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DESCRIPTION..................................................................................................... 3
1.3 GLOSSARY OF COLUMN FLOTATION TERMINOLOGY................................................................. 5
1.3.1 Bias ......................................................................................................................... 5
1.3.2 Carrying Capacity...................................................................................................... 5
1.3.3 Difference Wash........................................................................................................ 6
1.3.4 Displacement Wash.................................................................................................. 6
1.3.5 Entrainment .............................................................................................................. 6
1.3.6 Flow Conventions ...................................................................................................... 6
1.3.7 Gas Holdup............................................................................................................... 6
1.3.8 Air Sparger ............................................................................................................... 7
1.3.9 Superficial Velocities ................................................................................................. 7
1.4 TERMS............................................................................................................................. 7
1.4 WASH WATER................................................................................................................... 8
2.0 COLUMN COMMISSIONING........................................................................................9
2.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 9
2.2 COMMISSIONING................................................................................................................ 9
2.3 AIR SPARGING SYSTEM ...................................................................................................... 9
2.3.1 Installation Check...................................................................................................... 9
2.3.2 Pressurization Check................................................................................................. 9
2.3.3 Air System Purge.................................................................................................... 10
2.3.4 Sparger Hose Connections....................................................................................... 10
2.4 SPARGER WATER SYSTEM ................................................................................................ 11
2.4.1 Installation Check.................................................................................................... 11
2.4.2 Booster Pump Startup ............................................................................................. 11
2.4.3 Pressure Relief Valve Check..................................................................................... 11
2.5 WASH WATER SYSTEM .................................................................................................... 12
2.5.1 Installation Check.................................................................................................... 12
2.5.2 Wash Water System Purge...................................................................................... 12
2.5.3 Wash Water System Start -up................................................................................... 12
2.6 LEVEL CONTROL SYSTEM ................................................................................................. 13
2.7 COLUMN STARTUP........................................................................................................... 14
2.8 NORMAL COLUMN SHUTDOWN........................................................................................... 15
2.8.1 Initial Procedure ...................................................................................................... 15
2.8.2 Final Procedure....................................................................................................... 15
2.9 SHORT TERM SHUTDOWN HOURS..................................................................................... 15
2.10 LONG TERM SHUTDOWN DAYS..................................................................................... 16
2.11 EMERGENCY SHUTDOWN................................................................................................ 16
CPT Inc.
CoalPro Operating & Maintenance Manual
2.12 COLUMN RE-START...................................................................................................... 16
2.12.1 Re-Pulping.............................................................................................................. 17
2.12.2 Re-Starting Underflow .............................................................................................. 17
3.0 COLUMN OPERATION................................................................................................18
3.1 SPARGER AIR.................................................................................................................. 18
3.2 INTERFACE LEVEL ............................................................................................................ 19
3.3 WASH WATER BIAS......................................................................................................... 19
3.4 REAGENT DOSAGE........................................................................................................... 20
3.4.1 Frother ................................................................................................................... 20
3.4.2 Collector................................................................................................................. 21
4.0 INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL......................................................................22
4.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 22
4.2 SPARGER PRESSURE......................................................................................................... 22
4.3 SPARGER AIR FLOW......................................................................................................... 22
4.4 COLUMN INTERFACE LEVEL ............................................................................................... 23
4.5 WASH WATER................................................................................................................. 23
5.0 TROUBLESHOOTING.................................................................................................25
5.1 PROBLEM HIGH ASH...................................................................................................... 25
5.1.1 Column Problems.................................................................................................... 25
5.1.2 Circuit Problems...................................................................................................... 25
5.2 PROBLEM LOW YIELD.................................................................................................... 25
5.2.1 Column Problems.................................................................................................... 25
5.2.2 Circuit Problems...................................................................................................... 26
6.0 SYSTEM MAINTENANCE............................................................................................27
6.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 27
6.2 COLUMN MAINTENANCE.................................................................................................... 27
6.3 SPARGER MAINTENANCE................................................................................................... 28
6.3.1 Orifice Wear............................................................................................................ 28
6.3.2 Tip Blockage........................................................................................................... 28
6.3.3 External Scaling...................................................................................................... 28
6.3.4 Sparger Removal for Inspection and Cleaning: ............................................................ 29
6.3.5 Poor Air Distribution................................................................................................. 30
6.4 COMPRESSOR AND AIR LINES............................................................................................. 30
7.0 COLLECTION ZONE THEORY...................................................................................31
7.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 31
7.2 RESIDENCE TIME.............................................................................................................. 31
7.2.1 Column Volume....................................................................................................... 32
7.2.2 Gas Holdup............................................................................................................. 32
7.3 AIR RATE....................................................................................................................... 33
CPT Inc.
CoalPro Operating & Maintenance Manual
7.3.1 Maximum............................................................................................................... 33
7.3.2 Optimum................................................................................................................ 34
7.4 PARTICLE AND BUBBLE SIZE............................................................................................... 34
7.4.1 Gas Velocity........................................................................................................... 34
7.4.2 Probability of Collection............................................................................................ 34
7.4.3 Solids Carrying Capacity.......................................................................................... 35
8.0 FROTH ZONE THEORY..............................................................................................36
8.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 36
8.2 FROTH CLEANING............................................................................................................. 37
8.3 GAS VELOCITY................................................................................................................ 37
8.4 FROTHER CONCENTRATION................................................................................................ 39
8.5 SUPERFICIAL BIAS RATE................................................................................................... 39
8.6 SELECTIVITY................................................................................................................... 41
8.7 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................... 42
9.0 PRODUCTION COLUMN TESTING..........................................................................43
9.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 43
9.2 AIR RATE....................................................................................................................... 43
9.3 WASH WATER BIAS......................................................................................................... 44
9.4 OPERATING LEVEL ........................................................................................................... 44
9.5 BUBBLE SIZE................................................................................................................... 45
9.6 RESIDENCE TIME.............................................................................................................. 45
9.7 WASH WATER DISTRIBUTOR HEIGHT ................................................................................... 46
9.8 SAMPLING...................................................................................................................... 46
9.9 COLLECTION ZONE DENSITY ESTIMATION............................................................................. 46
9.10 FROTH ZONE DENSITY ESTIMATION.................................................................................. 47
CPT CoalPro Introduction Page 1
Operating & Maintenance Manual
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 DESCRIPTION OF A FLOTATION COLUMN
The CPT CoalPro Flotation Column is a type of flotation machine that incorporates some unique design
features to enhance metallurgical performance. Some of these features include:
Reduced surface area to cell volume ratio to promote froth stability
Froth washing system to stabilize the froth and to minimize the entrainment of impurities
Quiescent flotation conditions to promote selectivity and enhance collection
Adjustable air sparging system to allow control of bubble size
Circular internal launders to enhance froth stability and minimize loaded bubble travel
distances, thus increasing recovery, especially of coarse particles.
CPT CoalPro Introduction Page 2
Operating & Maintenance Manual
Flotation Columns derive their name
from the geometric shape of the
vessel. Unlike conventional
mechanically agitated flotation
machines which tend to use
relatively shallow rectangular tanks,
column cells are tall vessels with
heights typically ranging from 25 ft
to 50 ft. The tank cross-section may
be either round, square or
rectangular depending on the
specific application. For an
equivalent volumetric capacity, the
surface area of the column cell is
much smaller than a conventional
cell. This reduced area is beneficial
for promoting froth stability and
allowing very deep froth beds to be
formed.
Figure 1 CoalPro Schemati c
Feed
Air &
Water
Clean
Coal
Tailing
CoalPro
SlamJet SlamJet
Wash Water
CPT CoalPro Introduction Page 3
Operating & Maintenance Manual
An important feature of flotation columns is the froth washing system. Froth washing provides an
additional means for removing unwanted impurities from the flotation froth. Wash water, added at the top
of the column, filters through the froth zone displacing process water and entrained particles trapped
between the bubbles. In addition, froth wash water serves to stabilize the froth by separating bubbles
into a packed bed of spherical, and therefore very strong, bubbles.
Unlike conventional flotation machines, columns do not use mechanical agitation. The absence of
intense agitation promotes selectivity and aids in the recovery of very coarse particles. The basic flow
streams in a column are illustrated in Figure 1. Feed slurry enters the column at one or more feed
points located in the upper third of the column body and descends against a rising swarm of fine
bubbles generated by the air sparging system. Particles which collide with, and attach to the bubbles,
rise to the top of the column, eventually reaching the interface between the pulp (collection zone) and
the froth (cleaning zone). The location of the interface, which can be adjusted by the operator, is held
constant by means of an automatic control loop which regulates a valve on the column tailings line.
Varying the location of the interface will increase or decrease the height of the froth zone.
Flotation air is introduced into an external manifold and is injected through a series of air lances
(sparger tubes) located near the bottom of the column. The air rate used in the column is selected
according to the feed rate and concentrate production requirements and will determine, in part, the point
on the ash / yield curve at which the column operates.
1.2 SlamJet
DESCRIPTION
CPTs patented SlamJet
s and the pattern of insertion is designed so as to ensure even distribution of fine bubbles.
The exact number and size of SlamJet
nozzle
prior to removal.
The quick-disconnect coupling is used to isolate the sparger air flow during removal.
SlamJet
nozzles initially should be checked monthly for fouling and wear. Worn nozzles can be quickly
and easily replaced while the column is in full operation. The inspection schedule can later be modified
on an experience basis.
In some applications it can be advantageous to administer flotation reagents, especially frother, into the
column along with the sparging air. This technique can result in tighter control of bubble size and can
also result in a reduction in frother consumption. In such cases, the frother (or other reagent) is added
with the sparger water, and is thus evenly distributed within the column.
1.3 GLOSSARY OF COLUMN FLOTATION TERMINOLOGY
The study of column flotation systems has resulted in new ways of examining flotation and some
specific terminology has evolved to describe the process. Some of the common terms are:
1.3.1 Bias
The term Bias (Superficial bias - Jb) is used to describe the flow of water (magnitude and direction)
through the froth zone into the collection zone. A positive bias is a net downward flow. It is often
estimated as the difference between the volumetric flow of the column underflow slurry and the
volumetric flow of the feed slurry rates divided by the cross-sectional area of the column.
1.3.2 Carrying Capacity
Three different carrying capacities have evolved;
CPT CoalPro Introduction Page 6
Operating & Maintenance Manual
Ca - The maximum overflow mass that a column can produce. This is commonly quoted in terms of
tonnes of solids per hour per square meter of cross sectional column area ST/hft
2
or t/hm
2
.
A theoretical value can be estimated from Ca = 0.03 D80 s.
Cg - The maximum solids floated per unit of air, commonly expressed in units of kilograms of
concentrate solids per cubic meter of air lb/ft
3
or kg/m
3
.
Cl - The maximum mass of pulp that can be transported over the lip of the column, normally
expressed as tonnes per hour per meter of lip length ST/hft or t/hm. Note that lip length
must include the length of all internal launders. This figure is critical in the design of large
columns.
1.3.3 Difference Wash
The volume of water in the feed subtracted from the volume of water in the underflow is one difference
wash. Any wash water added in excess of this amount is assumed to report to the overflow.
1.3.4 Displacement Wash
Displacement wash is the ratio of wash water to overflow water. A displacement wash of 1.0 means that
all the wash water reports to the overflow, while a displacement wash of 2.0 indicates an equal amount
of the water flow in the bias and overflow streams (assuming no feed water in the overflow).
1.3.5 Entrainment
Non-selective flotation caused by particles riding in a bubble's wake and thereby passing into the
column overflow. Entrainment is common in mechanical cells, particularly with small particles, but is
virtually eliminated in column flotation by the use of wash water.
1.3.6 Flow Conventions
Downward flow of slurry or liquid, and upward flow of air are defined as positive.
1.3.7 Gas Holdup
There are three types of holdup in a column reflecting it's three phase nature - solids (mineral), liquid
(water) and gas (air).
Gas Holdup (
g) is the fractional volume of gas. A typical value of gas holdup is 0.15 (or 15%) but this
value may range between 0.05 and 0.25 (5% to 25%).
Solids Holdup (
System, the CPT SlamJet
, and visually confirm that water mist is being expelled from the spargers.
Note individual SlamJet
s are designed to automatically fail closed. Visually check that this has occurred.
The automatic air flow control valve, if installed, is designed to fail closed. If automatic air flow control is
not installed, manually close the sparger air shut-off valve.
If the sparger water booster pump is still running, it should be shut down.
If the level controller has been programmed with a minimum closing for the underflow valve, then material
will continue to drain from the column. In this case, the manual underflow isolation valve should also be
closed, and care must be taken to drain the underflow line between the isolation valve and the pinch
valve to prevent sanding. Note that the short term shut-down procedure does NOT apply here since, in
an emergency situation, the column floatables will not have been removed.
2.12 COLUMN RE-START
If the column was shut down while under full operational load, it is possible that the column will be
sanded out. For coal processing columns which typically operate at fairly low densities, the probability
of sanding is low. If the column is operating at higher densities and there is a possibility of sanding, the
following re-start procedure should be followed;
CPT CoalPro Column Commissioning Page 17
Operating & Maintenance Manual
2.12.1 Re-Pulping
To repulp the column, connect water lines to the repulp lances and apply a water flow. After a short
period of time (10 to 20 minutes), the air should be re-started. The combination of lance water and
sparger air will serve to repulp the sanded contents at the bottom of the column.
2.12.2 Re-Starting Underflow
After the repulp lances and sparger air flows have been running for a period of time (20 to 30 minutes),
the underflow isolation valve should be SLOWLY opened to initiate flow.
WARNING:
If, during the shutdown period, material settles to a level ABOVE the spargers, it is IMPERATIVE to
thoroughly repulp the sanded contents and to open the underflow valve SLOWLY. Failure to observe this
procedure can cause a large slug of sanded material to move suddenly downward, possibly resulting in
SEVERE damage to the spargers by bending them down with the moving slug of material.
CPT CoalPro Column Operation Page 18
Operating & Maintenance Manual
3.0 COLUMN OPERATION
This section suggests approximate initial settings for some of the more common variables. These
variables should later be optimised during operation. Also given here are the general effects that
changing one variable will have on a column at steady state. The control system can compensate for
gradual variations, but quick swings in flow rates or pulses of high or low grade material may cause
poorer performance than would otherwise be expected. Therefore the feed volumetric slurry rate and total
flux of floatable material should be kept as constant as possible. Make sure that all control loops are
tuned to prevent unwanted oscillations.
3.1 SPARGER AIR
The column air rate is the most commonly adjusted and most effective control variable. The response to
changes in air rate will be very rapid (seconds to minutes). The normal operating levels for air addition
rates for column cells range from 0.5 cm/s to about 2.0 cm/s depending on the application. The
optimum rate will vary depending on bubble size, bubble loading and slurry velocities and must be
determined during normal operation.
Superficial gas velocities (cm/s) can be converted to free air flows as follows;
Example for 2.0 cm/s air velocity in a 14 ft. diameter column
Column Area =
2
/ 4 = 3.142 x 14 x 14 / 4 = 153.9 ft
2
.
Gas Velocity = 2.0 cm/s x 1.969 = 3.937 ft / min
Gas Flow (free gas) = 153.9 ft
2
x 3.937 ft/min = 606 cfm (ft
3
/min)
Increasing the air flow will generally have the following effects:
grade of the froth product will be reduced (more ash entrainment)
density (percent solids) in the overflow will be reduced (more water recovery)
recovery of solids to the column overflow will increase
These effects are only valid within a specific range of flow. Continued increase in the air rate will lead to
the onset of bubble coalescence which will have a severely detrimental effect on performance. Some
indications of excessive air rates are the loss of a well defined interface or excessive turbulence in the
froth zone. Increases in air will lead to increases in overflow production and will require a corresponding
increase in wash water rates to maintain a positive bias. Air volumetric flows below 0.5 cm/s may cause
froth bed collapse. In this case the froth zone depth will have to be reduced. (i.e. pulp level raised).
CPT CoalPro Column Operation Page 19
Operating & Maintenance Manual
3.2 INTERFACE LEVEL
The location of the interface level between the froth and pulp zones can influence both the concentrate
quality (ash) and clean coal recovery to overflow (yield). A deeper froth will increase the purity of the
froth by providing more time for the entrained impurities to drain from the froth. It will also, however,
result in a decrease in the recovery of the clean coal due to an increase in "drop-back".
The column level should normally be controlled in a range from 20 inches to 40 inches but can vary
depending on the stability of the froth. Little benefit is expected at depths greater than 60 inches. Much
shallower froths are possible and may be desirable if high yield is required and high ash can be
tolerated. Tests should be performed to predict performance at various interface levels.
3.3 WASH WATER BIAS
The non-selective entrainment of hydrophilic minerals (ash) can be reduced by preventing feed water
from entering the overflow. This is done by operating with a positive wash water bias. In general, this
means that the volumetric flow rate of underflow should be at least slightly greater than the volumetric
flow rate of feed to the column. The excess flow (tails minus feed) divided by column cross-sectional
area is defined as the bias velocity, or Jb.
The column should be operated with Jb in the range of 0.0 to 0.3 cm/s. A Jb of 0.05 cm/s is suggested at
start-up.
Increased bias flow will:
increase the displacement wash and underflow/feed ratio
increase the grade of the froth
reduce the recovery of clean coal
These effects do not continue indefinitely with increasing bias. Eventually channeling of the wash water
and breaking of the froth occurs that negates all the benefits of extra wash water. To ensure a positive
bias, maintain an underflow volumetric flow rate at least slightly greater than the feed volumetric flow rate
by adjusting the wash water flow rate.
CPT CoalPro Column Operation Page 20
Operating & Maintenance Manual
3.4 REAGENT DOSAGE
In order for a column to function properly, it is imperative that the chemical conditions of the feed are
correct prior to feeding the column. If the process is sensitive to fluctuations in pH, measurements
should be made at the column underflow to account for dilution effects caused by wash water addition.
3.4.1 Frother
Frother acts to stabilize the froth zone. Increased frother produces smaller bubbles which may or may
not improve collection of particles.
Frothers for coal flotation generally fall into two categories glycols and alcohols.
Glycols are much more effective than alcohols, but also produce a more persistent froth that can cause
material handling problems in other parts of the plant.
Alcohols are less effective but alcohol froths break and de-aerate more quickly than glycol froths.
In general, increasing the frother dosage will:
reduce bubble size
reduce the bias rate
reduce the percent solids in the overflow.
increase gas holdup in the collection zone
reduce the maximum air rate
CPT CoalPro Column Operation Page 21
Operating & Maintenance Manual
3.4.2 Collector
The most common coal collectors are fuel oil, kerosene or Diesel.
The presence of collector enhances the attachment of coal particles to air bubbles and thus directly
influences clean coal recovery.
In general, increasing the collector dosage will:
increase mass recovery
increase the percent solids in the overflow
increase ash content of froth
reduce gas holdup in the collection zone
increase the maximum air rate
reduce bubble size
Note that frother and collector often work against each other, and there is a tendency to overcome
problems caused by too much of one reagent by adding more of the other. This will almost certainly
lead to reagent overdosing, and must be avoided.
For example, low recovery typically indicates a need for more collector. Increasing the collector dosage
may cause the froth to dry out and collapse. This can be compensated for by increasing the frother
dosage. More frother can lead to a runny froth and increased ash entrainment in the froth. This can be
compensated for by adding more collector and so on.
The flotation operators first move to solve a flotation problem should always be to check dosing levels
and compare with normal levels. If reagent levels are already high, then selective reduction of reagents
may solve the problem at hand without causing any other problems.
CPT CoalPro Instrumentation & Control Page 22
Operating & Maintenance Manual
4.0 INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Columns can be instrumented with up to four automatic control loops: Column Interface Level,
Sparger Air Flow, Sparger Water Flow and Wash Water Flow. For most CoalPro applications,
sparger air, sparger water and wash water addition rates are manually controlled and only one automatic
control loop is required for column level. The description of the operation of the control loop(s) should
be read in conjunction with the Process and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID). This drawing lists the
normal, maximum and minimum flows for each process stream.
4.2 SPARGER PRESSURE
The pressure in the sparger manifold should be maintained between approximately 60 psi and 100 psi.
Sparger manifold pressure is a function of
SlamJet
orifice diameter is 0.30 inches (7.62 mm), and blockage is not expected to be a problem.
Initially CPT recommends that spargers be checked monthly. This interval can then be extended if no
plugging or serious scale formation problems are encountered.
In the case of blocked orifices the blockage should be removed. If tip blockage becomes a recurring
problem, consideration should be given to the installation of additional filters for the air lines.
6.3.3 External Scaling
In the presence of highly scale-forming slurries, the external surfaces of sparger tubes will become
scaled, making them difficult to remove for inspection. In severe cases, the external scale can cause
damage to the rubber seal in the liquid-tight insertion port seal assembly.
CPT CoalPro System Maintenance Page 29
Operating & Maintenance Manual
If scale formation is a problem then different spargers should be pulled on a rotating basis, as often as
required, and the external surfaces cleaned with an emery cloth. If scaling is a persistent problem,
please contact CPT.
6.3.4 Sparger Removal for Inspection and Cleaning:
Close the isolation valve at the manifold. The SlamJet
to clear it.
Removal of exterior scaling of the sparger tube will ensure that the tubes are always easy to remove.
To re-install the SlamJet
, insert the tube until the end comes into contact with the closed ball valve in
the insertion port. Tighten the compression fitting enough to stop leaks. Open the ball valve and push
the sparger tube into the column, the tighten the compression fitting by hand and attach the air line.
WARNING:
If SlamJet
s are pressurized while outside the column, the resulting high velocity air jet is extremely
hazardous. As a precautionary measure, always wear gloves when handling spargers that are operating
outside the column and DO NOT direct the air jet at personnel.
CPT CoalPro System Maintenance Page 30
Operating & Maintenance Manual
6.3.5 Poor Air Distribution
Uneven swelling of froth in the column may be a sign of poor air distribution caused by one or more
partially or fully blocked SlamJet
s.
This may be caused by insufficient air pressure in the system, blocked hoses which prevent air entry
into the sparger or one or more spargers being turned off.
In the unlikely event that the sparger holes become enlarged, the sparger nozzles must be replaced to
avoid a loss in metallurgical performance.
6.4 COMPRESSOR AND AIR LINES
Oil from the compressor should not be allowed to enter the column. This oil may cause flotation
problems, such as a excessive frothing and poor selectivity.
CPT CoalPro Collection Zone Theory Page 31
Operating & Maintenance Manual
7.0 COLLECTION ZONE THEORY
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The collection zone of the column is located between the froth interface (Hf) and the point of maximum
descent of the bubbles below the spargers (Hspa). In this zone floatable material from the feed stream
and material returned after rejection from the froth zone (drop-back) are collected by rising bubbles.
Recovery of material within the collection zone is dependent on the zone's residence time and mixing
characteristics.
7.2 RESIDENCE TIME
Collection zone residence time, as mentioned in the testwork section, is estimated for round columns
by the following equation;
sl
c
2
c spa f col sl
tail
( ) =
15 d ( H - H - H )(1 - / )
V
min
Where
sl = collection zone residence time (min)
dc = column diameter (m)
Hc = total column height (m)
Hspa = sparger level (m)
Hf = interface level (m)
col = collection zone density (t/m
3
)
sl = concentrate slurry density (t/m
3
)
Vtail = tailing (underflow) volumetric flowrate (m
3
/hr)
The equation has three parts: column volume, gas holdup and slurry velocity.
CPT CoalPro Collection Zone Theory Page 32
Operating & Maintenance Manual
G
a
s
H
o
l
d
u
p
-
E
g
(
%
)
Superficial Gas Velocity - J
g
(cm/s)
Figure 3 - Gas Holdup Vs Gas Velocity
from Dobby & Finch - 1988
10
30
20
Frother Concentration (ppm)
15
10
5
0
1 2 3 4
Figure 4 - Gas Holdup Vs Slurry Velocity
from Dobby & Finch - 1988
G
a
s
H
o
l
d
u
p
-
E
g
(
%
)
Superficial Slurry Velocity - J
sl
(cm/s)
0.5 1.0 1.5
10
30
20
Liquid Velocity J
L
( cm/s)
0.38
1.00
1.26
7.2.1 Column Volume
The volume of the collection zone is essentially fixed. Hf, the interface level, is the only variable which
can be easily changed to increase collection zone volume but the impact on residence time will be
small. The only significant way to influence residence time is to vary the column feed rate.
7.2.2 Gas Holdup
Gas holdup is the volume fraction of gas in the column. It is a parameter dependant on other variables
such as volumetric air rate, size of the bubbles, slurry density, solids bubble loading, and slurry velocity.
Increased gas holdup reduces collection zone residence time.
Gas holdup may increase due to three factors:
An increase in gas flow will increase the number of bubbles present in the column as more bubbles are
being generated in any time period.
A bubble size decrease caused by sparger operation or frother dosage will cause each bubble to rise
more slowly in the slurry, again causing an increased amount of air in the column.
An increase in downward slurry velocity will decrease bubble rise velocity relative to the column, also
resulting in an increase in the quantity of air held up in the column.
CPT CoalPro Collection Zone Theory Page 33
Operating & Maintenance Manual
7.3 AIR RATE
7.3.1 Maximum
The maximum air rate which a column is capable of handling is determined by three limits: (i) the
superficial feed rate must be less than the bubble rise velocity, (ii) the collection zone density must be
greater than the froth zone density and (iii) bubble coalescence must not form air slugs.
S
u
p
e
r
f
i
c
i
a
l
G
a
s
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
-
J
g
(
c
m
/
s
)
Superficial Slurry Velocity - J
sl
(cm/s)
Figure 5 - Column Flooding
from Dobby & Finch - 1986
1
3
2
-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 +0.5
Countercurrent Cocurrent
0.02
0.04
0.07
0.10
d
b
= 0.13 cm
Particle Size (m)
Figure 6 - Bubble & Particle Size Effects
from Dobby & Finch - 1988
E
c
*
E
a
(
%
)
Bubble Diameter (mm)
1.3
0.5
0.7
1.0
20 40 60
0.5
3.0
1.0
(i) Bubble rise velocity depends on bubble size, the difference between the apparent collection
zone and bubble densities, and downward slurry velocity. A distribution of bubbles sizes is produced by
any sparging system. Therefore, when the slurry feed rate exceeds the rise velocity of the smallest
bubble, a percentage of the air is lost to the underflow.
(ii) As the gas rate to the column increases the three phase density of the collection zone
decreases. At the same time the density of the froth zone will increase until the two are equal. At this
point the gas holdup will suddenly increase from about 15% to over 50%. When this occurs, the column
is said to be frothed up. Recoveries drop significantly under these conditions.
(iii) The increased turbulence and larger bubbles formed at higher gas rates cause an increase in
bubble coalescence which results in a decrease in the incremental gas holdup. Eventually, severe
coalescence will result in the formation of large slugs of air. This effect changes the column mixing
characteristics and reduces both the surface area available for flotation and the collection of particles on
the bubble surface. One of these factors will probably limit the maximum column gas velocity to
between 1.8 and 3.5 cm/s.
CPT CoalPro Collection Zone Theory Page 34
Operating & Maintenance Manual
7.3.2 Optimum
The optimum gas rate usually occurs at the point at which solids loading per gas volume is maximized
(Cg) rather than at the maximum gas holdup. Maximum gas holdup usually occurs at a gas rate larger
than optimum.
7.4 PARTICLE AND BUBBLE SIZE
Both the average size of bubbles and distribution of bubble sizes are important to column flotation. They
affect maximum gas rate, probability of particle collection on the bubble, and solids gas carrying
capacity (Cg). Bubbles used are typically between 0.8 and 1.6 mm in diameter with the actual size
depending on reagent conditions, sparger design, and operating pressure.
7.4.1 Gas Velocity
Smaller bubbles have a reduced rise velocity, therefore, the maximum gas rate will be less than that
possible with larger bubbles.
7.4.2 Probability of Collection
The flotation rate constant of a column has been related to the probability of particle - bubble collision
and attachment by the following equation:
c
g
a c
b
k =
1.5 J
d
Where
kc is the flotation rate constant (min
-1
).
c is defined as the fraction of particles contained in the cylindrical volume traveled by the
bubble which collide with that bubble.
a is defined by the fraction of particles which have collided with the bubble that attach to
that bubble.
db is defined as the bubble diameter in m.
Bubble size should be adjusted for changing particle size to fully optimize a column. This can be
achieved in two ways: (i) by adding a frother to the feed or (ii) by increasing the sparger pressure.
CPT CoalPro Collection Zone Theory Page 35
Operating & Maintenance Manual
7.4.3 Solids Carrying Capacity
0.05 0.10 0.15
B
u
b
b
l
e
D
i
a
m
e
t
e
r
(
m
m
)
Frother Consumption (mg/scm
2
)
Figure 7 - Effect of Frother on Holdup
from Dobby & Finch - 1988
Slurry
Frother
Sparger
Frother
1.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
The amount of solids which can be carried by a bubble are influenced by the following factors: surface
area to volume ratio, solids density, and particle size, hydrophobicity, and particle shape.
Smaller bubbles have larger surface areas per volume and therefore can carry more solids per air
volume. (The slower rise velocity of the smaller bubbles reduces the air volume which can be added to
the column.) Very small bubbles (micro bubbles) may cause loss of collected solids to the underflow
stream when bubble density (collected solids plus air) reduces bubble rise velocity to values smaller
than the slurry velocity. More hydrophobic particles attach to the bubble faster therefore have a larger
Ea. Particles which are highly angular tend to attach more quickly.
CPT CoalPro Froth Zone Theory Page 36
Operating & Maintenance Manual
8.0 FROTH ZONE THEORY
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The froth zone extends from the collection or pulp zone interface to the column lip. In this zone solids
and water are carried between bubbles. The three phase density of this zone usually ranges from 0.2 to
1.0 g/cm
3
, depending on the solids floated, location of measurement, froth depth, wash water, and
frother dosage.
Wash water stabilizes the bubbles and reduces coalescence. Figure 8 illustrates this effect by showing
the change in holdup with level of the column (with wash water) and a mechanical cell (without wash
water).
20 40 60 80
Gas Holdup - E
g
(%)
F
r
o
t
h
D
e
p
t
h
(
a
p
p
r
o
x
.
1
.
0
m
)
Figure 8 - Conv. Vs Column Holdup
from Dobby & Finch - 1988
Overflow
Interface
Conventional
Froth
Collection
Zone
Froth Zone
Column Froth
Wash Water Concentrate
Negative
Bias
Positive
Bias
Interface
Level
Draining
Froth Bed
E
g
> 0.80
Packed
Bubble Bed
E
g
> 0.74
Expanded
Bubble Bed
E
g
< 0.74
Bubbling
Zone
E
g
< 0.20
Figure 9 - Froth Zone Profile
from Yianatos - 1985
As the bubbles ascend the froth zone a certain amount of coalescence occurs. This reduces the bubble
surface area available for solids and also decreases the volume of the voids between bubbles occupied
by water. This property appears as an increase in gas holdup with height and is illustrated in Figure 9.
CPT CoalPro Froth Zone Theory Page 37
Operating & Maintenance Manual
8.2 FROTH CLEANING
Since there is a net downward flow of water in the froth zone (assuming a positive bias) particles not
attached to bubbles will be carried back into the collection zone. This includes particles that are carried
with, but not attached, to bubbles (non-selective entrainment) and particles that become detached from
the bubble due to coalescence. These particles, returned to the collection zone via the wash water, form
a partial internal solids recycle. This is commonly termed "drop-back", and is the reason behind the
increased grade and lower recovery at deeper interface levels (Figures 10 and 11).
C
o
p
p
e
r
R
e
c
o
v
e
r
y
(
%
)
Froth Depth (m)
Figure 10 - Cu Recovery Vs Froth Depth
from Huls - 1989
50
80
70
60
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
e
G
r
a
d
e
(
%
N
i
)
Froth Depth (m)
Figure 11 - Ni Grade Vs Froth Depth
from Huls - 1989
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
0.4
1.0
0.8
0.6
8.3 GAS VELOCITY
An increase in gas velocity results in an increased collection zone holdup and a decreased froth zone
holdup (Figure 12). Less coalescence occurs in the froth zone as gas rate is increased, therefore, froth
grade deteriorates. Very high air rates may result in a loss of the interface.
This is apparent when the holdup in the froth and collection zones are equal. This condition can
contribute to the rapid drop in grade found at high recoveries on typical column grade / recovery curves
(Figure 13).
CPT CoalPro Froth Zone Theory Page 38
Operating & Maintenance Manual
Overflow
Interface
Collection
Zone
Froth Zone
Gas Holdup - E
g
(%)
F
r
o
t
h
D
e
p
t
h
(
a
p
p
r
o
x
.
1
.
0
m
)
Figure 12 - Effect of J
g
on Gas Holdup
from Dobby & Finch - 1988
20 40 60 80
J
g
J
g
G
r
a
d
e
(
%
)
Recovery (%)
Figure 13 - Rghr Column Grade/Recovery
48
54
52
50
92 94 96 98
20 40 60 80
Gas Holdup - E
g
(%)
F
r
o
t
h
D
e
p
t
h
(
a
p
p
r
o
x
.
1
.
0
m
)
Overflow
Interface
Collection
Zone
Froth Zone
Figure 14 - Effect of Frother on Gas Holdup
from Dobby & Finch - 1988
Frother
Frother
20 40 60 80
Gas Holdup - E
g
(%)
F
r
o
t
h
D
e
p
t
h
(
a
p
p
r
o
x
.
1
.
0
m
)
Overflow
Interface
Collection
Zone
Froth
Zone
Figure 15 - Effect of Bias on Gas Holdup
from Dobby & Finch - 1988
J
b
CPT CoalPro Froth Zone Theory Page 39
Operating & Maintenance Manual
Increased gas velocity also results in a higher possibility of feed water reporting to the overflow (Figure
14) which lowers the purity of the froth product.
8.4 FROTHER CONCENTRATION
For applications where frothers are used, an increase in frother concentration has an effect similar to
that of high air addition rates. The froth zone gas holdup (Figure 15) decreases causing lower froth
percent solids and a decrease in froth grade. High frother dosages, especially when combined with high
air rates, can be detrimental to column performance.
20 40 60 80
Feed Water in Froth (%)
F
r
o
t
h
D
e
p
t
h
(
a
p
p
r
o
x
.
1
.
0
m
)
Overflow
Interface
Collection
Zone
Froth
Zone
Figure 16 - Effect of J
g
on Entrainment
from Dobby & Finch - 1988
Feed Water Bias
Water
J
g
>2.5 cm/s
<1.5 cm/s
P
b
R
e
c
o
v
e
r
y
(
%
)
Superficial Wash Velocity - J
w
(cm/s)
Figure 17 - Wash Water Grade/Recovery
from Kosick & Kuehn - 1987
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
e
G
r
a
d
e
(
%
P
b
)
72
84
80
76
20
80
60
40
0.08 0.16 0.24 0.32 0.40
Polaris
Grade
Recovery
8.5 SUPERFICIAL BIAS RATE
A change in the superficial bias flow can also influence the gas holdup (Figure 16). Increased wash
water flow rates reduce the amount of coalescence that occurs by minimizing inter-bubble contact. At
very high addition rates, bubble collapse due to impaction and washing (depends on both flow and wash
water distribution design) may occur. Any improvement in performance resulting from an increased posi-
tive bias (Figure 17) suddenly disappears when channeling of the wash water begins.
The drop is illustrated in Figure 17 and Figure 18. As the superficial bias velocity (Jb) is increased from
0.1 cm/s to 0.3 cm/s, in Figure 11, less feed water is found in the overflowing froth. This changes with a
sudden transition somewhere between 0.3 and 0.5 cm/s (the exact flow will depend on the design of the
wash water header). Figure 19 illustrates the entrainment relationship, in a mechanical cell, with feed
CPT CoalPro Froth Zone Theory Page 40
Operating & Maintenance Manual
water that reports to the flotation product. Three different sized particles are shown: 5, 10 and 20
micrometers. Manual changes in the wash water rate will alter the superficial bias rate when using level,
or displacement bias control method.
20 40 60 80
Feed Water in Froth (%)
F
r
o
t
h
D
e
p
t
h
(
a
p
p
r
o
x
.
1
.
0
m
)
Overflow
Interface
Collection
Zone
Froth Zone
Figure 18 - Effect of J
b
on Feed Water in Conc
from Dobby & Finch - 1988
J
b
~0.5 cm/s
J
b
~0.3 cm/s
J
b
~0.1 cm/s
S
o
l
i
d
s
R
e
c
o
v
e
r
y
(
%
)
Water Recovery (%)
Figure 19 - Recovery of Solids Vs Water
40
5 m
10 m
20 m
20 40 60
10
30
20
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
e
G
r
a
d
e
(
%
)
Distance Below Column Lip (cm)
Figure 20 - Grade & Selectivity with Depth
from Dobby & Finch - 1988
20
60
30
10
70
50 100 0 150
Column Size 45 x 45 x 1,200 cm
Molybdenum
Chalcopyrite
Silica
Pyrite
W
a
s
h
W
a
t
e
r
I
n
p
u
t
I
n
t
e
r
f
a
c
e
CPT CoalPro Froth Zone Theory Page 41
Operating & Maintenance Manual
8.6 SELECTIVITY
Selectivity occurs in the froth zone; the less floatable particles drop back into the collection zone as
indicated in Fig 20. In this diagram Silica, Chalcopyrite and Pyrite grade reductions are traced.
There is also a size class selection. Larger particles are usually the ones that remain locked and are
therefore "middling" in nature and subject to washing. Larger particles project further from the bubble
surface and are subject to more force from the passing wash water stream.
CPT CoalPro Froth Zone Theory Page 42
Operating & Maintenance Manual
8.7 REFERENCES
Amelunxen, R.L., (1985). The Mechanics of Operation of Column Flotation Machines.
Proceedings of the 17th Annual CMP Meeting, Ottawa, January 1985
Egan, J.R., Fairweather, M.J., and Meekel, W.A., (1988). Applications of Column Flotation to Lead
and Zinc Beneficiation at Cominco.
1st International Symposium on Column Flotation, AIME, Phoenix
del Villar, R., Gomez, C.O., Finch, J.A., and Espinosa-Gomez, R.,(1989). Flotation column
amenability and scale-up parameter estimation tests. C.I.M. International Symposium on the
Processing of Complex Ores, Halifax.
Dobby, G.S., and Finch, J.A., (1988). Column Short Course, Cambourne School of Mines, Cornwall,
England.
Huls, B.J., Lachance, C.D., and Dobby, G.S., (1989). Gas rate and froth depth effects on
performance of a Cu-Ni separation flotation column. C.I.M. International Symposium on the Processing
of Complex Ores, Halifax.
Wheeler, D.A., (1988). Historical View of Column Cell Development. Presented at 1st Int. Symp. on
Column Flotation, A.I.M.E., Phoenix
Wilson, S.W., (1987). The Study of Flotation Column Rate Constants as a Function of Particle Size.
B.A.Sc. Thesis, Dept. of Geological Engineering, University of Toronto.
CPT CoalPro Production Column Testing Page 43
Operating & Maintenance Manual
9.0 PRODUCTION COLUMN TESTING
9.1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of conducting testwork is to determine the optimum parameter settings to maximize
column performance under varying plant operating conditions. Generally, a column operates best under
steady-state conditions; the fewer disturbances in the system the better. Considering this, operation
should be as smooth as possible, and any changes in interface level, wash water, air or reagent
additions should be made slowly.
When performing testwork, a minimum number of variables should be changed at one time -
ideally only one - so that the fewest number of effects interact.
It is important to remember that a column has a significant residence time and therefore an ability to
accumulate floatable solids through internal recycle. If solids are building up due to insufficient air rate or
other froth transport problems, excellent grades can be achieved without immediately sacrificing
recovery. These solids, however, will eventually report to the underflow resulting in a significant
deterioration of metallurgical performance. High solids loading may cause excessive coalescence in the
froth zone and appear as "burping" or "volcanoes" in the froth. Therefore, whenever a grade / recovery
curve is being constructed, values should not be recorded until a steady state is reached - which may
take as long as three column residence times after the last change.
9.2 AIR RATE
The amount of material floated is very sensitive to the rate of air introduced through the spargers. In the
first few days of operation with a new type of feed material, the reagent dosages and air flow rate should
be adjusted to give optimal grade/recovery performance. Record the air loading (amount of solids carried
per unit of air) as kg/m
3
. When the column feed rate changes, repeat the test. The purpose of these
tests is to create a chart of air requirement Vs overflow tonnage production that can be used by
operators. The amount of air needed to float a specific amount of solids is dependant on both the
particle size and the bubble size. A decrease in particle size will increase the required air while an
decrease in bubble size will decrease the required air.
CPT CoalPro Production Column Testing Page 44
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9.3 WASH WATER BIAS
Jb values should be determined for each test in order to optimize the wash water addition rate. During
these tests the feed tonnage and all operating parameters should remain constant while the wash water
is altered.
As wash water addition is reduced from the optimum, a slight, possibly unnoticeable, decrease in froth
purity should occur. This will be accompanied by a decrease in the overflow percent solids. This
relationship between the bias flow and decreasing percent solids continues until a critical point is
reached at which time some water from the pulp zone moves upward and overflows with the froth. When
this happens, the column is said to be operating at negative bias and entrainment of fine impurities in
the froth will increase.
At high gas rates the froth will be much more turbulent causing both a higher froth density and
entrainment at higher bias rates.
As the water addition is increased, the recovery of gangue to overflow will begin to decrease and the
froth density will increase. As the water is further increased, larger particles and middling particles will
begin to detach from the bubbles causing a decrease in the recovery of the floated minerals. This will
continue until channeling of the wash water occurs in the froth, or the wash water beats the froth too
severely causing collapse. These conditions will cause a rapid deterioration of performance.
Under normal production rates the wash water should be increased until performance deteriorates. This
value is the maximum wash water rate. This upper flowrate should be consistent at different production
rates.
The minimum wash water rate can be determined by reducing the wash water flow until froth impurity
levels become too high. This lower limit will depend on the production rate.
9.4 OPERATING LEVEL
Both the maximum and minimum column froth levels should be determined.
The maximum froth depth or lowest pulp level is the point at which the froth collapses. This level will
depend on the gas rate, reagent concentration, and the amount of solids being floated. Generally, there
is little benefit to operating at depths greater than 1,000 mm.
The minimum froth depth or highest froth pulp level is the point where insufficient froth cleaning occurs.
Significant entrainment can occur when operating with very shallow froths.
The column should be able to maintain performance at interface levels as high as 400 mm below the lip,
possibly higher, and also retain a stable froth while operating as low as 2,000 mm.
CPT CoalPro Production Column Testing Page 45
Operating & Maintenance Manual
While operating under steady conditions, slowly alter the level and note any changes in grade and
recovery. Use this information to construct a grade / recovery curve Vs interface level response plot at
varied air rates.
9.5 BUBBLE SIZE
Bubble size is a column parameter that is not monitored very frequently. It will affect the carrying
capacities of the column and possibly the selectivity of different size fractions.
Bubble size can be altered somewhat by changing the sparger system pressure. This pressure should
be altered to determine the grade / recovery response. For finer particle sizes, recovery is usually better
when smaller bubbles are generated. Bubble size can also be significantly affected by frother addition.
Note, however, that use of frother addition solely to control bubble size, especially in circuits
incorporating recirculating streams, can lead to serious frother overdoses.
9.6 RESIDENCE TIME
The following equation is used to determine the column slurry residence time:
sl
c c spa f
col sl
conc
( ) =
60 A ( H - H - H )(1 - / )
V
min
Where
1
Ac = column area (m
2
)
Hspa = sparger height from base (m)
Hc = total column height (m)
Hf = interface level (m)
col = collection zone density (t/m
3
)
slu
2
= concentrate slurry density (t/m
3
)
Vconc = concentrate volumetric flowrate (m
3
/hr)
1
Collection zone volume = dc
2
(Hc - Hspa - Hf)
Gas holdup = 1- ( col )
sl
2
As determined by sampling the underflow line density or on-line density meter.
CPT CoalPro Production Column Testing Page 46
Operating & Maintenance Manual
9.7 WASH WATER DISTRIBUTOR HEIGHT
For columns using a submerged in-froth style wash water distribution system, the position of the wash
water distribution pipes can influence the froth characteristics. When the pipes are set deep into the
froth bed, the efficiency of cleaning will improve. There will less short circuiting of wash water to the
column overflow and this will result in an increase in the froth density. Froth zone recovery may
decrease slightly.
If the distributor is positioned right at the froth surface it may interfere with transport of froth to the
launders. When the distributor is located above the froth, froth density will be lower due to some short
circuiting of water to the column overflow. This will result in a slight decrease in cleaning efficiency.
Tests should be conducted with the distributor at different positions to determine the performance
characteristics of the system. Maintain as many variables constant as possible and vary the distributor
height. Record the recovery and concentrate density.
9.8 SAMPLING
All sampling should be standardized and samples should easy to obtain.
Sampling should commence at t = 3 x NRT (nominal residence time) after the last parameter change.
Samples should consist of a composite of at least three (3) separate cuts taken at timed intervals. For
example, one cut every 5 minutes over a fifteen minute period will generate a four cut composite.
Sample all streams and obtain the wet and dry weights. Assay, then calculate the mass balances.
Sample sizes should be large enough to allow future screen analyses, possible including chemical
screen analyses or size-by-assay.
Note - it is also advisable to use a stopwatch to record the exact collection period for each sample, and
to also record the wet sample volume. These data can then be used to determine volumetric flow rates,
which can, in turn, be used as a check against material balances calculated from assays.
Use a results table similar to Table I for each test. If possible, O.S.A. results and feed, concentrate and
wash water flow charts should be included covering a period of two column residence times.
9.9 COLLECTION ZONE DENSITY ESTIMATION
If the column has been equipped with pressure transducers, the collection zone density can be
estimated by raising the interface level to the a point just below the overflow lip and reading the pressure
transducer signal. This estimation will only be good at one point on a density contour which is a function
of air rate, slurry velocity, and bubble size.
CPT CoalPro Production Column Testing Page 47
Operating & Maintenance Manual
9.10 FROTH ZONE DENSITY ESTIMATION
Density can be estimated by lowering the level of the interface from one point to another while noting the
pressure readings of both levels. The pressure difference will be a function of the difference between the
densities and level. This represents only one point on a continual plane which is a function of feed
grade, feed rate, reagent concentration, air rate, and wash water rate.
A typical column cell test data sheet is shown below. This sheet is intended as an example. Data
sheets suitable to each specific application should be prepared on site to reflect actual conditions,
analyses, etc.
Prior to column cell testing, the geometry of the cell should be accurately recorded to allow calculation
of the several key column performance parameters, such as carrying rate, bias rate, gas holdup, etc.