CYU Questions

1. Identify the components of a homeostatic feedback loop and provide an

example of negative and positive feedback loops.
The homeostatic feedback loop consists of a change in the body, and then leads to a
stimulation of a sensor. The sensor then sends information to an integrating center
(usually a region in the brain or spinal cord or group of cells in an endocrine gland)
that detects changes from a set point. The integrating center integrates information
and directs the responses to effectors (muscles or glands). An example of a negative
feedback loop is body temperature; it is maintained by antagonistic effectors such as
sweating and shivering to regulate the internal temperature. An example of positive
feedback loop is a blood clot that occurs by activating clotting factors; the activation
of one clotting factor leads to ta positive feedback of activating several other clotting
factors.
2. Compare and contrast the features and relationship of the nervous and
endocrine systems and their control over homeostasis
The endocrine system and nervous system work closely together in regulating body
processes and homeostasis. The endocrine system regulates by secretion of
hormones into the blood stream. The hormones go to their target organs, and these
target organs only respond to particular hormones. The nervous system is made up
of nerve fibers that innervate the organs that they regulate. Once these nerve fibers
are stimulated, these fibers produce nerve impulses that are conducted to the target
organ that is innervated by the nerve fiber. Overall, the nervous system provides
and regulates sensory information and in the end generates responses by triggering
a specific target organ. In addition to the innervation, the nervous system is
responsible for behavioral processes for maintaining homeostasis; such as
avoidance behavior and migratory behavior.
3. Identify the major divisions of the nervous system and discuss their
relationship with one another.
The Central Nervous System (CNS) includes the brain and spinal cord. The
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) includes cranial nerves and spinal nerves. The
cranial nerves arise from the brain and the spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord.
The nervous system is also comprised of two principle cell types called neurons and
supporting cells. Neurons are the basic structural and functional units of the
nervous system (CNS and PNS). They respond to physical and chemical stimuli, they
can conduct electrochemical impulses, and finally they can release chemical
regulators. Supporting cells aid the function of neurons, they are celled neuroglia or
glial cells. They are able to divide by mitosis.
4. Identify the components of a neuron and describe the function of specialty
receptors located on dendrites.
A neuron comprises of a cell body, dendrites and an axon. The dendrites and axons
are referred to as processes or extensions from the cell body. The cell body contains
a nucleus, and Nissl bodies (same as dendrites). Nissl bodies are composed of larger
stacks of rough endoplasmic reticulum that is needed for membrane proteins. The
axon origin is called the axon hillcock and is adjacent to the axon initial segment. At
the end of the axon, there is up to 200 branches from the axon called axon
collaterals. These collaterals can divide to synapse with many other neurons.
Dendrites are thin-branched processes that provide a receptive area that is able to
transmit electrochemical impulses to the cell body. The function of the specialty
receptors on dendrites is for when accepting postsynaptic receptors and ions.
5. Discuss the structural classification of neurons and identify anatomical
features of a neuron. Provide an example of where you would find each type
of neuron in the body.
The structural classification of neurons is based on the number of processes that
extend from the cell body. Pseudounipolar neurons are single short process that
branches into a T shape. Sensory neurons are pseudounipolar, one branch
receives sensory stimuli and the other produces an impulse. Pseudounipolar
neurons are found in the peripheral nervous system and deliver impulses to
synapses within the brain or spinal cord. Bipolar neurons have 2 processes (one at
each end) and are found in the retina of the eye. Multipolar neurons are the most
common type of neurons that have several dendrites and one axon extending from
the cell body, such as motor neurons. Multipolar neurons can be found in the brain
and spinal cord conducting impulses out of the CNS.
6. Identify the functions of all of the supporting cells of the nervous system.
There are two types of neuroglial cells in the peripheral nervous system and they
are called Schwann cells and ganglionic gliocytes. Schwann cells form myelin
sheaths around myelinated axons. Ganglionic gliocytes support neuron cell bodies
within the ganglia. The supporting cells in the central nervous system consists of
oligodendrocytes, microglia, astrocytes, and ependymal cells. Oligodendrocytes
form myelin sheaths around axons, which creates the white matter in the CNS.
Microglia migrates through the CNS and phagocytose foreign and defenerated
material. Astrocytes help to regulate the external environment of neurons, induce
the blood-brain barrier and interact with neurons metabolically. Ependymal cells
are epithelial cells that line the ventricles of the brain and spinal cord, they cover
tufts of capillaries to form choroid plexuses (produce cerebrospinal fluid).
7. Define node and antinode and describe their formation. Describe myelin
and identify its role in the nervous physiology.
Axons can be myelinated by Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system and by
oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system. The nodes of Ranvier is referred to
the section of the axon that is unmyelinated and the antinode is referred to the
section that is myelinated. Each Schwann cell wraps only a millimeter around the
axon, this creates a gap in myelination which is called a node. The node allows for
Na
+
and K
+
to enter the cell during an action potential. The antinode is created by
the Schwann cell or oligodendrocyte wrapping tightly around the axon. The function
of an antinode is to provide insulation by preventing the movement of Na
+
and K
+
into the cell allowing for faster conduction. Myelin sheath is formed by successive
wrappings of the Schwann cell membranes and its role is to provide insulation
allowing for less resistance and quicker impulses.
8. Describe the movement of K+, Cl- and Na+ ions across the plasma membrane
during an action potential and the role of each ion.
The cell membrane is more permeable to K+, this allows for the neuron to be more
negative (-70mV) during resting membrane potential (rmp). Ions such as K+ and
Na+ move through gated channels in the plasma membrane. There are two types of
channels, one is gated and the other is not gated which are called leakage channels.
Channels for Na+ are all gated and are closed at resting membrane potential. Once
stimulation occurs at the axon hillcock, some of the Na+ enters the cell through
voltage-gated channels and the membrane potential becomes less negative. The Na+
ion role is to depolarize the cell when stimulation occurs and the voltage-gated
channels open. Due to depolarization, voltage gate K+ channels open and K+ diffuses
out of the cell. K+ can also enter the cell by leakage channels called Na+/K+ pumps,
which pump out 3 Na+ out of the cell for every 2 K+ that moves in. The role of K+ in
an action potential is to restore the rmp to -70mV, which is called repolarization. Cl-
also contributes to the resting membrane potential. Cl- ions can enter the cell
through active transport diffusion.
9. Describe how an action potential is propagated down the length of an axon
and explain the refractory period.
First stimulation must occur to depolarize to a threshold level of about -55mV
causing the Na+ voltage-gated channels to open due to the all-or-none law. This
leads to a positive feedback of opening more Na+ voltage-gated channels along the
regions of the axon. The region that has just produced an action potential is
refractory. The next region along the axon that has not been stimulated is partially
depolarized. This continues along the axon starting from being partially
depolarized, then fully depolarized, and then refractory. Refractory period is when
the Na+ channels transition form inactive to closed. The K+ channels are still open
from depolarization and there is a continued outflow of K+ ions. During this time,
the membrane is absolutely or relatively resistant to further stimulation.
10. Define and describe saltatory conduction. What is the significance of this
process?
Myelinated axons have exposed plasma membrane at the nodes of Ranvier,
studies show that Na+ channels are highly concentrated at the nodes and
almost non existent in the regions with a myelin sheath. Therefore, action
potential jump from node to node. This is called saltatory conduction. This
is significant because action potential can only occur at the nodes making
the process a lot more efficient and quicker.