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Shows a conceptual facilities field development including a basic economic and technical comparison of subsea tie-back vs new facility option for sour crude
Shows a conceptual facilities field development including a basic economic and technical comparison of subsea tie-back vs new facility option for sour crude
Shows a conceptual facilities field development including a basic economic and technical comparison of subsea tie-back vs new facility option for sour crude
Casablanca oilfield is a virgin field, about to start undergoing
development, in order to commence production of oil and gas for high return on investment values on money spent during development. During exploration stage of this field, data and facts about the oilfield were taken by geoscientist, and passed on to engineers in order to help support and influence decisions taken, and choose certified equipments fit for use during the field development phase. The data details are shown below: ield !ocation "# kilometres away from nearest land fall$ ield %ater Depth &## feet deep$ 'umber of wells planned ( wells$ )ate *redicted for *roduction &#,### bbls oil quantity per day$ ield life Duration expected +# years$ Depth of reservoir +,,### feet$ -nitial *ressure ",### psia *ressure of oil bubble point &,(## psia .uality of Crude /our 0 1# Degrees 2*- rom the data taken by geologist, seismic survey information were acquired with the most important and a little bit disturbing one being the presence of sour crude as the quality of crude to be produced during development. /our crude simply means that the crude contains high amount of hydrogen sulphide and other sulphuric compounds, which gives it a sour smell. *resence of this have tendencies of causing problems and therefore treatment would have to be undertaken on all produce 34il, 5as, %ater6 to prevent future problems with the government. 2lso occurring flow assurance issues like 2sphaltene *recipitation, %ax formation etc. are expected during development so prevention methods would be placed to prevent this from occurring and causing obstruction of fluids flow from well heads to their final point of export or sales point. !astly, a preferred option is recommended for the progress of this pro7ect and all of this would be discussed as development planning is carried out. TABLE OF CONTENTS 898C:T-;8 /:<<2)=......................................................................& -'T)4D:CT-4'..............................................................................( +.+ 2ims of this report..................................................................( +., 4b7ectives of this report..........................................................." +.& 2ssumptions taking during Development...................................." /8CT-4' 2:....................................................................................> ,.# 2nalysis for ield Development..................................................> ,.+ %ell ?ead:.............................................................................@ ,., <anifold.................................................................................@ ,.& /eparator:.............................................................................@ ,.1 5as /crubber:........................................................................A ,.( Compressor:..........................................................................A ,." 5as Conditioning :nit:.............................................................A ,.> <eters:................................................................................+# ,.@ *umps:................................................................................+# ,.A ?ydrocyclones:.....................................................................++ ,.+# %ater DeBgassing Drum:......................................................++ ,.++ ?eater Treater:...................................................................+, ,.+, /torage Tank:.....................................................................+, ,.+& /C<:.................................................................................+, ,.+1 /huttle Tankers:..................................................................+, /8CT-4' 2 *art ,:.........................................................................+& &.# Tie Cack Development............................................................+& &.+ /ubsea *roduction Template:..................................................+& &., /ubsea Tree:........................................................................+& &.& :nderwater <anifold..............................................................+& &.1 <ultiB*hase <eters:...............................................................+& &.( )isers:.................................................................................+1 &." low !ines:...........................................................................+1 &.> :mbilical Cables:...................................................................+1 /8CT-4' C...................................................................................+1 1.# low assurance issues faced by Casablanca and <orella facility....+1 1.+ ?ydrates ormation:..............................................................+1 1., Corrosion:............................................................................+( 1.& *araffin %axes:.....................................................................+( 1.1 2sphaltene *recipitation:........................................................+( 1.( Technical 2dvantages of Casablanca and <orella *latform...........+" 1." Technical Disadvantages of Casablanca and <orella *latform.......+" 1.> Commercial 2dvantages of Casablanca and <orella *latform.......+> 1.@ Commercial Disadvantages of Casablanca and <orella *latform.. .+> /ection C:....................................................................................+@ (.+ )ecommendation of *referred option........................................+@ INTRODUCTION Page 2 2s a field consultant, - am commencing the development of a new oil field that - have been assigned to, create a flow diagram for superiors to propose on structures to be followed and carried out ensuring that equipments installed are fit of use and operation working conditions. 2lso perform a tieback operation to a preBexisting facility located nearby called <orella with distance of approximately +#km choosing most appropriate means with less production risk. 1.1 Aims of this report +6 To prepare a plan, for the successful development of the Casablanca oil field. ,6 To show <r <ike )obinson, - do understand all concepts up to an adequate level of all the information he has been passing in class sections. &6 To further students knowledge from that of the course notes by means of web and publication searches. 1. O!"e#ti$es of this report +6 To learn how to prepare a flow diagram so as to help give some structure of development for Casablanca oil field. ,6 To know the functions of how various 8quipments utilised in development stage work e.g. the roles played by a separator. &6 To know how water treatment is carried out before being discharged into the environment. 16 To give recommendation, and discuss a preferred option with reasons why it was selected from both development concepts. 1.% Ass&mptio's t()i'* +&ri'* De$e,opme't +6 <inimal amount of sand present, due to lack of high water cuts so sand cyclones are not installed in development. ,6 ?igh viscosity crudes present so heater treater would be needed in development. &6 luid coming in from the wellhead comes in at very high pressure and therefore a three stage 3multi6 separator is needed to step down fluid pressure. Page 3 16 <orella platform is producing above, 1(,### stock tank barrel oil per day and this is going to take some years to decline to 1(,### stock tank barrel oil. (6 *resence of acidic gases 3?ydrogen sulphide and Carbon dioxide6 in crude, so gas sweetening is carried out. "6 'o presence of 'itrogen in acidic gases so gas sweeting would not be carried out on it using Cryogenic removal process. >6 <inimal and acceptable amount salt present when oil is been separated so electrostatic deBsalters are not installed. @6 ?ealth and /afety requirement of oil in water before disposal is 1#ppm maximum, for the region where oilfield is located. SECTION A- .. A'(,/sis for Fie,+ De$e,opme't Page 4 2s the field development consultant working for )5 8D*, in charge of developing the Casablanca oil field a flow diagram has been prepared shown in igure +.# below to help give structure on the processes and steps that would be taken for successful development of this new oil field. Fi*&re 1..- A pro#ess f,o0 s#hem(ti# +i(*r(m +es#ri!i'* the pro#ess steps re1&ire+ for the +e$e,opme't of C(s(!,('#( fie,+. .1 2e,, 3e(+- During production, fluids from reservoir flow to the top of the earth surface, and are being produced at the wellhead. The Page 5 wellhead helps provide a pressure containment interface for production activities carried out. The quality and quantity of reservoir fluids produced are dependent on three main factors, which are composition of hydrocarbon present, characteristics of the reservoir produced from and lastly the field development scheme set in place. The earlier first two, aforementioned factors are controlled by <other 'ature itself and the last mentioned are manipulated within the constraints of technological and market value. 3rank Eahn, et.al$ pg ,&", ,#+&6.Chemical -n7ection is provided at the wellhead to prevent issues occurring due to flow assurance. . M('ifo,+- *roductions gotten from wellheads are connected through flow lines to a tubular steel structure called manifold. This manifold acts as a focal point and gathering centre for all flow lines attached to various wellheads, in which the stream of fluids from each wellhead are commingled together and fluid production now starts here for all wellheads. This process saves time and unnecessary expenses of producing from each wellhead independently. -n7ection of demulsifiers occurs here to prevent an emulsion from occurring between the oil and water interphase. This makes the oil soluble in water so there would 7ust be a single flow phase and not multiple flows because oil floats on water due to its density difference. luids then flow from the manifold into a separator, passing through a choke valve installed on the flow line, which causes the first pressure drop of fluid during production. .% Sep(r(tor- 'ormally referred to as the heart of processing facilities during production. -t separates the fluids into phases gas, oil, and water, and help to support accurate metering of it during production. %hen fluid flows from the manifold through the choke valve into the separator system, it comes in at a highBpressure rate and then a pressure drop occurs as it goes through each of the various phases of separation installed. 2s fluids enter the separator, it hits an inlet diverter, which causes a change in flow direction and velocity of the fluid. -nitial gross separation in the separator, occurs at this point first with water going to bottom, oil in the middle and gas at the top. -n the separator, gravity Page 6 forces cause the heavier liquid droplets to fall out of the gas stream to the bottom where the liquid is collected. The liquid phase holds the liquid until an appropriate residence time required to allow the entrained gas break out of the oil and rise to the gas phase, and they do so under buoyancy forces. -n addition, how easy the gases breaks out of the liquid is determined by the viscosity of the liquid present, as liquid with high viscosities imply longer residence times. .4 5(s S#r&!!er- 2s the gas, flows out of the separator it passes a mist extractor, which acts as a barrier and causes small drops of liquid that were difficult to be separated by gravity to fall back into the liquid phase. The gas then flows into a gas scrubber, whose function is to restrict and trap condensed liquids 3i.e. water and hydrocarbons6 from the gases as it leaves the separators. This function of the gas scrubber helps prevent liquids from getting into the suction of the compressor thereby disrupting functionality and causing erode on compressor rotating blades. .6 Compressor- 2s gas moves through the processing stages, a drop in pressure accompanies it and energy would need to be imparted into it to cause an increase in pressure, before it can be transported to the next processing stage. -n this scenario, three separators are used in stepping down the pressure, so the gas pressure escaping the first separator is not same with the gas pressure escaping the second and the third separator, so in such a compressor is used to increase the gas pressure of the second and third separator to be in range with the first separator. .7 5(s Co'+itio'i'* U'it- Cefore the gas is made use of as fuel or flared, it goes through the condition unit, which ensures water vapour is absent in gases, as this can lead to hydrate formation and cause corrosion in the presence of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide. -t also ensures that contaminants like carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide are removed, as hydrogen sulphide is toxic. To prevent such hindrances, two processes are undertaken which are: Page 7 i. 5(s Deh/+r(tio'- This simply means removal of water vapour present in gases. ii. 5(s S0eete'i'*- This means the removal of hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide 3acid gases6 that are present. These two processes are performed together using absorption technique in a contact tower or absorber. Chemical solvents such as <onoethanolamine and TriBethylene glycol are combined together in the contact tower, then the gases are bubbled as heat is being applied slightly above atmospheric pressure. -n the contact tower, the glycol reduces the water contents sufficient to prevent water dropout from the gases, and allows for efficient removal of the hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide by the <onoethanolamine in the gases. This help remove possibilities of hydrate formation, which causes corrosion and blockages. .8 Meters- %hen produce such as oil and gas, are ready for export from the production installation, it goes through meters, which are used to manage and monitor the volume and quantity of produce 3oil and gas6 transported out of the production installation from one party to another. /pecialised meters are used to perform this process, to measure the gas :ltrasonic meters are used and for the oil turbine meters are used. rom the diagram in igure +.#, the water at the bottom leaves the separator through water dump valves installed below, which are controlled accordingly by the water level controller at the side of the separator as water changes are sensed. %ater flows out of the separators and heater treater as shown in figure +.#, to the hydrocyclones and due to pressure drops already occurred, pumps are used for the second and third separator independently to boost its flow to the hydrocyclones. .9 :&mps- This are devices which work similar to gas compressors, with the ma7or difference being that they are used to impart pressure on the fluids and not gases, in order to increase flow rate, and prevent occurrence of slippage during production. Page 8 .; 3/+ro#/#,o'es- %hen water enters the hydrocyclones, it removes the oil contents from the water before sent out to sea. This process is known as DeBoiling. i. De<Oi,i'*- This simply means the removal of oil concentration from water. There are many deBoiling techniques e.g. skimming tank, corrugated interceptor, gas floatation unit etc... Cut hydrocyclones are used, due to itFs the most common technique used offshore, and is capable of producing oil in water disposal standards of less than 1#ppm or 1#ppm which falls in line with regulatory health and safety requirements of region, before it is allowed to be discharged to sea. The way hydrocyclones works is it relies on centrifugal forces to separate the light oil particles left in the water phase as it passed through processing stages, leaving the water to rest at the bottom and oil on top of the water in the equipment. %ater then gets collected in the water deB gassing drum. .1. 2(ter De<*(ssi'* Dr&m- 2s the water is collected here, it performs another effective process, by removing the gases still present even as fluid has gone through various processing stages, before the water is discharged to sea. This process is known as DeBgassing. i. De<5(ssi'*- This simply means the removal of gas concentration from water. 2 deBgassing drum is used in this development for that purpose. The way the deBgassing drum works is, as water enters the deBgassing drum dispersed gases slowly rise out of it and by floatation, the gases pull along with it remaining droplets of oil to the surface that were not separated by the hydrocyclones. The surface oil film is drained out and channelled back to the heater treater for dehydration, and produced now treated water is now discharged to sea through a skim pipe. ?ydrogen sulphide and Carbon dioxide are also treated here as explained earlier by making use of the <onoethanolamine solvent to remove its presence. -n igure +.#, you would have a view of the process through which the oil flows in the separator. The oil seats in the middle between the gas phase Page 9 and water phase then it leaves the separator through oil dump valves installed below, which are controlled accordingly by the oil level controller at the side of the separator as oil changes are sensed from the weir located in the separator. The oil then flows out into a heater treater. .11 3e(ter Tre(ter- %ith the assumption of high viscosity crudes, heater treater is installed in order to promote separation and fast break out of the gas from the liquid phase. 2s high viscosity, fluids have tendencies of taking longer retention time to break out the liquid phase. This gives stabiliGation and dehydration of the oil before it goes to the storage tank and then later transport. 2s it is necessary for fluids to be stabiliGed during transport, and gas to be dehydrated to its dew point to prevent liquid drop out during transportation. .1 Stor(*e T(')- %hen the oil comes into the storage tank, it does so with the support of a pump to impart pressure into the liquid to prevent occurrence of slippage due to the pressure dropped already occurred in process. This device simply stores oil produced from the fluid after it has gone through all processing stages available and is now awaiting exportation. );* is carried out on the oil using )eid bomb apparatus before transportation to ensure true vapour pressure is within range of +#B+, psia required for transport by shuttle tankers. This process ensures vapour is not too high, as it is flammable and gives rise to explosion haGards if escaped to atmosphere. .1% SBM- %hen the oil stored in the storage is now ready to be transported, this provides the tankers with support during extraction as the tanker is tied up to the /C< and through it, the tankers have the ability to rotate around and accommodate the weather conditions present at time of export. .14 Sh&tt,e T(')ers- They simply are the boats, which come and take the oil away to the storage facility when it is ready for export. Page 10 SECTION A :(rt - %.. Tie B(#) De$e,opme't or tieback in this development, it can be performed by either introducing a new 7acket, and making use of a linking bridge to link both facilities, 4r by making use of subsea equipments for the development of the tie back. This - believe to be a better option as the distance of +#km between both facilities is quite much for use of a linking bridge though it cost less, the risk involved if problems were to occur are very high. /ubsea tiebacks equipments utilised are: %.1 S&!se( :ro+&#tio' Temp,(te- This support production activities to be carried out, acting as the base foundation for other subsea structures to be installed upon. Construction is carried out nearby, and taken to seabed location when constructed, in which it is gently lowered unto the seabed using a crane barge, and pile drivers installed on it are loosened, and piled into the bottom of the seabed to hold template in place and promote stability of the equipment. %. S&!se( Tree- This equipment is placed at the bottom of the sea to seat on the template that seats on the seabed. -t is required as the final step taken for completion of a well to make it viable for production startB up. -t helps control and support the fluid flow from the Casablanca field providing safe conduit through it and the flow lines into the manifold. %.% U'+er0(ter M('ifo,+- 2s described earlier this has the same function, acts as a gathering centre and focal point for production of fluids. -t connects all series of wells together through flow lines, while also seating on the subsea template. %.4 M&,ti<:h(se Meters- 2lso described earlier, as meters are used for many reasons e.g. government, personal files, court cases etc. it is used to know the quantity and volume of produce been sent out from one party to another party. Page 11 %.6 Risers- This is a large steel pipe diameters installed, and the function it plays is, it serves as a drill string conduit raising and collecting fluids gathered at the seabed manifold installed below and then sends it upwards for processing through the subsea flow lines installed. %.7 F,o0 Li'es- This plays the part of conveying and transportation of oil, gas, and all other constituents around installations, and also from the Casablanca facility to the preBexisting <orella facility. %.8 Um!i,i#(, C(!,es- These are offshore underwater cables installed and deployed into the seabed to ensure safe transfer of electrical or hydraulic energy to equipments used subsea. SECTION B 4.. F,o0 (ss&r('#e iss&es f(#e+ !/ C(s(!,('#( ('+ More,,( f(#i,it/. Coth platforms face few common flow assurance issues likely to occur, though they may occur at different areas, they do still occur. <oreover, some have low tendencies of occurring due to presence of <editerranean climate. oreseen issues on both platforms are: 4.1 3/+r(tes Form(tio'- 4ccurs due to physical bonding of lighter constituents and water present in gases, and is visible to human eyes in the form of iceberg structures. They are formed in conditions of high pressure and low temperature, and the risk of it occurring here are low due to <editerranean climate but they can still occur. -f it were to occur, on the Casablanca field it would occur on wellheads and flow lines. Then on <orella, it would also occur on flow lines and available equipments. These plug equipments and pipelines there by obstructing flow and causing blockage to flow of fluids. Co'tro, Me(s&res- -f it occurred, its controlled with use of TriB8thylene glycol solvent in which performs water dehydration present in gases. Page 12 4. Corrosio'- 4ccurs from the hydrates formed, but in the presence of acid gases 3?ydrogen sulphide and Carbon dioxide6. Corrosion leads to many problems such as contamination of fluids, structural failure, rusting, and operation shutdown. 4n both fields they can occur on flow lines and equipments used in the presence of hydrates. Co'tro, Me(s&res- Can be controlled by making use of corrosion resistant pipes, and through chemicals solvents such as corrosion inhibitors like <onoethanolamine and -modaGolines 4.% :(r(ffi' 2(=es- These are crystalline in nature, and are formed at temperatures below cloud point. 2lso it has low tendency of occurring due to <editerranean climate. -f waxes were to occur, they would cause production choking. 4n both platforms, if it occurred it would occur in flow lines. Co'tro, Me(s&res- -f it occurred, its controlled by in7ection of paraffin inhibitors such as, 8thylene vinyl acetate or 2lkyl phenols or ;inyl *olymers or through insulation of flow lines. 4.4 Asph(,te'e :re#ipit(tio'- ormed through oxidation, in the presence of impurities along with resins and aromatics in the crude oil, giving rise to metallic looking molecular substances 32sphaltene6. -n both platforms they can occur in flow lines, and cause the flow lines to have depositional tendencies. 2lso causes reduction in diffusion rate. Co'tro, Me(s&res- Can also be controlled through in7ection of 2sphaltene inhibitors such as 2romatic solvents or Dodecyl benGene /ulphuric 2cid. Page 13 4.6 Te#h'i#(, A+$('t(*es of C(s(!,('#( ('+ More,,( :,(tform. C(s(!,('#( :,(tform >F:SO? More,,( :,(tform >Tie!(#)? + Decommissioning of the well once depletion has occurred in reserves is easily done, as */4 are floating structures that can be easily moved from Casablanca field to a new location. -nstallation of the tieback from Casablanca would stop <orella reservoir reserves from depleting in coming years and give maximiGation and extension of the reservoir life span. , They have capacities to handle more variable and large production streams due to the availability of storage and offloading equipments installed onBboard vessels. 4.7 Te#h'i#(, Dis(+$('t(*es of C(s(!,('#( ('+ More,,( :,(tform. C(s(!,('#( :,(tform >F:SO? More,,( :,(tform >Tie!(#)? + During exportation of produced fluids to the facility, it is done by use of shuttle tankers, in which are constrained to weather conditions at time of export. 2t a combined production rate it would produce above >(,### barrels per day and its more than the required capacity. This means a delay in start date of production , During offloading of produce, there is risk of spillage occurring on surface when offloading from */4 into shuttle tankers. 2s subsea equipment are utiliGed, it is at a ma7or financial disadvantage, as equipments needed for subsea operations are very expensive to purchase. & *resence of flow assurance issues are likely to occur such as 2sphaltene *recipitation 2fter the purchase of equipments, it is very difficult to carry out interventions or equipment maintenance processes if problems are to occur. 4.8 Commer#i(, A+$('t(*es of C(s(!,('#( ('+ More,,( :,(tform. Page 14 C(s(!,('#( :,(tform >F:SO? More,,( :,(tform >Tie!(#)? + !ess extra added cost involved during processing as all requirements needed for processing, storage and transportation are installed upon vessels. -t cost a lot less to acquire as */4 are very expensive to rent, and also do take longer duration to construct one together. , -t can be recycled thereby reducing cost. 2s at the end of its life span, it can be converted to a tanker used in transportation of produce 3oil and gas6 to locations. Compared to the */4 this requires a lower initial capital investment to be used in development planning stage. 4.9 Commer#i(, Dis(+$('t(*es of C(s(!,('#( ('+ More,,( :,(tform. C(s(!,('#( :,(tform >F:SO? More,,( :,(tform >Tie!(#)? + !esser allocation of sales returned back from the <orella facility after sale of produce, since they possess sweet crude and we possess sour crude so we are is contaminating the sweet crude in their facility. /ince subsea equipments are utiliGed, staffs would have to be trained to achieve required competent skills in order to be able to manage subsea equipments. , *remium would still be paid to the <orella facility for processing of the sour crude in the Casablanca facility. )eduction of produce value will occur from this operation, due to the mixture of the sweet crude in this facility with the sour crude in the Casablanca facility, as the sour would contaminate the sweet crude. Se#tio' C- 6.1 Re#omme'+(tio' of :referre+ optio' Page 15 2fter careful assessment of all field development options, - do recommend the use of option + that is the wellhead 7acket and */4 structure over option , for four main reasons, which are: i. */4 are very flexible structures, can be used on subsequent upcoming pro7ects immediately after decommissioning of one, and even can be used on tieback development as well. ii. -n option ,, there would be a delay in cash flow, because engineers would have to wait for a couple of years before production can commence at its full capacity, or they can decide to start production and later on choke wells. 'evertheless, this has effects on the flow of cash. iii. rom option ,, there would be a decrease in revenue when making use of it, because measuring meters are not +## percent accurate iv. :se of option ,, has technological requirements as subsea expertise and costly subsea interventions are needed. Refere'#es Page 16 D8;4!D ?., ,#+&. An Introduction to Oil and Gas Production, Transport, Refining and Petrochemical Industry 4il and 5as *roduction ?andbook. 8dition &.# 4slo H ,##" 0 ,#+&, 2CC 4il and 5as. -/C' A>@B@,BAA>@@"B &B,. http-@@000.4.(!!.#om@*,o!(,@seitp@seitp..'sf@.@f9414ee7# 791%f664968#14..1f11f@Afi,e@Oi,B('+B*(sBpro+&#tio'Bh('+ !oo).p+f I2ccessed on A
0 1 ,#+1J. <C T8C?'4!45=: Flow Assurance ompetence entre! https-@@000.*oo*,e.#o.&)@&r,C s(DtEr#tD"E1DEesr#DsEso&r#eD0e!E#+D;E#(+Dr"(E&(#tD9E$e +D.C3AFF"AIE&r,DhttpsG%AGFGF000.fm#te#h'o,o*ies.#om GFHGFme+i(GFS&!se(GFSer$i#esGFF,o0 G6.M('(*eme'tGFD(t(sheetIF,o0Ass&r('#eCC.(sh= G%Ffor#eG%D1G7tr(#)G%D1EeiDo:pIU< :#C#T/8A()rIC*A0E&s*DAFF"CNE'0F$"0JKU*JS;o5s0B&4LFe, '#FEsi*D&"LmS/J1M64!I=0DM7:sB*E!$mD!$.7464619N+.+) I2ccessed +, B#1 B ,#+1J. ?8)<2', 5.'., ,##". Flow Assurance and "ultiphase Pumping! *etroleum *roduction pdf. /ubmitted to the 4ffice of 5raduate /tudies Texas 2 D < :niversity. https-@@000.*oo*,e.#o.&)@&r,C s(DtEr#tD"E1DEesr#DsEso&r#eD0e!E#+D1E#(+Dr"(E&(#tD9E$e +D.CC9FF"AAE&r,DhttpG%AGFGFrepositor/.t(m&.e+& GF!itstre(mGFh('+,eGF1;7;.1GFETD<TAMU< 119.GFNIJ3AR<T3ESIS.p+fG%Fse1&e'#e G%D1EeiD=6+IU4LmC#i=.AXL=YDIBFE&s*DAFF"CNF7'Uo'EhtIN /(ED"CA93!.VELMMAEsi*DI/3(LF2.Mr:Rr;IO:LJ!AE!$mD! $.7464619N+.+) I2ccessed ,A 0 #& B ,#+1J. E2?', ., C44K, <., and 5)2?2<, <., ,##&. ?ydrocarbon 8xploration and *roduction, 8!/8;-8), +AA@. -/C': # 111 @,A,+ # 3*aperback6.