services [ 7rice comparisons [ 7ayment details [ /elivery [
Feedbac%* [ proper usage of networ%s for these operations
Ad.antages of /-%ommerceA
2" x B o(eration- in traditional commerce, there is always a time constraint. $n 36
commerce a customer can shop or avail the services of the company at any point of time
of the day.
>lobal reach636commerce allows to attract the customers across the world without any
geographical or political boundary. $t is location independent.
!(eed of 0ransaction-&he e6commerce oriented business, are e'ecuted over the $nternet
and are much faster in comparison with the traditional commerce.
#isinter mediation-&here are no intermediaries in between when the companies wor% in
the e6commerce environment. ,o customers have a profound cost advantage because the
manufacturers and the customers are directly lin%ed without any middleman in between
0he customer controls the interaction - &he customer controls the search process, the
time spent on various sites, the degree of pricePproduct comparison and the decision to
buy. $n a face6to6face interchange, the control can rest with either the buyerPseller or the
community member. $t results in higher satisfaction and more sales.
An extended enter(rise is easy to build- $n today=s world every enterprise is part of the
=connected economy=( as such one needs to e'tend his enterprise all the way to suppliers
and business partners li%e distributors retailers and ultimately your end6customers. &he
$nternet provides an effective Joften less e'pensive* way to e'tend enterprise beyond the
narrow confines of your own organization.
8no4ledge of customer beha.ior- hile the customer controls the interaction, the
firm has unprecedented access to observe and trac% individual consumer behavior.
Armed with this information, companies can provide one6to6one customization of
their offerings.
H #isad.antages of /-%ommerce-
). &ough to initiate an 36commerce business set up over the $nternet.
+. 7rivacy and security concerns 6 &he lac% of trust is one main reason why customers
are unwilling to accept 36commerce. 9ustomers while buying over the $nternet
generally pay in credit cards, so privacy protection is a must. 9onfidential
information may be disclosed through mis6configuration of security controls.
-. Aoss of ability to inspect products from remote locations
.. ?apid developing paces of underlying technologies6 it is difficult to integrate the
$nternet and 36commerce software with parts of the e'isting applications and
databases.
0. For general users of e6commerce, the accessibility to $nternet, such as /igital /ivide,
is unstable, e'pensive and insufficient in particular areas.
1. For some customers, it is hard to change their habit of viewing merchandise online:
those customers have difficulties in changing from a real to a virtual store.
2. ?everse logistics are difficult to 3'ecute.
2hat is the difference bet4een e-commerce and e- business3
3 6business and e6commerce are terms that are sometimes used interchangeably but the
terms are different, and that difference matters to today=s companies. $n both cases, the e
stands for "electronic networ%s" and describes the application of electronic networ%
technology 6 including $nternet and electronic data interchange J3/$* 6 to improve and
change business processes.
36commerce covers outward6facing processes that touch customers, suppliers and
e'ternal partners, including sales, mar%eting, order ta%ing, delivery, customer service,
purchasing of raw materials and supplies for production and procurement of indirect
operating6e'pense items, such as office supplies.

36business includes e6commerce but also covers internal processes such as production,
inventory management, product development, ris% management, finance, %nowledge
management and human resources. 36business strategy is more comple', more focused
/-commerce
J9overs
8utward6facing
processes*
/-business
J9overs internal
processes [ 8utward
facing processes*

on internal processes, and aimed at cost savings and improvements in efficiency,
productivity and cost savings.
-o4 4ould you differentiate /-commerce on the basis of transaction ty(e and
transaction (arties3
#ifferentiation of /-commerce on the basis of transaction (arties
)ased u(on the entities Etransaction (arties5 in.ol.ed in a transaction7 electronic
commerce has been (rimarily classified into these four categories( #usiness6to6
#usiness J#+#*, #usiness6to69onsumer J#+9*, 9onsumer6to6#usiness J9+#*, and
9onsumer6to69onsumer J9+9*.
#efinition of )2)A6 #usiness6to6#usiness J#+#* is that model of e6commerce where a
company conducts its trading and other commercial activity through the $nternet and
ebay.com,
$nfo?oc%et.com
9onsumers sell directly to
other consumers
9+9 J9onsumer6&o6
9onsumer*
7riceline.com 9onsumers fi' price on
their own, which
businesses accept or
decline.
9+# J9onsumer6&o6
#usiness*
amazon.com,
autobytel.com
,ells products or services
directly to consumers.
#+9 J#usiness6 &o6
9onsumer*
Metal,ite.com,
GerticalCet.com
,ells products or services
to other businesses
#+#
J#usiness 6&o6 #usiness*
/xam(le #escri(tion Model
customer is another business itself. $.e., #+# electronic commerce facilitates inter6
organizational interaction and transaction.
#efinition of )2%A- #usiness6to69onsumer J#+9* is that model of e6commerce where a
business organization contemplating commercial transaction directly with individual
consumers. $t is also called 36?etail or 36&ail because it is actually retail sales over the
$nternet. &he selling businesses offer a set of merchandise at given prices, discounts, and
shipping and delivery options.
#efinition of %2)A- 9onsumer6to6#usiness J9+#* can be described as a form of
electronic commerce where, the transaction, originated by the customer has a set of
re"uirement specifications and specific price for a commodity, service, or item. $t is the
responsibility of the electronic commerce business entity to match the re"uirements of the
consumers to the best possible e'tent. 9onsumer6to6#usiness J9+#* enables a consumer
to determine the price of a product andPor service offered by a company.
#efinition of %2%A- 9onsumer6to69onsumer J9+9* is the electronic commerce activity
that provides the opportunity for trading of products andPor services amongst consumers
who are connected through the $nternet
#ifferentiation of /-commerce on the basis of transaction ty(es
#usinesses evolved over the $nternet were content centric in the early days, the later
period saw the emergence of transaction6focused sites. $n other direction we can say that,
the business models that have emerged on the $nternet broadly fall in to one of the two
categories. First, the set of business models based on the activities that occur in the real
world and have been transplanted on the $nternet. ,econd, the set of models that naturally
involves the $nternet environment and evolves from the environment itself.

&he two6way ta'onomy6content versus transaction and native versus transplanted6
classifies the $nternet business models in to four categories(
i. Cative 9ontent based Models
ii. Cative &ransaction Models
iii. &ransplanted 9ontent based Models
iv. &ransplanted &ransaction based Models
6ati.e $nformation 9ontent Model
Freeware Model
$nformation 3'change Model
/igital products Merchant Model
$nternet Access provision
eb hosting and $nternet ,ervices
Metered service Model
Meta6me6diary
0rans(lanted ,ubscription Model
Advertisement Model
$nfo6me6diary Model
Affiliate Model
3lectronic ,tore Model
#ro%erage Model
Manufacturing Model
%ontent 0ransaction
2hat is /-go.ernance3
36Eovernment used to refer to the use of information and communication technology to
provide and improve government services, transactions and interactions with citizens,
businesses, and other arms of government.
9lassification6
7rimarily 36Eovernment can be divided into(
N Eovernment6to69itizen JE+9*
N Eovernment 6to6#usinessJE+#*
N Eovernment6to6Eovernment JE+E*
N Eovernment6to63mployees JE+3*
>o.ernment-to-%itizen E>2%5-
Eovernment6to69itizen is the online non6commercial interaction between local and
central Eovernment and private individuals. &his also called $ndividuals6to6
Administration Model J$+A model* of 369ommerce.
$ndividuals filing ta' returns at the government web site is an e'ample of $+A
business model of e6commerce. $t can help reduce hassles and avoid "ueues in
government offices and enhance productivity.
>o.ernment -to- )usiness Or )usiness -to- >o.ernment E)2>5-
8n the $nternet, business6to6government J#+E* is the concept that businesses and
government agencies can use central eb sites to e'change information and do business
with each other more efficiently than they usually can off the eb.
For e'ample, a eb site offering #+E services could provide businesses with a single
place to locate applications and ta' forms for one or more levels of government Jcity,
state, country, and so forth*: provide the ability to send in filled6out forms and payments:
update corporate information: re"uest answers to specific "uestions: and so forth.
#+E may also include e6procurement services, in which businesses learn about the
purchasing needs of govt. agencies and give responses of agency=s re"uest proposal. #+E
may also support the idea of a virtual wor%place in which a business and govt. agency
could coordinate the wor% on a contracted pro!ect by sharing a common site to coordinate
online meetings, review plans, and manage progress.
>o.ernment-to->o.ernmentE>2>5-
Eovernment6to6Eovernment is the online interaction between Eovernment organizations,
departments, and authorities and with other Eovernment organizations, departments, and
authorities.
>o.ernment-to-/m(loyees E>2/5 =
Eovernment6to6 3mployees is the online interaction between Eovernment organizations
and its employees.
)enefits of /-go.ernance -
). $t is convenient and cost6effective for public and businesses Jalso* that they get
easy access to the most current information available without having to spend
time, energy and money to get it.
+. $mproved accounting and record %eeping can be achieved through
computerization, and information and forms can be easily accessed, resulting
"uic%er processing time.
-. 8n the administrative side lin%ed information can now be stored in databases
versus hardcopies stored in various locations.
.. $ndividuals with disabilities or conditions no longer have to be mobile to interact
with government and can be in the comfort of their own homes
Problems of /-go.ernanceA-
). Although a prodigious amount of money has been spent on the development and
implementation of e6government, effects of $nternet6based governments are often
difficult to gauge or unsatisfactory.
+. 8nce e6government begins to develop and become more sophisticated, citizens
will be forced to interact electronically with the government on a larger scale.
&his could potentially lead to a lac% of privacy for civilians as their government
obtains more and more information on them.
-. An e6government site that provides web access and support often does not offer
the potential to reach many users including those who live in remote areas or have
low 3nglish proficiency or e'ist on poverty line incomes.
2hat is the relationshi( bet4een /-%ommerce and 6et4or*ing3
3fficiency, intelligence and availability are the ma!or benefits of 3lectronic 9ommerce.
&he benefits of ecommerce are the results of digitalization of business information and
availability of global networ% J$nternet*. /igitalization of business information
Jinventory, sales, order fulfillment and etc.* improves the efficiency of information
capturing, storing and processing and facilitates e'tracting business intelligence from
data. $nformation on &he $nternet can be accessed and transmitted without geographical
boundary and time constraint.
&oday, the networ% infrastructure, %nown as $nternet, consists of heterogeneous transport
systems. &hese different transport networ%s interconnect using common networ% protocol
standards called &97P$7. &97P$7 is concerned with the issue of providing a reliable data
transmission mechanism for applications. &97P$7, named after its two primary protocols,
viz., &ransmission 9ontrol 7rotocol J&97* and $nternet 7rotocol J$7*, has emerged as a de
facto standard of connectivity. $rrespective of the underlying transmission media of
various heterogeneous networ%s, the $7 layer receives data pac%ets from the upper layers
and in!ects them into underlying networ%s. &he pac%ets from underlying networ%s are
received and delivered by the $7 layer to the upper layers at the destination site. &he
transmission control protocol J&97* provides a connection6oriented reliable delivery
mechanism. $t insures that a pac%et, emanating at one machine destined for the other
machine, is delivered without any errors, duplication and in the original se"uence.
&he construction of a reliable networ% infrastructure re"uires two types of hardware
transmission media and components such as route66 switches, hubs, and bridges. &he
networ% bandwidth is usually dependent upon the "uality of transmission media.
&he networ% infrastructure forms the very basis of the electrons commerce, playing the
role, in many ways, analogous to roadPtransport highways in the traditional commerce.
$nformation, information good and transactions move between the clients and commerce
provider, through networ% highways.
H ,nfrastructure re;uirement of /-%ommerce
3lectronic commerce applications re"uire a reliable networ% infrastructure to move the
information and e'ecute a transaction in a distributed environment. &hese applications
rely upon two %ey component technologies i.e., the publishing technology necessary for
the creation of digital content and distribution technology to universally move the digital
contents and transactions information. &hus, in the framewor% of e6commerce, networ%
infrastructure forms the very foundation while publication and distribution technologies
are the two pillars that support the creation of distributed electronic commerce
applications.
$n addition to technological infrastructure and applications, for electronic commerce to
flourish, it is essential to have a business service infrastructure. &he business service
infrastructure comprises of directory services: location and search services: and a trust
mechanism for private, secure, reliable and non6repudiable transactions, along with an
online financial settlement mechanism. &he legal framewor%, for the protection of
transactions conducted over the networ%, play important role in the viability and the
growth of electronic commerce.

&he multi6layered architecture of electronic commerce, comprising of essential bloc%s
has been shown in Fig. ). &he framewor% describes various building bloc%s, enabled by
technology, for creating new mar%ets and mar%et opportunities.
,ystems /evelopment Aife 9ycle
#efinition of !ystems #e.elo(ment <ife %ycle E!#<%5A
,ystems /evelopment Aife 9ycle is the period of time that begins when an $nformation
,ystems product is conceived and ends when this system is no longer used.

&he ,ystems /evelopment Aife 9ycle typically includes concept, re"uirements, design,
implementation, test, installation and chec%out, operation and maintenance, and,
sometimes, retirement. &hese phases may overlap or be performed iteratively.
Phases in the !ystems #e.elo(ment life cycle
/ifferent authors describe the phases in the life cycle differently. e mention here main
phases generally can be identified in ,ystem /evelopment Aife 9ycle.
)* Problem ,dentification( 6 8ne of the most difficult tas%s is identifying the real
problem of the e'isting system. ithout clear understanding of the problem in the
system any further wor% done will lead to wastage of time and energy at a later
stage. ,everal "uestions must be posed before identifying the correct problem at
this stage itself. For e'ample "uestion may include(
a* hat is the actual problem\
b* hat are the causes for the problem\
c* $s it important to solve the problem\
d* <ow comple' it is\
e* hat are the li%ely solutions to the problem\
f* hat %inds of benefit can be e'pected once the problem is solved\ And so
on.
&he problem may come to notice of system analyst from any or more of the
sources li%e company management, employees of different departments, data
processing department, financial records, customers etc.
&he problem reporting machinery may involve a verbal message given to a system
analyst or it may be submitted on a written form called Tproblem report formM. $n
addition system analyst may by himself sense certain problem signals. Many a times
it may so happen that while analyzing a particular problem another important and
most crucial problem may come to light.
Advantage problem identification R it helps in pinpointing the problem,
setting proper system goals, determining the boundaries of the pro!ect by
ta%ing into consideration the limitations of available resources.
#efore any further step ta%en up, the problem must be stated clear and
unambiguous word.
+* Feasibility study and cost benefit analysisA - a feasibility study is underta%en to
determine the possibility or probability of either improving the e'isting system or
developing a completely new system. $t helps to obtain an overview of the
problem and to get rough assessment of weather feasible solutions e'ist. &his is
essential to avoid committing large resources to a pro!ect and the repent on it later.
Ceed for feasibility study R feasibility study is needed to
a* Answers the "uestions weather a new system to be installed or not\
b* /etermine the potential of e'isting system.
c* $mprove the e'isting system.
d* Lnow what should be embedded in the new system\
e* /efine the problems and ob!ectives involved in a pro!ect.
f* Avoid costly repairs at a later stage when system is implemented.
And so on.
Method R &o conduct a detail feasibility study firstly an e'pert committee called Tsteering
committeeM is appointed. &his committee generally consists of system analysts,
representatives from the departments, which are li%ely to benefit from the pro!ect
and a chairman who is a %ey person in the organization.
&he committee will loo% into
i* &echnical feasibility.
ii* 3conomic feasibility and
iii* 8perational feasibility of the pro!ect.
&echnical feasibility6 technical feasibility deals with the "uestions that
a* 9an the wor% be done with present e"uipment, current procedures, e'isting software
technology and available personnel\
b* $f the new technology is needed what alternatives are available\
&his will re"uire a close e'amination of the present system.
&echnical feasibility study finds information about the followings
a* Ade"uacy of available technology.
b* Ade"uacy of hardware.
c* Availability of computer.
d* 8perating time and support facilities.
3conomic feasibility R 3conomic feasibility firstly identifies the alternatives to solve the
problem and determines cost and e'pected savings of each of the alternatives.
&he cost must include both one time costs and recurring costs.
8ne time cost may include(
a* Feasibility study cost
b* &he cost of converting present system to new system.
c* 9onstruction and remodeling of computer room P facilities etc.
d* 9ost involved in buying P ma%ing software pac%ages.
e* &raining 9ost
?ecurring cost may include(
a* ?ental of e"uipments.
b* ,alaries of personnel.
c* 3"uipmentP,oftware maintenance etc.
hen a new software developed and implemented, a large outlay occurs in the
beginning so the e'pected saving that it would produce in long run must need to be
estimated.
?eturn on investment method can be used to determine economic feasibility. ?eturn on investment
is the ratio of net earnings and total investment. ?8$ clearly indicates weather you are
wor%ing a correct problem or not.
8perationalP behavioral feasibility R 8perational or behavioral feasibility answers the
"uestions related that will the system be used if it is implemented or will there be any
resistance from users etc.
-* !ystem re;uirement Analysis - ?e"uirement analysis is the determination of the
re"uirement for a new system. 8nce system analyst has determined that a problem
e'ists and has obtained permission to do something about it, then the re"uirement
analysis begins.
>nderstanding the user re"uirements is a ma!or tas%. &he emphasis in re"uirement
analysis is on identifying what is needed from the system, not how the system achieve
the goal. ,ystem analysts generally determine following re"uirements in this phase.
a* Functional re"uirements( 6 &hese describe what the product does. ,uch as
i* hat outputs are needed\
!* hat inputs are needed to obtain these outputs\
%* hat operation it must perform to obtain these outputs\
3tc.
b* Con6 functional re"uirements( 6 &hese describe reliability, accuracy of
results, performance, human6 computer interface issues, portability etc.
c* ?e"uirements on the development and maintenance process( 6 &hese
include "uality control procedures, priorities of re"uired functions, li%ely
changes to the system maintenance procedures etc.
/ifferent ways to assess the user re"uirements include(
As%ing users directly, interviews, "uestionnaires, counting transactions and
documents often by sampling etc.
&his tas% is complicated by the fact that there are often two parties involved in
software development R a client and a developer. &he developer has to develop the
system to satisfy the clients need. #ut the developer usually does not understand the
clients problem domain and the client often does not understand the issues involved
in software system. &his causes a communication gap, which should be bridged
during re"uirement analysis. $n most software pro!ect the re"uirement phase ends
with a document describing all the re"uirements, which is called software
re"uirement specification document. $n other words the goal of the re"uirement
analysis phase is to produce the software re"uirement specification document.
"5 !ystem design s(ecification - As we move from system analysis to system design we
are in fact moving from the conceptual to physical aspects of the life cycle i.e., we are
moving from what part to how part of system development. &he purpose of the design
phase is to plan a solution of the problem specified by the re"uirements document.
/esign a system is perhaps the most critical factor affecting the "uality of the software. $t
has a ma!or impact on the later phases particularly testing and maintenance. &he output of
this phase is design document. &his document is similar to a blueprint or plans for the
solution and used later during implementation, testing ands maintenance.

$n this stage the software is to be defined in terms of specifications. &he
specifications are(
a* 8utput design
b* $nput design
c* 7rocedures,
d* $nformation flows
e* Files and databases,
f* Golumes,
g* Manually used forms,
h* 7rogram specifications etc.
&hus system design is the detail technical specification including construction of
programs.
$5 %oding and 0esting = once design is complete most of the ma!or decision about
the system have been made. <owever many more details about coding the designs
which often depend on the programming language chosen, are not specified
during design. &he goal of the coding phase is to translate the design of the
system into code in a given programming language. For a given design, the aim of
this phase is to implement the design in the best possible manner.
&he coding phase affects both testing and maintenance profoundly. ellRwritten code can
reduce the testing and maintenance effort. #ecause the testing and maintenance cost of
software are much higher than the coding cost, the goal of coding should be to reduce
testing and maintenance effort. <ence during coding the focus should be developing
programs that are easy to read and understand, and not simply on developing programs
that are easy to write. ,implicity and clarity should be strived for during coding phase.
&esting is the ma!or "uality control measure used during software development. $ts basic
function is to detect errors in the software. /uring re"uirement analysis and design the
output is a document that is usually te'tual and non6e'ecutable. After the coding phase
computer programs are available that can be e'ecuted for testing purpose. &esting not
only has to uncover errors introducing during the previous phase i.e. in coding. &hus the
goal of testing is to uncover re"uirement, design and coding errors in the programs.
9onse"uently different level of testing is used.
&esting is e'tremely critical and time6consuming activity. $t re"uires proper planning of
the overall testing process. Fre"uently testing process starts with a test plan that identifies
all testing related activities that must be performed and specifies the schedule, allocate
resources, and specifies guidelines for testing. &he test plan specifies conditions that
should be tested, different units to be tested, and the manner in which the modules will be
integrated together. &hen for a different test units a test case specification document is
produced, which lists all the different test cases together with the e'pected outputs.
/uring the testing of the units the specified test cases are e'ecuted. And the actual result
compare with e'pected output. &he final output of testing phase is the test report, and the
error report or a set of such reports Jone for each unit tested*. 3ach test report contains the
set of test cases and the result of e'ecuting the code with these test cases. &he error report
describes the errors encountered and the action ta%en to remove the errors.
&5 ,m(lementation7 Follo4 u( and Maintenance6 implementation may not be a
creative process but certainly is a difficult tas%. &his is because users have to
accept the system. <ence human consideration will have to be attended very
carefully. >sers training and availability of users reference manual with
procedures to tac%le trouble shooting are a must.
$mplementation includes
a* ,ite preparation
b* $nstallation of new e"uipment
c* >sers training, seminars, meeting to gain users support.
d* >se of new inputs and procedures.
e* &rial and parallel runs of the system on the computer.
f* Eradual phasing out of he old system.

Maintenance is the tail end of the life cycle but it is most e'pensive and consumes energy
cost and time in the long run. After a new system has been implemented problems and
errors and discrepancies appear and must be fi'ed. &his re"uires system maintenance as
an ongoing process. Eenerally hardware vendors ta%e the burden of hardware
maintenance. $n case of software, vendors provide newer versions, which help system
enhancements thereby increasing processing capabilities. <ence the system analysts need
to concentrate more on Tdocument maintenanceM and system efficiency.

hen the system maintenance becomes more costly and timer demanding, new system
will have to be thought of, thereby completing the full system life cycle.

B5 /.aluation of the system-
3valuation is nothing but feedbac% for the system. Caturally evaluation considers the
strength and wea%ness of a system. $t includes.
i* /evelopmental evaluation6 this decides weather the system is
devolved on time and within budget. Also it includes assessment of
developmental methods and tools.
ii* 8perational evaluation6 this considers
a* ?esponse time
b* 3ase of use
c* ?eliability of computation
d* Ade"uacy of storage capacity etc.
iii* >ser management assessment evaluation6 <ow often managers use the
information system and how far they are satisfied !udge the real worth
of a system, if the management is satisfied then generally he
organization is also satisfied. &he use of "uestionnaires and interview
methods are very helpful in this respect. Many times system evaluation
receives last priority. &his is a very complacent view. A casual attitude
towards evaluation can lead to a situation in which the system will be
performing what is not intended to. &hus evaluation alone provides a
wealth of information to trim the system. <ence this stage should not
be treated lightly.
!tate the main acti.ities in.ol.ed in the re;uirement analysis (rocess
1e;uirements /licitationA &his is also %nown as gathering of re"uirements. <ere,
re"uirements are identified with the help of customer and e'isting systems processes, if
available.
1e;uirements AnalysisA Analysis of re"uirements starts with re"uirement elicitation.
&he re"uirements are analyzed in order to identify inconsistencies, ambiguities,
omissions etc.
1e;uirements #ocumentationA &his is the end product of re"uirements elicitation and
analysis. &he documentation is very important, as it will be the foundation for the design
of the software. &he document is %nown as software re"uirements specification J,?,*.
1e;uirements 1e.ie4A 8nce the ,?, document is ready, it is first reviewed internally
by the pro!ect team to ensure that it is understandable, consistent, unambiguous, and
complete. &he ,?, document is then given to the customer for review. After the customer
has reviewed the ,?, document and approved it, the same forms the basis for all future
development activities and also serves as a contract document between the customer and
the development organization.
?e"uirement Analysis

H -o4 do you conduct cost benefit analysis in a !#<%3
$n many situations there are a number of ways to solve a problem or to reach a goal.
,imilarly sometimes an organization may have idea of more than one system, which
seem individually as a problem solver to them. &hen what is the most preferable system
i.e., which will be proved most beneficial in future R anticipating or forecasting about that
is done by economic feasibility study.
3conomic feasibility study of a proposed system determines the returns from investments
for the system. More specifically it determines whether it is worthwhile to invest the
money for the system or whether something else should be done with it. $t is not
?e"uirements
3licitation
?e"uirements
Analysis
?e"uirements
/ocumentation
?e"uirements
?eview
worthwhile spending a lot of money on a system for no returns, especially if there are
many other options available, which could be done with that money. 3very organizations,
especially those with large pro!ects, place great emphasis on economic analysis.
&o carry out an economic feasibility study, it is necessary to place actual money values
against any purchases or activities needed to implement the system. $t is also necessary to
place money values against any benefits that will accrue from a new system created by the
pro!ect. !uch calculations are often described as cost-benefit analysis.
%ost-benefit analysis usually includes t4o ste(sA
1. Producing the estimates of costs and benefits of e.ery o(tional system + /x(ressing
these costs and benefits in common units7 and
2. #etermining 4hich o(tion is most 4orth4hile once these costs + benefits of all are
ascertained.
Producing the estimates of costs and benefits of e.ery o(tional system + ex(ressing
these costs and benefits in common units -
9ost of any system includes the development costs of the system, the operating costs.
#enefits are those e'pected to accrue from the operation of the new system. here the
proposed system is replacing an e'isting one, these estimates should reflect the change in
costs and benefits due to the new system.
9ost6benefit analysis is always clouded by both tangible and intangible items. $f costs and
benefits can be "uantified, they are called tangible: if not, they are called intangible.
$ntangible costsPbenefits are the result of sub!ective !udgment.
3'amples of tangible costs are the 7ersonnel costs, 3"uipment costs, Material costs,
9onversion costs, &raining costs etc. $ntangible costs are difficult to "uantify: they
include the loss of customer goodwill or employee morale caused by errors and
disruptions arising from the installation of a new system. &angible benefits are favorable
results, such as decrease in payroll costs caused by reduction in personnel or a decrease in
inventory carrying costs caused by a reduction in inventory, increased salesPprofit etc.
$ntangible benefits are harder to estimate. ,uch benefits as better customer service or
faster and more accurate information for management fall into this category.
Cow we need to evaluate the net benefit of a system, that is, the difference between the
total benefit accruing from the system and the total cost of creating and operating it. &o
do this, we must e'press each cost and each benefit in some common unit. &he
fundamental common unit of measurement is money. e therefore need to e'press each
of the e'pected benefits and costs in monetary terms. $n this way for every proposed
alternative system net benefit are determined.
#eside Cet benefit there are also many ways to find profitability of systems e.g., the
paybac% method and the present value method etc.
#etermining 4hich o(tion is most 4orth4hile once these costs + benefits of all are
ascertained.
After doing cost and benefit calculation for each alternatives, the system which is most
economic feasible, whether there e'ists at least a system which is really economic viable
or whether all alternatives are seems unprofitable, etc. can be determined. Eenerally most
economic feasible option is chosen for implementation. #ut we would not choose one
alternative simply because it is slightly cheaper than another. &here are other
considerations also.
/ifferent ,/A9 model
%lassical 2aterfall Model E0raditional !oft4are #e.elo(ment Model5
&he waterfall model is a popular version of the systems development life cycle model for
software engineering. &he name of this model is !ustified by its diagrammatic
representation, which resembles a cascade of waterfalls.
%haracteristics of the ModelK A((roach of the Model-
). aterfall model is the simplest process model.
+. $t brea%s down the life cycle into an intuitive set of phases. 3ach phase consists of
a definite set of activities. $n addition, different people are usually involved during
each phase.
-. &he different phases of this model are( )* feasibility study, +* re"uirements
analysis and specification ; 7ro!ect 7lanning, -* ,ystem design, .* /etailed
design, 0* 9oding and >nit &esting, 1* $ntegration and ,ystem testing, 2*
$nstallation and 4* 8peration and maintenance.
.. &he phases always occur in linear order and do not overlap.
0. &he developer must complete each phase before the ne't phase begins.
1. hen the activities of a phase are completed, there should be some product that is
produced by that phase. &he outputs of the earlier phases are often called wor%
products and are usually in the form of documents li%e the re"uirements document
or design document. For the coding phase, the output is the code.
2. &o clearly identify the end of a phase and the beginning of the ne't, some
certification mechanism has to be employed at the end of each phase. &his is
usually done by some verification and validation means that will ensure that the
output of a phase is consistent with its input Jwhich is the output of the previous
phase*, and that the output of the phase is consistent with the overall re"uirements
of the system. &o fulfill the need for certification output of each phase must be
evaluated and certified.
!trengths of the ModelA -
). &he waterfall model is easy to understand, easy to use
+. &he waterfall model has enforced discipline in the software development
process overcoming unstructured code and fi'ed processes.
-. &he waterfall model reflects the engineering practices.
.. &he waterfall model provides structure to ine'perienced staff
0. &he waterfall model is document oriented. &his ma%es it easier for maintenance
and analysis the effects of potential changes
1. hen e'act re"uirements are well understood the waterfall approach allows
pro!ect completion time and budget to be forecast with more confidence than
with some more iterative approaches.
2. &he waterfall model is good for management control Jplan, staff, trac%*
4. &esting is inherent to every phase of the waterfall model.
2ea*ness Of 4aterfall modelA -
). $t assumes that the re"uirements of a system can be frozen Ji.e., baselined*
before the design begins. &his is possible for systems designed to automate an
e'isting manual system. #ut for new systems, determining the re"uirements is
difficult, as the user does not even %now the re"uirements. <ence, having
unchanging re"uirements is unrealistic for such pro!ects.
+. Freezing the re"uirements usually re"uires choosing the hardware. A large
pro!ect might ta%e a few years to complete. $t is li%ely that the final software
will use a hardware technology on the verge of becoming obsolete. &his is
clearly not desirable for such e'pensive software systems.
-. $t follows the "big bang" approachthe entire software is delivered in one
shot at the end. &his entails heavy ris%s, as the user does not %now until the
very end what they are getting.
.. $f the pro!ect runs out of money in the middle, then there will be no software.
&hat is, it has the "all or nothing" value proposition.
0. $t is a document driven process that re"uires formal documents at end of each
phase. Most often users cannot understand the detailed and boring documents.
/ocumentation is not suitable or much application such as in particularly
interactive application where devolving elaborate documentation of user
interface is not feasible.
1. $t does not scale up for large pro!ects.
2. ?eal pro!ects are rarely se"uential. Ainier ordering of phases is not optimal in
all cases and this cause wastage of time.
4. &his model is not suitable for accommodating any %ind of change but in the
real life changes occur more fre"uently
5. &he model does not recognize the role of iteration in the software process.
)@. Finally ris% management is not covered within the model itself.
#iagrammatic 1e(resentation of classical 2aterfall Model
Feasibility
,tudy

1e;uirement analysis
and !(ecification +
(roGect (lanning
,ystem design
Feasibility ?eport
!oft4are re;uirement
s(ecification + (roGect Plan
,ystem design document
aterfall performs well for products with clearly understood re"uirements or when
wor%ing with well understood technical tools, architectures and infrastructures. $ts
wea%nesses fre"uently ma%e it inadvisable when rapid development is needed.
,terati.e 2aterfall Model E2aterfall model 4ith feedbac*5
&he classical waterfall model is an idealistic one since it assumes that it is possible to
detect and correct any development error, which is committed by the engineers at the
same phase of the life cycle in which they occur. <owever in practical development
environments, the engineers do commit a large number of errors that cannot be detected
and corrected at the same phase of the life cycle.
8nce a defect is detected, the engineers need to go bac% to the phase where the
defect had occurred and redo some of the wor% done during that phase and the
subse"uent phases to correct the defect and its effect on the later phases. &herefore, in
any practical software development wor%, it is not possible to strictly follow the classical
waterfall model. Feedbac% paths are needed in the classical waterfall model from every
phase to its preceding phases as shown in figure to allow for the correction of the errors
committed during a phase that are detected in later phases. &his should definitely be the
e'ception rather than the rule. After all, the flow of a waterfall should be downwards with
the possibility of !ust a little water splashing bac%.
#iagrammatic 1e(resentation of ,terati.e 2aterfall Model
/etailed design
%oding and
Module
0esting
,ntegration and
system testing
8peration and
Maintenance
$nstallation
/etailed design document
%ollection of im(lemented
and tested modules
,ntegrated + tested
modules7 test (lan test
re(ort
,nstallation re(ort and
manuals
Feasibility
,tudy
?e"uirement
analysis and
,pecification
/esign
%oding and
Module
&esting
,ntegration and
system testing
$nstallation
8peration and
Maintenance

Prototy(ing Model
!oft4are (rototy(ing -
7rototyping is the techni"ue of constructing wor%ing model of one or more aspects of the
pro!ected system, so that customers, users, or developers can learn more about a problem
or a solution to that problem. $t is constructed and tested "uic%ly and ine'pensively in
order to test out assumptions.
!oft4are (rototy(ing taxonomy-&he field of prototyping software systems has emerged
around two prototyping technologies, i.e., throwaway and evolutionary.
0hro4a4ay (rototy(ing =
$n this approach, prototype is constructed with the idea that, after the analysis is
complete, and desired %nowledge is gained, that it will be discarded. &he final
system is built from the scratch.
Pur(ose of 0hro4a4ay (rototy(ing =Purpose of &hrowaway prototyping is to remove
a number of wea%nesses of waterfall model such as freezing the re"uirements before any
design or coding can start which leads to a product, which is unable to satisfy customer.
&he sole use of this is to determine the customer=s real needs. &he developers use this
prototype to refine the re"uirements and prepare the final specification document.
#ecause the wor%ing prototype has been evaluated by the customer, it is reasonable to
e'pect that the resulting specification document will be correct.
#iagrammatic 1e(resentation of 0hro4a4ay (rototy(ing Model
?e"uirement
gathering
Buic% /esign
%ustomer e.aluation
of (rototy(e
?efine
re"uirement
incorporating
/esign $mplement &est Maintenance
Accepted by customer
#uild prototype
/.olutionary Prototy(ing
$n this approach, the prototype is built with the idea that it will eventually be converted
into the final system. &he prototype is developed and modified until it is finally in a
state where it can become the operational system.
Pur(ose of /.olutionary (rototy(ing = &he prototype is constructed in order to learn
about the problem or its solution in successive steps. 8nce the prototype has been used
and the re"uisite %nowledge is gained, the prototype is then adapted to satisfy the, now
better6understood, needs. &he prototype is then used again, more is learned and the
prototype is re6adapted. &his process repeats indefinitely until the prototype system
satisfies all needs and thus evolves into the real system. <ence, in evolutionary
prototyping the focus is on achieving functionality by demonstrating a portion of the
system to the end user for feedbac% and system growth. As with each iteration in
development, functionality is added and then translated to an efficient implementation.
#iagrammatic 1e(resentation of /.olutionary (rototy(ing
Cot Accepted by customer
?e"uirement gathering
9ore system
design
/evelop prototype
/eliver to
customer
9ustomer
evaluation of
prototype
?efine re"uirement
incorporating customer
suggestion
9ustomer suggest about
change ; addition
9ustomers are satisfied
Maintenance
H,ncremental Model
Mills 3tal has suggested a process model, which is called $ncremental Model7 combines
the advantages of evolutionary prototyping with the control re"uired for large6scale
development. $n this model software is built in an incremental fashion.

)asic ,dea 6&he basic idea is that total software should be developed in increments and it
should be is bro%en down into small components where each increment generally
implement a component that adding some functional capability to the system until the full
system is implemented. hen each of the components is delivered to user, it must give
some benefits. At each step of developing increments, some e'tensions and design
modifications of earlier increments can also be made based on user feedbac%.
1a(id A((lication #e.elo(ment E1A#5
Fames Martin, in his boo% first coining the term, wrote, T?apid Application
/evelopmentM J?A/* is a development lifecycle designed to give much faster
development and higher6"uality results than those achieved with the traditional lifecycle.
$t is designed to ta%e the ma'imum advantage of powerful development software that has
evolved recently.
&he main emphasis of ?A/ is on e'tremely short development cycle. &he importance is
on the word "?apid" i.e., high speed of adaptation. $t allows usable systems to be built in
as little as 1@65@ days, often with some compromises. 9ompromises in the sense that(
a. $n certain situations, the business re"uirements for a system can be fully
satisfied even if some of its operational re"uirements are not satisfied.
b. $n certain situations, the acceptability of a system can be assessed against
the agreed minimum useful set of re"uirements rather than all
re"uirements.
%haracteristics of 1A#
). ?A/ uses multiple hybrid teams. &eams should consist of about 1 people, including
both developers and full6time users of the system plus anyone else who has a sta%e in
the re"uirements.
+. /evelopers chosen for ?A/ teams should be multi6talented people who are analysts,
designers and programmers all rolled into one.
-. ?A/ modularized a business application so that each ma!or function can be
completed within the development cycle. $n this case, each team can be assigned a
module, which is then integrated to form a whole.
.. ?A/ assumes the use of the ?A/ fourth generation techni"ues and tools li%e G#,
G9[[, /elphi etc rather than creating software using conventional third generation
programming languages.
0. &he ?A/ wor%s to reuse e'isting program components Jwhen possible* or create
reusable components Jwhen necessary*.
1. ?A/ uses 9A,3 tools, which allow rapid development of software components.
2. >ser involvement is essential from re"uirement phase to delivery of the product.
4. ?A/ uses FA/ JFoint Application /evelopment*. <igh6level end6users and designers
meet in a brainstorming session to generate a rough list of initial re"uirements. here
/evelopers ; customers both tal% and listen.
5. ?A/ uses "&imebo'ing" 6,econdary features are dropped as necessary to stay on
schedule.
!(iral Model
&he problem with traditional software process models is that they do not deal sufficiently
with the uncertainty, which is inherent to software pro!ects. $mportant software pro!ects
have failed because ris%s were neglected and nobody was prepared when something
unforeseen happened.
#arry #oehm recognized this and tried to incorporate the "ris%" factor into a life cycle
model. &he result is the spiral model, which was presented in )541. &he underlying
principle of this Model is =ris% management=Z

#iagram-
#escri(tion
&he diagrammatic representation of this model appears li%e a spiral with many loops.
3ach loop of the spiral from D6a'is cloc%wise through -1@] represents one phase. 8ne
phase is split roughly into four sectors of ma!or activities and each sector is represented
by one "uadrant of the 9artesian diagram.
!tage1 - &he first "uadrant identifies the ob!ectives of the phase, the alternative solutions
possible for the phase under consideration and the constraints on the application of the
alternatives.
!tage2 - /uring the second "uadrant, the alternative solutions are evaluated to select the
best possible solution based on the ob!ectives and constraints.
For the chosen solution, the potential ris%s are identified and dealt with by
developing an appropriate prototype. /uring each of the iteration, ris% analysis through
prototype construction allows weighing different alternatives available to handle the
ris%s.
!tage - /uring the third "uadrant strategies are developed to resolve the uncertainties
and ris%s. &his step may involve activities such as benchmar%ing, simulation, and
modeling. $f certain ris%s cannot be resolved, the pro!ect may be terminated immediately.
>nder some circumstances, however, a decision could be made to continue the pro!ect
but on a significantly smaller scale. $f all ris%s are successfully resolved, developing and
verifying the ne't level of the product occurs. <ere a development model for the system
is chosen. &his model may be any one of the models discussed earlier.
!tage" 6 Activities during the fourth "uadrant concern reviewing the results of the stages
traversed so far with the customer and planning the ne't iteration around the spiral.

&he radial dimension of the model represents the cumulative costs. 3ach path around the
spiral is indicative of increased costs. &he angular dimension represents the progress in
completing each cycle.
!tructured Analysis and #esign Methodology
O.er.ie4 of structured analysis and #esign Methodology
,tructured analysis is a set of techni"ues and graphical tools that allow the analyst to
develop a new %ind of system specifications that are easily understandable to the user.
$n the traditional approach of ,/A9, analysts wor% primarily with their intelligence,
pencil, and paper. Most of them have no tools. $n contrast, structured analysis has some
new goals and structured tools for analysis. &he new goals specify the following(
). >se graphics wherever possible to help communicate better with the user.
+. /ifferentiate between logical and physical systems.
-. #uild a logical system model to familiarize the user with system characteristics
and interrelate with physical model before implementation.
&he ob!ective of structured analysis is to build a new document, called system
specifications. &his document provides the basis for design and implementation.
Follo4ing tools are used in structured analysis
i. /ata Flow /iagram J/F/*
ii. /ata /ictionary J//*
iii. ,tructured 3nglish
iv. /ecision &rees
v. /ecision &ables
2hat is #F#3 2hat are the different !ymbols used in it3 /x(lain 4ith hel( of an
exam(le. 2hat are the ad.antages of #F#3 #iscuss in details3
/F/ is a way of e'pressing system re"uirements in a graphical form. A /F/ has the
purpose of clarifying system re"uirements and identifying ma!or transformations that will
become programs in system design.
#efinitionA - /F/ is a simple graphical formalism that can be used to represent a system
in terms of the input data to the system, various processing carried out on these data, and
the output data generated by the system.
#F#s ser.e t4o (ur(osesA -
)* 7rovide a graphic tool, which can be used by the analyst to e'plain his understanding
of the system to the user.
+* &hey can be readily converted into a structured chart, which can be used in design.
!ymbols used in #F#sA -
Most /F/s use four types of symbols, which represent system components such as R
). 3'ternal 3ntities, +. 7rocesses, -./ata Flows and .. /ata ,tores.
^^&he use of specific symbols associated with each component depends on whether
Wourdon or Eane and ,arson approach is used.
#F# symbolsA -
1. Processes E4here data con.ersion occurs5-7rocesses show what systems do. 3ach
process has one or more data inputs and produces one or more data outputs. 7rocesses are
represented by the symbols bellow(
3ach process has a uni"ue name and number, which appear, inside the circle or rectangle
2. Files Or #ata !tores Ere(ository of data5-$t contains data that is retained in the
system. Files or data store are represented by the symbols bellow(
3ach data store is connected to a process by means of a data flow symbol. 0he direction
of the data flo4 arro4 sho4s 4hether data is being read from or 4ritten into a data
store.
. /xternal /ntities-3'ternal entities are outside the system, but they either supply input
data into the system or use the system output. &hey are entities over which the designer
has no control. An e'ample of e'ternal entity is such as a librarian or a library member in
a library management ,oftware etc. 3'ternal entities are represented by a s"uare or
rectangle.
3'ternal entities are of &wo &ypes( ,ource ; ,in%
i. 3'ternal entities that supply data into a system are sometimes called sources.
Wourdon Eane and ,arson
Wourdon Eane and ,arson
ii. 3'ternal entities that use system data are sometimes called sin%s.
#ata Flo4s-/ata flows model the passage of data in the system and are represented by
lines !oining system components. &he direction of the flow is indicated by an arrow and
the line is labeled by the name of the data flow.
Flows of data in the system can ta%e place(
#etween two processes:
From a data store to a process ; from a process to data store:
From an e'ternal entity Jsource* to process ; from a process to an e'ternal entity Jsin%*:
#ut not within(
An e'ternal entity to another e'ternal entity
An e'ternal entity to a data store
A data store to another data store
#e.elo(ing the #F# Model of a !ystem
A lowest level /F/ starts with the most abstract definition of the system and at each
higher level /F/, more details are successively introduced.&he most abstract
representation of the problem is also called the conte't diagram. After, developing the
conte't diagram, the higher6level /F/s are developed. 9onte't diagram represents entire
system as a single bubble. &he various e'ternal entities with which the system interacts
and the data flows occurring between the system and the e'ternal entities are also
represented. &hese data flow arrows should be annotated with the corresponding data
names. &he conte't diagram is also called the level @ /F/. &he bubble in the conte't
diagram is annotated with the name of the software system developed Jusually a noun*.
Aevel ) /F/ represents high6level functional re"uirements. ,o to develop the Aevel )
/F/, high6level functional re"uirements are identified by reading through ,?,. $n higher
level /F/s than )
st
level each high6level function is decomposed into its constituent sub6
functions.Above process is repeated recursively for each sub6function until a sub6
function can be represented by using a simple algorithm.
/xam(les- 0rading--ouse Automation !ystem E0A!5
A trading house wants us to develop a computerized system that would automate various
boo%%eeping activities associated with its business. &he following are the salient features
of the system to be developed(
Eane and ,arson Wourdon
Wourdon
Eane and ,arson
&he trading house has a set of regular customers. &he customers place orders with
it for various %inds of commodities. &he trading house maintains the names and
addresses of its regular customers. 3ach of these regular customers should be
assigned a uni"ue customer identification number J9$C* by the computer. &he
customers "uote their 9$C on every order they place.
8nce an order is placed, as per current practice, the accounts department of the
trading house first chec%s the credit6worthiness of the customer. &he
creditworthiness of the customer is determined by analyzing the history of its
payments to different bills sent to him in the past. After automation, this tas% has
to be done by the computer.
$f a customer is not credit6worthy, his orders are not processed any further and an
appropriate order re!ection message is generated for the customer.
$f a customer is credit6worthy, the items that he has ordered are chec%ed against a
list of items that the trading house deals with. &he items in the order, which the
trading house does not deal with, are not processed any further and an appropriate
apology message to the customer for these items is generated.
&he items in the customer=s order that the trading house deals with are chec%ed for
availability in the inventory. $f the items are available in the inventory in desired
"uantity, then
A bill with the forwarding address of the customer is printed.
A material issue slip is printed. &he customer can produce this material issue slip
at the storehouse and ta%e delivery of the items.
$nventory data is ad!usted to reflect the sale to the customer.
$f any of the ordered items are not available in the inventory in sufficient "uantity
to satisfy the order, then these out6of6stoc% items along with the "uantity ordered
by the customer and its 9$C are stored in a "pending6order" file for further
processing to be carried out when the purchase department issues the "generate
indent" command.
&he purchase department should be allowed to periodically issue commands to
generate indents. hen a command to generate indents is issued, the system
should e'amine the "pending6order" file to determine the orders that are pending
and determine the total "uantity re"uired for each of the items. $t should find out
the addresses of the vendors who supply these items by e'amining a file
containing vendor details and then should print out indents to these vendors.
&he system should also answer managerial "ueries regarding the statistics of
different items sold over any given period of time and the corresponding "uantity
sold and the price realized.
/raw the 9onte't /iagram and )
st
level /F/ of the above problem.
,olution(
%ontext #iagram for trading house automation system
MACAE3?
Buery
G3C/8?,
@
&rading
house
automation
system
9>,&8M3?, 7>?9<A,3
/37A?&M3C&,
,tatistics
8rders
?esponse
Eenerate
$ndent
$ndent
#ata #ictionary 6
$n data flow diagrams, system analyst names to data flows, processes, and data stores.
Although the meaningful names give an idea of their contents data, they do not give
details. ,o following the /F/, analysts build some structured place to %eep details of the
contents of data flows, processes, and data store. A data dictionary is this structured
repository, which contains the rigorous definitions of all /F/ elements Jprocesses, data
flows, data stores*.
A data dictionary has many advantages. &he most obvious is documentation: it is a
valuable reference in any organization. Another advantage is improving analystPuser
communication by establishing consistent definitions of various elements, terms and
procedures.
#ecision 0rees + #ecision 0ables
8nce the data elements are defined in the data dictionary, system analysts begin to focus
on the processes. &he analyst needs to use tools to portray the logic of the processes. &he
first such tool is the decision tree, which is an e'cellent tool. $t is easy to construct, easy
to read, and easy to update.
#ecision 0rees
&his /ecision tree diagram is read from left to right. /ecision is represented by a small
s"uare called a decision node. &he leftmost decision node in a decision tree is called the
root node. &he branches emanating to the right from a decision node represent the set of
decision alternatives that are available. &he right end of each path through the tree is
called an endpoint, and each endpoint represents the final outcome of following a path
from the root node of the decision tree to that endpoint.
An exam(le to illustrate #ecision 0reeA
3'ample6 &he 9ompany offers attractive interest rates on fi'ed deposits. For deposits up
to ) year, the interest rate is )-_. For deposits up to + years the interest rate is )._ and
for more than two years it is )0_. 8ne percent additional interest is shareholders.
Following figure illustrates the decision tree for this e'ample.
#ecision 0ables 6
A decision table consists of two parts( stub and entry. &he, stub part is divided into an
upper "uadrant called the condition stub and a lower "uadrant called the action stub. &he
entry part is also divided into an upper "uadrant, called the condition entry and a lower
"uadrant, called the action entry.
&he four elements and their definitions are summarized bellow
7eriod `) year\
Co
,hareholders\
Wes
Co
)._
)-_
Wes
7eriod `+ years\
Co
,hareholders \
Wes
Co
)0_
)._
Wes
,hareholders\
Wes
Co
)1_
)0_
9ondition stub 6,ets forth in "uestion form the condition that may e'ist
Action stub6 8utlines in narrative form the action to be ta%en to meet each condition.
9ondition entry67rovides answers to "uestions as%ed in the condition stub "uadrant.
Action entry 6$ndicates the appropriate action resulting from the answers to the conditions
in the condition entry "uadrant
$n condition entry "uadrant, the answers are represented by a W to signify yes, an C to
signify no, or a blan% to show that the condition involved has not been tested. $n the
action entry "uadrant, an D Jor a chec% mar% will do* indicates the response to the
answersJs* entered condition entry "uadrant. &he physical layout of a decision table is as
given bellow.
<eader J<* ?uleJ?* $dentifiers
&he same e'ample of interest rate used in decision tree can be ta%en to illustrate the
decision table. &he decision table would appear as shown in following figure.
/ecision &able for interest rate ?) ?+ ?- ?. ?0 ?1
7eriod` ) year\ C C W W W W
7eriod ` + years\ C C C C W W
,hareholders\ C W C W C W
$nertest ?ate )-_ D
$nertest ?ate )._ D D
$nertest ?ate )0_ D D
$nertest ?ate )1_ D
!te(s of structured AnalysisA
+.)( &o study current system
+.+( &o derive logical e"uivalent /F/
+.-( /evelop logical model of new system
+..( 3stablish man6machine interface
+.0( Buantify 9osts and #enefits
+.1( ,elect the best option
+.2 7ac%age ,pecifications
9ondition 3ntry J93*
9ondition ,tatement or
9ondition ,tub J9,*
Action 3ntry JA3* Action ,tatement or
Action ,tub JA,*
9A,3 tool
,oftware is becoming the costliest component in any computer installation. 3ven though
hardware prices %eep falling below even the most optimistic e'pectations, software is
becoming costlier due to increased manpower costs involved. $n this scenario, 9A,3
tools promise reduction in software development and maintenance costs. 9A,3 tools
help develop better "uality products more efficiently.

#efinition of %A!/ tool and its benefits =
A 9A,3 is a generic term used to denote any form of automated support for software
engineering. $n a more restrictive sense, a 9A,3 tool can mean any tool used to automate
some activity associated with software development. &he primary ob!ectives of deploying
9A,3 tool are(
). &o increase productivity
+. &o produce better "uality software at lower cost
9A,3 &ools can be classified into >pper and Aower 9A,3 tools.
'((er %A!/ tools- >pper 9A,3 tools help developers during the earlier phases of the
process, namely the re"uirement specifications, planning and design. &hese are also
termed as Front 3nd &ools. 3'amples include re"uirements engineering tools, design
tools, modeling tools, and documentation tools.
<o4er %A!/ tools- Aower 9A,3 tools that assist with implementation, integration and
maintenance phase and are also termed as #ac% 3nd &ools. 3'amples include compiler,
debugger, code6control tool, unit6test tool etc.
Fuggeta J)55-* proposed that 9A,3 system should be classified in three categories that
are 9A,3 tool, wor%bench and environment. &here is a natural progression within
9A,3.
&he simplest 9A,3 device is a single tool such as editors, compilers etc.
Ce't the tools can be combined leading to wor%bench that can support one or two
activities with software process, such as coding. 9oding activity includes 3diting,
Ain%ing and /ebugging.
Finally it is the environment that provides computer6aided support for most, if not
all of the processes. 3nvironment will normally include several different
wor%benches, which are integrated in some way.

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