UNIT V ESSENTIALS FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION IN ENGLISH

Improving Vocabulary stock-general and technical vocabulary-British and American

vocabulary-homophones & homonyms, idioms and phrases-Different grammatical
functions of the same word-Grammar-Tenses, Voice, reported speech, Modals, spoken
English structures, formal and informal-letters, project reports, descriptions, circulars,
synopsis and summary writing. Listening skills for competitive exams-Reading skills-
skimming and scanning Reading journals, magazines and newspapers for
comprehension. Practical use of English conversation, seminars, individual speeches and
group discussions. Reference skills-Using dictionary, thesaurus and encyclopedia
effectively. Error shooting for better use of English.


Improving Vocabulary:
Effective Ways to Improve Vocabulary: Tip #1
Studying lists of words is not the way. Spending time at the neighborhood Starbucks, I see plenty
of university students preparing for the verbal section of the GRE with storebought word lists,
fastidiously prepared flash cards, and other trappings of standardized test mania best served
alongside a venti mocha. While not entirely futile, this list-based approach to vocabulary
building is misguided at best. Words exist in contexts, and studying words divorced from their
contexts makes those words harder to learn - and worse yet, harder to use later. (Think of it this
way: if you want to improve your racquetball serve, you'll probably want to position yourself in
an actual racquetball court, right?).
Effective Ways to Improve Vocabulary: Tip #2
Read a lot. The experience of encountering unfamiliar words in print is remarkably instructive.
First, because you're already engaged in reading something, you are arguably more motivated to
learn a new word so that you better understand what you're voluntarily reading. Second, you
have come across the word organically rather than artificially (i.e. in a vocabulary list). You'll
pick up new words - and clarify meanings of words already in your toolkit - by exposing yourself
to them in their, shall we say, natural habitat. The context will enrich your attempt to build a
better vocabulary.
Effective Ways to Improve Vocabulary: Tip #3
Read good writing. I admit that "good writing" is a contentious term, but in general, I consider
writing to be"good" if it communicates complex ideas in ways that are clear and concise yet
thorough and detailed. In other words, thereshould bea tension between sometimes
keeping it simple and sometimes using so-called "big words" words because they communicate
something that common words just can't. To put it another way, look for writing that has an
intellectual, exploratory bent.
So, what should you read regularly? I'm not qualified to prescribe exact sources for all, but I'll
reveal my biases and recommend some periodicals and blogs I like:
The New York Times (especiallyon Sundays)
The New Yorker
The Utne Reader
Salon (www.salon.com)
Malcolm Gladwell's Blog (www.gladwell.typepad.com)
There's a more liberal orientation to the above, but if you prefer socially conservative reading, try
the National Review or anything by Ann Coulter. Also, the above are all periodicals or blogs.
Regular books are equally effective, and it would be imprudent to ignore them. Fiction (the sort
good enough to be classified as literature) and nonfiction are both bound to build your
vocabulary.
Effective Ways to Improve Vocabulary: Tip #4.
Don't (exclusively) read fluff. It's okay to indulge in less intellectual reading and writing. We all
do it, and it can be fun. But don't read fluff so steadfastly that you ignore heavier stuff. USA
Today is an example of a fluff newspaper notorious for watering down concepts and avoiding
sophisticated language in order to appeal to the masses. Although it's arguable that they're doing
some good by making news more accessible to a wider group of readers, they're also guilty of
neglecting critical shades of grey when it comes to politics, economics, sociology, and the other
disciplines they typically cover. Unless your vocabulary is indubitably weak, you're not going to
improve it by reading something like USA Today.
Effective Ways to Improve Vocabulary: Tip #5.
Diversity of topics is important. Read some natural science stuff. Then read some applied science
stuff. Read some contemporary literature. Then read some Shakespeare. Comb through a pop
psychology book and then consume a humorous work (and no fair saying those last two are the
same!). Varied reading will sharpen both general and subject-specific vocabularies. The
diversity of reading material at liberal arts colleges is one reason that graduates of such schools
generally possess better vocabularies. History. Philosophy. Biology. Travel. Anthropology.
Linguistics. Art. Gender Studies. Politics. You don't have to be an expert in all disciplines to
build a meaty vocabulary, but you do need to be a well-informed reader who's confident and
comfortable reading on topics outside your areas of immediate expertise.
Effective Ways to Improve Vocabulary: Tip #6.
The process of improving your vocabulary is ongoing - not so much a discrete act as a
component of everyday edification. You can't just sit down for five minutes a day and say, "I'm
going to do my vocabulary workout right now." It's not like doing ab crunches or squat thrusts.
Effective Ways to Improve Vocabulary: Tip #7.
Stop and look up unfamiliar words immediately. Read with a thorough dictionary handy - never
a reductive, overly abridged pocket model. Better yet, use a resource like www.dictionary.com,
which provides definitions from multiple sources and often gives useful examples of the
vocabulary in action. And don't just hastily look up the word and move on. Take time to
understand pronunciation, say the word aloud, and read the sample sentences if they're present.
Doing so will help firm your grasp on the new language.
Effective Ways to Improve Vocabulary: Tip #8.
Don't limit yourself to learning new words in print. Picking up vocabulary in the midst of a
public lecture, a PBS show, or a radio broadcast might be a little trickier (because spelling isn't
obvious), but it's doable. You may even want to jot down phonetic versions words that you
encounter when you're indisposed and theninvestigate them when you have free time.
Effective Ways to Improve Vocabulary: Tip #9.
Try out your new vocabulary in speech and writing. While I don't advocate standing around
waiting for the chance to drop your newest gewgaw, don't be afraid to experiment with language.
It is incumbent upon us as English speakers to celebrate the language by actually using it.
Sprinkle new words in your blogs, in your emails, and in your conversationsso long as they're
germane.


Effective Ways to Improve Vocabulary: Tip #10.
Delight in language. It sounds absurd for me to preach this. After all, how can I insist that people
revel in words? But the truth is that you'll learn more effectively when you find it enjoyable. Let
me illustrate.
Look at the word "aspersion." It's a term that I first encountered several years ago. Although I
recognized the word, I admitted to myself that I didn't really understand exactly what it meant.
When I looked it up, I was surprised to see that it had two basic meanings: one related to slander
and one related to holy water. Depending on your attitude toward the church, there is some
laughable irony present. I consistently come across little gems - funny stories, unusual origins,
previously unfamiliar double meanings.and it's, well, fun! I hope that, when you reach for the
dictionary to define a new vocabulary word, it's not something you dread.
Effective Ways to Build Vocabulary: Final Thought
Don't overdo it. Remember: there's a reason why words like "encomium" and "ossified" are not
used on a daily basis. Many vocabulary words derive their power and import from their
infrequent deployment.
Technical Vocabulary:
Having a good understanding of technical vocabulary is a requirement of many academic
disciplines. Often in the fields of Science, Engineering and Medicine, amongst others, there will
be a need to manipulate technical language with ease and fluency. In Arts, Humanities and
Social science disciplines, there will also be a requirement to use what may be termed
'specialised' vocabulary, though this will not usually be deemed to be 'technical'.
Using technical vocabulary can be a daunting task, and the English tutor may not necessarily be
an expert in your subject area. It is reassuring to remember, however, that not even a native
speaker can know all the words in his or her own language, and that technical vocabulary is
generally used only by specialists in the field, who work within a particular academic
community.
One solution to the difficulty of using technical vocabulary is to consult some of the many on-
line dictionaries and glossaries of specialized words in the English language.
Although working with technical language is difficult, there is also some good news!
Despite the difficulty of learning and acquiring technical vocabulary, many technical
words have Greek or Latin base forms, and these can be easy to recognise.
Some technical words are the same across a range of different languages.
Many writers provide clues about whether a word is technical or not, for example, they
may define the word in the text, write the word in bold, inverted commas or italics, or in
a diagram.
Often, technical vocabulary is repeated within specialised text, indicating its
importance.
The technical use of a word can be better understood by looking up the full definition of
the word, with all its uses, in a good English-English dictionary.
Some technical words are used outside the academic area with little change in
meaning.
British English (BrE) is the form of English used in the United Kingdom. It includes all
English dialects used in the United Kingdom.
American English (AmE) is the form of English used in the United States. It includes all
English dialects used in the United States.
British and American vocabulary:
Written forms of British and American English as found in newspapers and textbooks vary little
in their essential features, with only occasional noticeable differences in comparable media
[1]

(comparing American newspapers with British newspapers, for example). This kind of formal
English, particularly written English, is often called "standard English".
[2][3]

The spoken forms of British English vary considerably, reflecting a long history of dialect
development amid isolated populations. In the United Kingdom, dialects, word use and accents
vary not only between England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales, but also within them.
Received Pronunciation (RP) refers to a way of pronouncing standard English that is actually
used by about two percent of the UK population.
[4]
It remains the accent upon which dictionary
pronunciation guides are based, and for teaching English as a foreign language. It is referred to
colloquially as "the Queen's English", "Oxford English" and "BBC English", although by no
means all who live in Oxford speak with such an accent and the BBC does not require or use it
exclusively.
[5]

An unofficial standard for spoken American English has also developed, as a result of mass
media and geographic and social mobility, and broadly describes the English typically heard
from network newscasters, commonly referred to as non-regional diction, although local
newscasters tend toward more parochial forms of speech.
[6]
Despite this unofficial standard,
regional variations of American English have not only persisted but have actually intensified,
according to linguist William Labov.
[citation needed]

Regional dialects in the United States typically reflect some elements of the language of the main
immigrant groups in any particular region of the country, especially in terms of pronunciation
and vernacular vocabulary. Scholars have mapped at least four major regional variations of
spoken American English: Northern, Southern, Midland, and Western.
[7]
After the American
Civil War, the settlement of the western territories by migrants from the east led to dialect
mixing and levelling, so that regional dialects are most strongly differentiated in the eastern parts
of the country that were settled earlier. Localized dialects also exist with quite distinct variations,
such as in Southern Appalachia and New York.
British and American English are the reference norms for English as spoken, written, and taught
in the rest of the world. For instance, other member nations of the Commonwealth where English
is not spoken natively, such as India, which often closely follow British English forms, while
many American English usages are followed in other countries which have been historically
influenced by the United States, such as the Philippines. Although most dialects of English used
in the former British Empire outside North America and Australia are, to various extents, based
on British English, most of the countries concerned have developed their own unique dialects,
particularly with respect to pronunciation, idioms and vocabulary. Chief among other English
dialects are Canadian English (based on the English of United Empire Loyalists who left the 13
Colonies),
[8]
and Australian English, which rank third and fourth in the number of native
speakers.
For the most part American vocabulary, phonology and syntax are used, to various extents, in
Canada; therefore many prefer to refer to North American English rather than American
English.
[9]
Nonetheless Canadian English also features many British English items and is often
described as a unique blend of the two larger varieties alongside several distinctive
Canadianisms. Australian English likewise blends American and British alongside native usages,
but retains a significantly higher degree of distinctiveness from both the larger varieties than
does Canadian English, particularly in terms of pronunciation and vocabulary.
Homophones & homonyms:
HOMONYMS are words that sound alike but have different meanings. Homophones are a type
of homonym that also sound alike and have different meanings, but have different spellings.
HOMOGRAPHS are words that are spelled the same but have different meanings. Heteronyms
are a type of homograph that are also spelled the same and have different meanings, but sound
different.
Homonyms
Homonyms, or multiple meaning words, are words that share the same spelling and the same
pronunciation but have different meanings. For example, bear.
A bear (the animal) can bear (tolerate) very cold temperatures.
The driver turned left (opposite of right) and left (departed from) the main road.
Homophones, also known as sound-alike words, are words that are pronounced identically
although they have different meanings and often have different spellings as well. These words
are a very common source of confusion when writing. Common examples of sets of homophones
include: to, too, and two; they're and their; bee and be; sun and son; which and witch; and plain
and plane. VocabularySpellingCity is a particularly useful tool for learning to correctly use and
spell the soundalike words.

Homographs
Homographs are words that are spelled the same, but have different meanings and are often
pronounced differently as well. Some examples of homographs are:
bass as in fish vs bass as in music,
bow as in arrow vs bow as in bending or taking a bow at the end of a performance,
close as in next to vs close as in shut the door,
desert as in dry climate vs desert as in leaving alone.

Currently, VocabularySpellingCity cannot distinguish between homographs, as we are unable to
have two pronounciations for the exact same word. We are looking for possibilities in the future.
Heteronyms or Heterophones
Same Spelling, Different Pronunciations, Different Meanings. All heteronyms are homographs,
but not all homographs are heteronyms. See why this concept can be so confusing to learn?
Wind: I need to wind the alarm clock so I can fly my kite in the early morning gusty wind.
Record: Please record the program when they try to beat the world record for word nerdiness.
Excuse: Please excuse this poor excuse for art.


idioms:
An idiom is a combination of words that has a figurative meaning, due to its common usage. An
idiom's figurative meaning is separate from the literal meaning or definition of the words of
which it is made. Idioms are numerous and they occur frequently in all languages. There are
estimated to be at least 25,000 idiomatic expressions in the English language.
An idiom is a common word or phrase with a culturally understood meaning that differs from
what its composite words' denotations would suggest. For example, an English speaker would
understand the phrase "kick the bucket" to mean "to die" as well as to actually kick a bucket.
Furthermore, they would understand when each meaning is being used in context. An idiom is
not to be confused with other figures of speech such as a metaphor, which invokes an image by
use of implicit comparisons (e.g., "the man of steel" ); a simile, which invokes an image by use
of explicit comparisons (e.g., "faster than a speeding bullet"); and hyperbole, which exaggerates
an image beyond truthfulness (e.g., like "missed by a mile" ). Idioms are also not to be confused
with proverbs, which are simple sayings that express a truth based on common sense or practical
experience.
In linguistics, idioms are usually presumed to be figures of speech contradicting the principle of
compositionality.
[4]
This principle states that the meaning of a whole should be constructed from
the meanings of the parts that make up the whole. In other words, one should be in a position to
understand the whole if one understands the meanings of each of the parts that make up the
whole. The following example is widely employed to illustrate the point:
Fred kicked the bucket.
Understood compositionally, Fred has literally kicked an actual, physical bucket. The much more
likely idiomatic reading, however, is non-compositional: Fred is understood to have died.
Arriving at the idiomatic reading from the literal reading is unlikely for most speakers. What this
means is that the idiomatic reading is, rather, stored as a single lexical item that is now largely
independent of the literal reading.
Phrases:

Phrase - A group of words, which makes sense, but not complete sense, is called a Phrase. It is a
group of related words without a Subject and a Verb.

or

A Phrase consists of two or more words lacking a complete sense and a complete verb. It may
consist of one or more incomplete verbs - the Infinitives or the Participles standing on their own.

Words/group of words in italics are phrases in examples below:

1). The sun rises in the east.
2). Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall.
3). She wore a hat with blue trimming.
4). The accident on the bridge was not serious.
5). The girl with red hair is an artist.
6). Sasha took a long leave.
7). Holding the toy, the child slept.
Words combine to make phrases, and phrases are one of the basic patterns out of which we build
sentences.
A phrase is a group of words which acts as a single unit in meaning and in grammar, and
is not built round a verb.
Phrases can have many different functions in a sentence. They are used as subjects, objects,
complements, modifiers, or adverbials.
Understanding phrasal patterns helps us to discuss and explain the effects in our own and others
writing. In the sentence:
The strange green creatures with bobbing heads spoke.
the phrase the strange green creatures with bobbing heads acts as the subject of the
verb spoke. The phrase is a single unit both in its meaning and in its grammar.
the fragment the strange green is not a phrase, because it has no separate meaning and
no grammatical function.
Expansion and heads
A phrase is an expansion of one of the words inside it, which is called its head. For example,
creatures is the head of the strange green creatures with bobbing heads.
The words that expand the head of a phrase are its 'expanders', which are generally the head's
modifiers; for example, green modifies creatures. All this means is that green makes the
meaning of creatures more precise - instead of meaning simply 'creatures', it means 'green
creatures'. (For an expander which is not a modifier see Prepositional phrases.)
There is a useful notation for showing heads and their expanders, in which the head is written
higher than the modifiers, showing that it is the 'boss' and the expanders are its assistants,
brought in to make the message more precise.

How long is a phrase?
A phrase can be two words long:
big dog
Sometimes you will even see a single word referred to as a phrase. Or a phrase can be much
longer:
that lovely old pub by the bridge over the river
In a noun phrase, one or more words work together to give more information about a noun.
all my dear children
the information age
seventeen hungry lions in the rocks
In an adjective phrase, one or more words work together to give more information about an
adjective.
so very sweet
earnest in her desire
very happy with his work
In a verb phrase, one or more words work together to give more meaning to a verb. In English,
the verb phrase is very complex, but a good description of its many forms can be found here.
In an adverb phrase, one or more words work together to give more information about an
adverb.
especially softly
formerly of the city of Perth
much too quickly to see clearly

In a prepositional phrase, one or more words work together to give information about time,
location, or possession, or condition. The preposition always appears at the front of the phrase.
after a very long walk
behind the old building
for all the hungry children
in case it should happen again
Different grammatical functions of the same word
Words are like little people, and like people, theyre gregarious. They like to work together in
teams where each word plays a distinct role, so grammatical analysis is rather like understanding
the dynamics of a group of people. Think of a staff meeting, for example. There are different
kinds of people different ages, sexes, qualifications, etc and partly because of these
differences, each person plays a different role in the meeting. Likewise in a sentence: there are
different kinds of words nouns, verbs, adjectives and so on and they each play a different role
in the sentence.

The technical term for kinds of words is, of course, word classes, and that for their roles is
grammatical functions. Some people think that classifying words is the end of grammatical
analysis, but in fact its just the beginning. For any word in a sentence, there are two grammatical
questions, not one:
What word class does it belong to?
What is its grammatical function?
These are separate questions, with answers drawn from a separate vocabulary. For word classes
we have the familiar parts of speech (noun, verb and so on), but for grammatical functions we
use slightly less familiar terms. These include subject and object, but the most basic ones are
head and dependent, which only make sense in relation to a phrase. If you understand these
three terms, then the rest of syntax is just filling in details.

In this technical vocabulary, a phrase is any team of words that collectively express a single
meaning. An entire sentence is a phrase, and so is a two word combination such as English
teacher. This means that one phrase may be part of another, Chinese-box style. For example, the
phrase [about grammar] might be part of a larger phrase [easy books [about grammar]]. (The
brackets are a very useful notation for showing phrases, but there are others such as trees and
arrow-diagrams.) For beginners, synthesis is easier than analysis, so you and your class can have
endless fun building larger and larger phrases.

The members of a phrase team contribute to its collective aim in different ways:
The head is in charge of the basic meaning and of the external grammatical relations.
The dependents help to make the meaning more precise, and only relate grammatically to the
head.
For example, take [easy books [about grammar]]:
The head is books, so easy books about grammar are books, not grammar (or easiness); and
grammatically, the phrase relates to other words like a plural noun e.g. we use a plural verb
in Easy books about grammar are [not: is] plentiful.
Easy is a dependent of books because easy books are books and easy is only related
grammatically to books.
About is also a dependent of books for the same reasons, but it doubles up as the head of a
smaller phrase, [about grammar].
Given these elementary ideas, grammatical functions are reasonably obvious in most phrases,
though some phrases are much more challenging.
n contrast to content words, function words (also called grammatical words) are words that have
little lexical meaning or have ambiguous meaning, but instead serve to express grammatical
relationships with other words within a sentence. Function words are closed-class words.
Languages do not easily add new words to this set. They are always relatively few and resistant
to change. They are lexically unproductive and are generally invariable in form.
Examples
Prepositions:
of, at, in, without, between
Pronouns:
he, they, anybody, it, one
Determiners:
the, a, that, my, more, much, either,
neither
Conjunctions:
and, that, when, while, although, or
Auxiliary:
verbs be (is, am, are), have, got, do
Particles:
no, not, nor, as
Tense:
In grammar, tense is a category that locates a situation in time, to indicate when the situation
takes place. Tense is the grammaticalisation of time reference, often using three basic categories
of "before now", i.e. the past; "now", i.e. the present; and "after now", i.e. the future. The
"unmarked" reference for tense is the temporal distance from the time of utterance, the "here-
and-now", this being absolute-tense. Relative-tense indicates temporal distance from a point of
time established in the discourse that is not the present, i.e. reference to a point in the past or
future, such as the future-in-future, or the future of the future (at some time in the future after the
reference point, which is in the future) and future-in-past or future of the past (at some time after
a point in the past, with the reference point being a point in the past).
Tense is normally indicated by a verb form, either on the main verb or on an auxiliary verb. The
tense markers are normally affixes, but also stem modification such as ablaut or reduplication
can express tense reference, and in some languages tense can be shown by clitics. Often
combinations of these can interact, such as in Irish, where there is a proclitic past tense marker
do (various surface forms) used in conjunction with the affixed or ablaut-modified past tense
form of the verb. Languages that do not have grammatical tense, such as Chinese, express time
reference through adverbials, time phrases, and so on.
The concept of time can be split into:
1. The Present - What you are currently doing.
I eat, I am eating
2. The Past - What you did some time back.
I ate, I was eating
3. The Future - What you will do later.
I will eat, I will be eating
In the English language, tenses play an important role in sentence formation.
The tense of a verb shows the time of an event or action.
There are four types of tenses. Simple, Perfect, Continuous and Present Perfect Continuous
and each of these has a present, past and future form.
PRESENT TENSES
SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE
In Simple Present, the action is simply mentioned and there is nothing being said about its
completeness.
I eat.
I sleep.
I play.
PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE
In Present Continuous, the action is on-going/ still going on and hence continuous.
I am eating.
I am sleeping.
I am playing.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
In Present Perfect, the action is complete or has ended and hence termed Perfect.
I have eaten.
I have slept.
I have played.
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
In Present Perfect Continuous, the action has been taking place for some time and is still
ongoing.
I have been eating.
I have been sleeping.
I have been playing.

PAST TENSES
SIMPLE PAST TENSE
In Simple Past, the action is simply mentioned and understood to have taken place in the past.
I ate.
I slept.
I played.
PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE
In Past Continuous, the action was ongoing till a certain time in the past.
I was eating.
I was sleeping.
I was playing.
PAST PERFECT TENSE
Past Perfect is used to express something that happened before another action in the past.
I had eaten.
I had slept.
I had played.
PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
Past Perfect Continuous is used to express something that started in the past and continued until
another time in the past.
I had been eating.
I had been sleeping.
I had been playing.

FUTURE TENSES
SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE
Simple Future is used when we plan or make a decision to do something. Nothing is said about
the time in the future.
I will eat.
I will sleep.
I will play.
FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE
The future continuous tense is used to express action at a particular moment in the future.
However, the action will not have finished at the moment.
I will be eating at 9 a.m.
I will be sleeping when you arrive.
I will be playing at 5 p.m.

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
Future Perfect expresses action that will occur in the future before another action in the future.
I will have eaten before 10 a.m.
I will have slept before you arrive.
I will have played before 6 p.m.
FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
Future Perfect Continuous is used to talk about an on-going action before some point in the
future.
I will have been sleeping for two hours when you arrive.
I will have been playing for an hour when it is 5 p.m.

Voice:
In grammar, the voice (also called diathesis) of a verb describes the relationship between the
action (or state) that the verb expresses and the participants identified by its arguments (subject,
object, etc.). When the subject is the agent or doer of the action, the verb is in the active voice.
When the subject is the patient, target or undergoer of the action, the verb is said to be in the
passive voice.
For example, in the sentence:
The cat ate the mouse.
The verb "ate" is in the active voice, but in the sentence:
The mouse was eaten by the cat.
The verbal phrase "was eaten" is passive.
In
The hunter killed the bear.
The verb "killed" is in the active voice, and the doer of the action is the "hunter". To make this
passive:
The bear was killed by the hunter.
The verbal phrase "was killed" is followed by the word "by" and then by the doer "hunter".
In a transformation from an active-voice clause to an equivalent passive-voice construction, the
subject and the direct object switch grammatical roles. The direct object gets promoted to
subject, and the subject demoted to an (optional) complement. In the examples above, the mouse
serves as the direct object in the active-voice version, but becomes the subject in the passive
version. The subject of the active-voice version, the cat, becomes part of a prepositional phrase
in the passive version of the sentence, and could be left out entirely.
Active Voice and Passive Voice
Verbs are either active or passive in voice. In the active voice, the subject and verb relationship
is straightforward: the subject is a do-er. In the passive voice, the subject of the sentence is not a
do-er. It is shown with by + do-er or is not shown in the sentence.
Passive voice is used when the action is the focus, not the subject. It is not important (or not
known) who does the action.
The window is broken. (It is not known who broke the window, or it is not important to
know who broke the window.)
The class has been canceled. (The focus is on the class being canceled. It is not important
to know who canceled it.)
The passive voice is often used. (The focus is on the passive voice. It is not important to
explain who the writer is.)
Passive voice should be avoided when you want more clarity in writing. However, in some cases,
you need to use passive voice to stress the action, not the actor. Also, passive voice can be
considered more polite, as it sounds less aggressive or dramatic.
That building was built in 1990.
The car was invented about a hundred years ago.
I was told that Mary moved to a different country.
Your business is appreciated.
She was elected to city council.
It was rumored that the company would lay off a few people soon.
It is recommended that the billing process be shortened.
You can easily rewrite an active sentence to a passive sentence. The object in the active sentence
becomes a subject in the passive sentence. The verb is changed to a be verb + past participle.
The subject of the active sentence follows by or is omitted.
Sam wrote a letter to Jamie.
A letter was written to Jamie by Sam.

The government built a new bridge.
A new bridge was built by the government.

I recommend that you apply for this position.
It is recommended that you apply for this position.
Reported speech:
Direct Speech
Direct speech repeats, or quotes, the exact words spoken. When we use direct speech in writing,
we place the words spoken between inverted commas ("....") and there is no change in these
words. We may be reporting something that's being said NOW (for example a telephone
conversation), or telling someone later about a previous conversation
Examples
She says "What time will you be home?"
She said "What time will you be home?" and I said "I don't know! "
"There's a fly in my soup!" screamed Simone.
John said, "There's an elephant outside the window."
Reported Speech
Reported speech is usually used to talk about the past, so we normally change the tense of the
words spoken. We use reporting verbs like 'say', 'tell', 'ask', and we may use the word 'that' to
introduce the reported words. Inverted commas are not used.
She told him that she was happy.
She told him she was happy.
When we report someones words we can do it in two ways. We can use direct speech with
quotation marks (I work in a bank), or we can use reported speech (He said he worked in a
bank.)

In reported speech the tenses, word-order and pronouns may be different from those in the
original sentence.

Present simple and present continuous tenses
Direct speech: I travel a lot in my job Reported speech: He said that he travelled a lot
in his job.
The present simple tense (I travel) usually changes to the past simple (he travelled) in reported
speech.
Direct speech: Be quiet. The babys sleeping. Reported speech: She told me to be quiet
because the baby was sleeping.
The present continuous usually changes to the past continuous.

NB:
I work in Italy Reported speech: He told me that he works in Italy.
It isnt always necessary to change the tense. If something is still true now he still works in
Italy we can use the present simple in the reported sentence.

Past simple and past continuous tenses
Direct speech: We lived in China for 5 years. Reported speech: She told me they had
lived in China for 5 years.
The past simple tense (we lived) usually changes to the past perfect (they had lived) in reported
speech.
Direct speech: I was walking down the road when I saw the accident. Reported speech:
He told me hed been walking down the road when hed seen the accident.
The past continuous usually changes to the past perfect continuous.

Perfect tenses
Direct speech: Theyve always been very kind to me. Reported speech: She said theyd
always been very kind to her.
The present perfect tense (have always been) usually changes to the past perfect tense (had
always been).
Direct speech: They had already eaten when I arrived Reported speech: He said theyd
already eaten when hed arrived.
The past perfect tense does not change in reported speech.
Modals:
Modals (also called modal verbs, modal auxiliary verbs, modal auxiliaries) are special verbs
which behave irregularly in English. They are different from normal verbs like "work, play,
visit..." They are used to indicate modality. They give additional information about the function
of the main verb that follows it. They have a great variety of communicative functions.
Use of modal verbs:
Modal verbs are used to express functions such as:
1. Permission
2. Ability
3. Obligation
4. Prohibition
5. Lack of necessity
6. Advice
7. possibility
8. probability
Modal verbs are followed by an infinitive without "to"
Examples:
You must stop when the traffic lights turn red
You should see to the doctor
There are a lot of tomatoes in the fridge. You need not buy any.
Exception:
You ought to go to the doctor
A list of modals
Here is a list of modals:
Modal Verb Meaning Expressing Example
must
to have to 100 % obligation
I must stop when the traffic
lights turn red.
to be very probable
logical conclusion
(deduction)
He must be very tired after
such enormous work
must not not to be allowed to prohibition
You must not smoke in the
hospital.
can
to be able to ability I can swim
to be allowed to permission Can I use your phone please?
it is possible possibility Smoking can cause cancer !
could
to be able to ability in the past
When I was younger I could
stay up all night and not get
tired..
to be allowed to more polite permission
Excuse me, could I just say
something?
it is possible possibility It could rain tomorrow!
may
to be allowed to permission May I use your phone please?
it is possible, probable possibility, probability It may rain tomorrow!
might
to be allowed to more polite permission
Might I use your phone
please?
it is possible, probable
weak possibility,
probability
I might come and visit you in
America next year, if I can
save enough money.
need necessary necessity Need I say more?
need not not necessary
lack of
necessity/absence of
obligation
I need not buy any tomatoes.
There are plenty in the fridge.
should/ought
to
used to say or ask what
is the correct or best
thing to do
50 % obligation
I should / ought to see a
doctor. I have a terrible
headache.
to suggest an action or
to show that it is
necessary
advice
You should / ought to revise
your lessons
to be very probable
logical conclusion
(deduction)
He should / ought to be very
tired after such enormous
work
had better
to suggest an action or
to show that it is
necessary
advice
You 'd better revise your
lessons
Spoken English Structures:
WRITING AND SPEECH
WRITING
normative
leaves out the prosodic (intonation, pauses)
and the paradigmatic (gestures, loudness)
Linguistics and grammar mostly describe the written language
Functions: action
social content
information
entertainment
Socrates (Phaedrus): 'writing destroys memory and sets up outside the mind what can
only be inside it'
SPEECH
has twice as many grammatical words (a closed class) as lexical (an open class)
is as structural and as functional as writing
is more concerned with the social function of language: status, for example, or small talk.
Claude Lvi-Strauss: 'the savage mind totalizes'
A. R. Luria: oral cultures lack abstract thinking but are rich in metaphors
think in a situational rather than a categorical way
Marshall McLuhan predicted an alliance of 'hot technology' (computers etc.) and orality
against literacy
SPOKEN ENGLISH
The Phatic
Talk about the weather is typically imprecise and evasive ('sunny spells', rather cool',
'changeable') so as to take the drama and conflict out of the situation.
Some expressions ('such as anyway') have no meaning except as discourse markers.
Speech and Power
Presidential candidates very often have a background in law, where public speaking is important.
In public affairs, scandals are often decided on the basis of performs in explaining the offence:
'inappropriate behaviour' (Clinton), 'economical with the truth'. This equally applies to matters of
substance like peace in Northern Ireland or the abortion debate in the United States. The person
who wins the argument is thereby proved 'right'.
Formal: These kinds of sentences are usually used in offices and other official setups. In such
situations, you need to maintain certain decorum, not just in your conduct, but in your speech as
well. Before we give you the basics of formal sentences, remember that words like 'please' and
'thank you' form an important part of the formal conversations. Formal phrases, usually, start
with 'You ought to...', like 'You ought to complete this file by evening' or 'you ought to attend
this meeting.' This will get the work done, without you sounding too imposing!
Semi-formal: This is when you are speaking to your colleagues or with a client over lunch. You
can relax a bit during semi-final conversations, but that does not mean that you should speak
nonchalantly. A good way to start a sentence is, 'I think you should + infinitive'. For example, "I
think you should increase the quotation' or 'I think you should start using the other software'. The
negation of the same would be, 'I don't think you should + infinitive'.
Informal: This is when you are at home, or speaking to your friends. In such situations, all you
need to pay attention is to be grammatically sound, and you are sorted. You can form your
sentences as you like; just make sure that you keep in mind the basic rules of syntax and
grammar.
Formal And Informal-Letters:
Informal letters
How do you keep in touch with family and friends? Do you write letters, emails, speak on the
telephone, send cards, text using a mobile phone, or use a social networking site such as
Facebook?
Sometimes we need to communicate a lot of information and a letter or email may be the easiest
way to do this. We may write a letter to mark a special occasion or to communicate something
thats difficult to say face-to-face: for example, a letter expressing our sympathy when somebody
has died, or a letter sending our congratulations on the birth of a new baby. These are personal
letters. Personal letters may be short or long but they are usually chatty and informal.
-) so address him/her with a name: begin the letter with Dear
Joey/ Tim /Rebecca, etc.
your friend and thank him/her for it or apologise for the fact that you have not answered the last
letter soon enough.
the proper register. The letter is supposed to be informal so you can use contractions,
informal linking words like well, by the way, anyway, so, colloquial expressions, etc.
-conversation-like statements or questions in your letter: You know that I
had this exam, right? You think he will be able to come to the party?
- arrange the next meeting, send greetings to his/her
friends and family, etc.
Best wishes; Love; Regards.
Formal letters
Formal letters are letters to people who we dont know on a personal level. We may need to
write formal letters or emails for many different reasons. For example, we may write to find out
information, to apply for a job or a course, to make a complaint, to give information or to
send an apology.
It can be helpful to look at examples of different kinds of letters that other people have written to
get an idea about how to lay out your letter and the kind of language to use.
If youre writing a formal letter, ask yourself:
Who am I writing to?
Why am I writing?
What do I need to tell them?
What do I want them to do?
When you write a formal letter, its important to have all the information you need with you,
such as dates, names and addresses. If youve been given a contact name or a reference
number, make sure you use it as this will help the person dealing with your letter. Keep copies of
formal letters so you have a record of what you've sent, and so you can follow up any letters at a
later date.
business or a formal letter is a letter written in formal language, usually used when writing from
one business organisation to another, or for correspondence between such organisations and their
customers, clients and other external parties.
Here are a few guidelines which would help you through composition of formal letters:
Rules for Writing Formal Letters:
There is a set pattern for writing a formal or a business letter. Furthermore, you try to write as
simply and as clearly as possible, and not to make the letter longer than necessary. One should
never use informal language.
Addresses:
1) Your Address
The return address should be written in the top right-hand corner of the letter.
2) The Address of the person you are writing to.
The inside address should be written on the left, starting below your address.
Date:
Put the date on the upper left side of the page. Write the month as a word.
Salutation or greeting:
1) Dear Sir or Madam,
2) If you know the name, use the title (Mr, Mrs, Miss or Ms, Dr, etc.) and the surname only. 3) If
you are writing to a woman and do not know if she uses Mrs or Miss, you can use Ms, which is
for married and single women.
Content of a Formal Letter
First paragraph
The first paragraph are the opening lines which should be short and state the purpose of the
letter- to request, apologise for something, etc.
Second Paragraph
The paragraph or paragraphs in the middle of the letter is the body of the letter which should
contain the vital information explaining the purpose behind writing the letter. Letters shouldnt
be too lengthy. Thus, the information should be kept precise, concentrating on organising it in a
clear and logical manner rather than expanding too much.
Last Paragraph
The last paragraph of a formal letter should affirm what action you expect the recipient to take-
to refund, send you information, permit a request, etc.
Ending a letter:
1) If you do not know the name of the person, end the letter as: Yours faithfully.
2) If you know the name of the person, end the letter as: Yours sincerely.
3) Your signature
Sign your name, then print it underneath the signature. If you think the person you are writing to
might not know whether you are male of female, put you title in brackets after your name.
Project Report:
The project report is an extremely important aspect of the project. It should be properly
structured and also necessary and appropriate information regarding the project. No data fields
are to be exposed in the project field.

The aim of the project is to produce a good product and a good report and that software,
hardware, theory etc. that you developed during the project are merely a means to this end.
Design document has to be progressively converted to a project report as and when the various
stages of project are completed. Ideally you should produce the bulk of the report as you go
along and use the last week or two to bring it together into a coherent document.
How to write a Project Report
A tidy, well laid out and consistently formatted document makes for easier reading and is
suggestive of a careful and professional attitude towards its preparation. Remember that quantity
does not automatically guarantee quality. A 150 page report is not twice as good as a 75-page
one, nor a 10,000 line implementation twice as good as a 5,000 line one. Conciseness, clarity and
elegance are invaluable qualities in report writing, just as they are in programming, and will be
rewarded appropriately. Try to ensure that your report contains the following elements (the exact
structure, chapter titles etc. is up to you):
Title page
This should include the project title and the name of the author of the report. You can also list the
name of your supervisor if you wish. IMPORTANT: Before submission you should assemble a
project directory which contains all your software, READMEs etc. and your project report
(source files and pdf or postscript).
Abstract
The abstract is a very brief summary of the report's contents. It should be about half a page long.
Somebody unfamiliar with your project should have a good idea of what it's about having read
the abstract alone and will know whether it will be of interest to them.
Acknowledgements
It is usual to thank those individuals who have provided particularly useful assistance, technical
or otherwise, during your project. Your supervisor will obviously be pleased to be acknowledged
as he or she will have invested quite a lot of time overseeing your progress.
Contents page
This should list the main chapters and (sub)sections of your report. Choose self-explanatory
chapter and section titles and use double spacing for clarity. If possible you should include page
numbers indicating where each chapter/section begins. Try to avoid too many levels of
subheading - three is sufficient.
I ntroduction
This is one of the most important components of the report. It should begin with a clear
statement of what the project is about so that the nature and scope of the project can be
understood by a lay reader. It should summarise everything you set out to achieve, provide a
clear summary of the project's background, relevance and main contributions. The introduction
should set the context for the project and should provide the reader with a summary of the key
things to look out for in the remainder of the report. When detailing the contributions it is helpful
to provide pointers to the section(s) of the report that provide the relevant technical details. The
introduction itself should be largely non-technical. It is useful to state the main objectives of the
project as part of the introduction. However, avoid the temptation to list low-level objectives one
after another in the introduction and then later, in the evaluation section (see below), say
reference to like "All the objectives of the project have been met...".
Background
The background section of the report should set the project into context and give the proposed
layout for achieving the project goals. The background section can be included as part of the
introduction but is usually better as a separate chapter, especially if the project involved
significant amount of ground work. When referring to other pieces of work, cite the sources
where they are referred to or used, rather than just listing them at the end.
Body of report
The central part of the report usually consists of three or four chapters detailing the technical
work undertaken during the project. The structure of these chapters is highly project dependent.
They can reflect the chronological development of the project, e.g. design, implementation,
experimentation, optimisation, evaluation etc. If you have built a new piece of software you
should describe and justify the design of your program at some high level, possibly using an
approved graphical formalism such as UML. It should also document any interesting problems
with, or features of, your implementation. Integration and testing are also important to discuss in
some cases. You need to discuss the content of these sections thoroughly with your supervisor.
Evaluation
Be warned that many projects fall down through poor evaluation. Simply building a system and
documenting its design and functionality is not enough to gain top marks. It is extremely
important that you evaluate what you have done both in absolute terms and in comparison with
existing techniques, software, hardware etc. This might involve quantitative evaluation and
qualitative evaluation such as expressibility, functionality, ease-of-use etc. At some point you
should also evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of what you have done. Avoid statements like
"The project has been a complete success and we have solved all the problems asssociated with
...! It is important to understand that there is no such thing as a perfect project. Even the very best
pieces of work have their limitations and you are expected to provide a proper critical appraisal
of what you have done.
Conclusions and Future Work
The project's conclusions should list the things which have been learnt as a result of the work
you have done. For example, "The use of overloading in C++ provides a very elegant mechanism
for transparent parallelisation of sequential programs". Avoid tedious personal reflections like "I
learned a lot about C++ programming..." It is common to finish the report by listing ways in
which the project can be taken further. This might, for example, be a plan for doing the project
better if you had a chance to do it again, turning the project deliverables into a more polished end
product.
Bibliography
This consists of a list of all the books, articles, manuals etc. used in the project and referred to in
the report. You should provide enough information to allow the reader to find the source. In the
case of a text book you should quote the name of the publisher as well as the author(s). A
weakness of many reports is inadequate citation of a source of information. It's easy to get this
right so there are no excuses. Each entry in the bibliography should list the author(s) and title of
the piece of work and should give full details of where it can be found.
Appendix
The appendices contain information which is peripheral to the main body of the report.
Information typically included are things like parts of the code, tables, test cases or any other
material which would break up the theme of the text if it appeared in situ. You should try to bind
all your material in a single volume and create the black book.
Description:
Description is one of four rhetorical modes (also known as modes of discourse), along with
exposition, argumentation, and narration. Each of the rhetorical modes is present in a variety of
forms and each has its own purpose and conventions. The act of description may be related to
that of definition.
portraiture or representation in language; an
enumeration of the essential qualities of a thing or species.
describing; a delineation by marks or signs.
characteristics by which someone or something can be recognized.
Examples of DESCRI PTI ON
1. Reporters called the scene a disaster area, and I think that was an accurate description.
2. I applied for the position after reading the job description.
3. a writer with a gift of description
Origin of DESCRI PTI ON
Middle English descripcioun, from Anglo-French & Latin; Anglo-French, from Latin
description-, descriptio, from describere
Circulars:
Circular letter is also a kind of a letter that is issued for a number of people. It is a kind of notice
that is sent as a letter aimed at a large number of people.
When any information/instructions/guidelines are to be sent to all its branches by the Head
Office, circulars are usually issued by the Head Office to its branches or by higher officer to its
junior officers for compliance.
Official Circulars
Instructions/guidelines issued by head of the department to a large number of subordinate
employees are usually circulated through official circulars. Official circulars are issued generally
from Head Office to its branches. Official circulars are usually issued as following:
1. From Head Office to its branches,
2. From a Central Ministry to State Ministries, or offices/ departments working under the
Ministry,
3. From Chief Election Commission to all the State Commissions, and
4. Like the other circulars.
Business Circulars
Business circulars are issued by a business entity to its clients, dealers, sub-dealers, branches,
etc. Following types of information are usually sent through business circulars:
Information about change of address of the registered office of a company to its share
holders,
Information about special discount on Deepawali festival to the dealers and sub-dealers,
Information about removal from service of an employee from an institution to all its
offices, dealers and sub-dealers,
Information about a policy of incentive for achieving sales targets etc. to dealers and sub-
dealers, and
Any other information relating to business.
Miscellaneous Circulars
Circulars issued by a society/organization to its members etc. come under this category.
Personal Circulars
Circulars issued by a person to his circle regarding change of his telephone numbers or
residential address etc. are personal circulars.
Structure of a Circular
1. Address of the issuing agency:
Usually in all kinds of circulars, the address, phone no., etc. of the issuing office/
agency/department is printed at the top.
2. Reference:
Reference is usually written at the left side. It is different for each circular.
3. Date:
Date is written at the left side.
4. Subject:
Subject on which the circular is being issued, is written, in simple letters.
5. For:
After subject, 'For' is written, that indicates, for whom, the circular is being issued/meant. For
example:
If the circular is issued by the Head Office of a bank for all the Zonal/Regional offices, then 'For'
must be invariably explained as follows:
For: All Zonal/Regional Offices
If the circular is meant for all its branches, then it should be mentioned as following:
For: All branches
6. Salutation:
Generally, no salutation; likeDear Sir, Dear Sirs etc. is used in circulars.
When the circular is meant to the authorities, the use of salutation can be done.
In Business circulars, usually salutations; like Dear Dealers, Dear Customers, Dear Valued
Customers, etc. are used.
7. Body:
The body of the circular contains whatever is wished to be conveyed by the circular issuing
authority. The language used should be straight, unambiguous, formal and simple that conveys
the instructions / guidelines in clear terms.
8. Signature:
At the bottom, the circular issuing authority puts his signature. The designation of the issuing
authority is also written below the signature. The use of subscription; yours faithfully, or yours
sincerely is avoided in circulars.
Synopsis:
A synopsis is a brief summary of the major points of a subject or written work or story, either as
prose or as a table; an abridgment or condensation of a work.
Synopsis is a summary or recap is a shortened version of the original. The main purpose of such
a simplification is to highlight the major points from the original (much longer) subject, e.g. a
text, a film or an event. The target is to help the audience get the gist in a short period of time.
A written synopsis starts with a lead, including title, author, text type and the main idea of the
text.


Summary Writing:

A summary is a condensation of a text, which manages to convey the information written in the
text in your own words. A good summary shows that its writer has a fluent understanding of the
text being summarized. This handout will serve as a guideline to writing a summary, and well
be working on this throughout the next term as a way to improve our reading comprehension, to
work on accuracy in language and syntax. As we get better at summarizing, well explore how
summary can be used as a starting point for an argument or interpretation of a text.
A "stand-alone" summary is a summary produced to show a teacher that you have read and
understood something. It is common in many 100 and 200 level classes to get assignments that
ask you to read a certain number of articles and summarize them. This is also a very common
type of writing assignment in graduate school.
How to produce a summary:
1.Read the article to be summarized and be sure you understand it.
2.Outline the article. Note the major points.
3.Write a first draft of the summary without looking at the article.
4.Always use paraphrase when writing a summary. If you do copy a phrase from the original be
sure it is a very important phrase that is necessary and cannot be paraphrased. In this case put
"quotation marks" around the phrase.
5.Target your first draft for approximately 1/4 the length of the original.
The features of a summary:
1.Start your summary with a clear identification of the type of work, title, author, and main point
in the present tense.
Example: In the feature article "Four Kinds of Reading," the author, Donald Hall, explains his
opinion about different types of reading.
2.Check with your outline and your original to make sure you have covered the important points.
3.Never put any of your own ideas, opinions, or interpretations into the summary. This means
you have to be very careful of your word choice.
4. Write using "summarizing language." Periodically remind your reader that this is a summary
by using phrases such as the article claims, the author suggests, etc.
4.Write a complete bibliographic citation at the beginning of your summary. A complete
bibliographic citation includes as a minimum, the title of the work, the author, the source. Use
APA format.

Nine Guidelines for Good Summary Writers

1). A summary presupposes absence. The writer of a summary should assume his or her
audience does not have access to the thing being summarized, and so should try to be as clear as
possible in communicating the information contained in the text being summarized. For example,
when you summarize something for me, you should force yourself to think that I have not read
the text youre summarizing, even though you know Ive read it.
2). A summary should have a clear statement of the main idea of the text being summarized. This
is very similar to having a thesis in an interpretive essay. For example, Professor Smith is
concerned primarily with the tense relationship between bus drivers and passengers in suburban
Cleveland in his book Precious Cargo.
3). A good summary organizes its information from most important to least important, begins
with judgements about what is important (and what is not) about a text being summarized. A
good summary requires careful planning, just like any other kind of writing. Spend some time
figuring out what to say and the best way to say it before you begin drafting a summary. An
outline can help, as can freewriting.
4). A summary should acknowledge its source material, making mention of the author and the
title of the work being summarized. For example: In chapter four of Jack Finneys novel Time
and Again. . . A summary should be clear about the important details about the thing its taking
the place of, the who, what where and how of the text. For example In chapter four of Jack
Finneys novel, Si Morley, an artist who travels back in time, . . .
5). A good summary contains no expression of its authors opinion. Summary is supposed to be
objective, and thus the author of a summary tries to keep him or herself out of the summary.
What the summary writer is trying to communicate are the ideas contained in the text being
summarized, so adding additional information is usually a distraction. For example, a good
summary writer would try to refrain from using phrases like I think. . . or I believe. . . in
their summary.
6). A good summary is economical; it delivers its ideas quickly and clearly. A good summary
writer tries to eliminate all extraneous detail from their representation of the ideas being
summarized. For example, a literary characters hair color, their favorite color or what kind of
car they drive is probably not that important when describing the characters adventure climbing
Mount Everest.
7). A good summary writer provides background information where appropriate as briefly as
possible. A good summary writer will also define terms specific to the thing theyre writing
about. For example, if youre trying to write a summary of chapter six of your Biology textbook,
which deals with different cells undergoing meiosis, you may need to define meiosis for your
reader, even though this information is contained in chapter three of the textbook.
8). The central purpose of writing a summary is to condense things judiciously. That is, what
youre doing is trimming fat and making the most important ideas the most prominent. To do
this, you must re-author the text at hand--create a new sequence for its ideas that makes sense.
Rarely does a summary follow the same order of ideas that the original chapter does.
9). Summary writing is an act of translation. Quotation is generally out of place in summary
writing, but quotation may appear in limited ways on occasion. The important thing is that
summary is a translation of the text into your own words which helps to abbreviate and clarify
the important ideas in a text being summarized.
Listening skills for competitive exams:
Listening is the ability to accurately receive messages in the communication process.
Listening is key to all effective communication, without the ability to listen effectively messages
are easily misunderstood communication breaks down and the sender of the message can easily
become frustrated or irritated.
Listening is so important that many top employers give regular listening skills training for their
employees. This is not surprising when you consider that good listening skills can lead to: better
customer satisfaction, greater productivity with fewer mistakes, increased sharing of information
that in turn can lead to more creative and innovative work.
Many successful leaders and entrepreneurs credit their success to effective listening
skills. Richard Branson frequently quotes listening as one of the main factors behind the success
of Virgin. Effective listening is a skill that underpins all positive human relationships, spend
some time thinking about and developing your listening skills they are the building blocks of
success.
A good listener will listen not only to what is being said, but also to what is left unsaid or only
partially said.
Effective listening involves observing body language and noticing inconsistencies between
verbal and non-verbal messages.
1. Stop Talking
If we were supposed to talk more than we listen, we would have two tongues and one ear.
Mark Twain.
Don't talk, listen. When somebody else is talking listen to what they are saying, do not interrupt,
talk over them or finish their sentences for them. Stop, just listen. When the other person has
finished talking you may need to clarify to ensure you have received their message accurately.
2. Prepare Yourself to Listen
Relax. Focus on the speaker. Put other things out of mind. The human mind is easily distracted
by other thoughts whats for lunch, what time do I need to leave to catch my train, is it going to
rain try to put other thoughts out of mind and concentrate on the messages that are being
communicated.
3. Put the Speaker at Ease
Help the speaker to feel free to speak. Remember their needs and concerns. Nod or use other
gestures or words to encourage them to continue. Maintain eye contact but dont stare show
you are listening and understanding what is being said.
4. Remove Distractions
Focus on what is being said: dont doodle, shuffle papers, look out the window, pick your
fingernails or similar. Avoid unnecessary interruptions. These behaviours disrupt the listening
process and send messages to the speaker that you are bored or distracted.
5. Empathise
Try to understand the other persons point of view. Look at issues from their perspective. Let go
of preconceived ideas. By having an open mind we can more fully empathise with the speaker.
If the speaker says something that you disagree with then wait and construct an argument to
counter what is said but keep an open mind to the views and opinions of others.
See our page: What is Empathy?
6. Be Patient
A pause, even a long pause, does not necessarily mean that the speaker has finished. Be patient
and let the speaker continue in their own time, sometimes it takes time to formulate what to say
and how to say it. Never interrupt or finish a sentence for someone.
7. Avoid Personal Prejudice
Try to be impartial. Don't become irritated and don't let the persons habits or mannerisms
distract you from what they are really saying. Everybody has a different way of speaking - some
people are for example more nervous or shy than others, some have regional accents or make
excessive arm movements, some people like to pace whilst talking - others like to sit still. Focus
on what is being said and try to ignore styles of delivery.
8. Listen to the Tone
Volume and tone both add to what someone is saying. A good speaker will use both volume and
tone to their advantage to keep an audience attentive; everybody will use pitch, tone and volume
of voice in certain situations let these help you to understand the emphasis of what is being
said.
9. Listen for Ideas Not Just Words
You need to get the whole picture, not just isolated bits and pieces. Maybe one of the most
difficult aspects of listening is the ability to link together pieces of information to reveal the ideas
of others. With proper concentration, letting go of distractions, and focus this becomes easier.
10. Wait and Watch for Non-Verbal Communication
Gestures, facial expressions, and eye-movements can all be important. We dont just listen with
our ears but also with our eyes watch and pick up the additional information being transmitted
via non-verbal communication.
How to Improve Listening Skills
He felt strongly that listening skills needed to be taught and practiced, and this was my fathers
technique for teaching us these critical skills. He would say just because you have two ears on
the side of your head doesnt mean you automatically know how to listen.
Hes right. Effective listening is something that needs to be learned. Especially, today we work
and live in busy environments. We practice tuning-out, not tuning-in.
Want more information on how to improve your listening skills?
Three Steps to Effective Listening Skills
Step 1: Tune in. Tuning in, of course, is the very first step to effective listening. In order to be a
successful listener you must be physically and mentally prepared to tune in. For me, this means
aligning my body with the other person and maintaining eye contact--giving him or her my
undivided attention.
It also means turning off any mind chatter. Sometimes Im still thinking about something else
and I arrive late to the listening. Or sometimes, I start listening, but before my conversation
partner finishes, I begin planning what I am going to say in response. Or worse, I pass judgment
and think, This isnt important. This is stupid and I stop listening. Good listeners suspend
judgment and wait until the other person is finished before they create a response. If you feel like
you might forget a point just take notes.
Show You are Listening
By the way, its also nice if you are able to show that you are listening: lean in, tilt your head, or
occasionally nod at your partner. The idea is not just to listen, but also to encourage the speaker.
In this step, the key is to concentrate on the words you hear and the body language signals you
see. Are they smiling? Are they talking rapidly? Hows their posture? Are the words and body
language congruent?
For example, if someone is smiling and talking rapidly theyre likely to be genuinely excited and
interested in the topic. If you notice slumped shoulders and a chin tilted toward the ground
perhaps the person is experiencing sadness or a lack of self-esteem. The clues can be very subtle.
It might be that you barely notice a slight side to side no headshake at the same time the person
is saying, Sure, we can do that.
For this step, you need to tune in to what and how something is said and be alert for what is left
unsaid.
Understand What Youve Just Heard
Step 2: Decide what it means. Next, youll need to translate and interpret what you heard and
observed. Youve got to decide what it all means. We all create meaning based on our own
experiences, so its important to confirm that your understanding of what was communicated is
really what the speaker was trying to communicate.
Sometimes youll need to ask open-ended questions to confirm your understanding.
For example, even if I say something as simple as I opened the door what exactly are you
imagining in your mind? Am I opening an office door? Am I opening a car door? Maybe its a
door to a house?
The point is that sometimes youll need to ask open-ended questions to confirm your
understanding. Such as, When you said X, what did you mean? Why do you think X, is it
because of A? Can you give me an example of what you meant by Y? Tell me more about
your feelings regarding X
Pay Attention to Non-Verbal Communication
In addition to paying attention to the meaning of the words, youll also need to understand the
non-verbal behaviors you observed. Were the tone of voice, gestures, and words all in
agreement? Did the words say yes, but the body language said no? Did your conversation partner
seem excited, disappointed, angry, confused? These non-verbal gestures and actions reveal inner
thoughts, attitudes, and emotions that may not have been expressed verbally.
Avoid Miscommunication
Step 3: Paraphrase to confirm understanding. The final step to effective listening is to
confirm your understanding. To do that youll need to paraphrase, or reword what you heard
including the content and the emotion. For example, the speaker might say, I cant stand that I
need to repeat the instructions three or four times in excruciating detail and she still doesnt seem
to understand how to complete the task.
The listener might respond, It sounds like you are frustrated because shes not following
instructions even after the steps of a task have been explained more than once.
The structure of paraphrasing is:
lead-in
plus feelings summary
plus content summary
[[AdMiddle]So, again, another example might be, It seems (lead in) that you are angry and
perhaps resentful (feelings summary) because youre being asked to work overtime (content
summary), is that right? Be careful to be accurate and not overstate what you heard. By
repeating back the others persons meaning in your own words, you are letting the other person
know you understand what they are telling you. In short, it prevents miscommunication.
The Steps to Effective Listening Skills
So there you have it, three steps to improve the intensity and accuracy of your listening
skills. First you need to tune in to what someone is saying and tune out all the noise. Pay
attention to everything that is said and left unsaid and pick up on non-verbal behaviors. Then you
need to clarify what it all means by asking open-ended questions. Finally, you need to repeat
back what you heard, in your own words, to confirm your understanding of what the other person
said. Improving listening skills is not difficult. By following these three steps youll develop a
greater insight into what people are really saying.
Reading skills:
Reading skills refer to the specific abilities that enable a person to read with independence and
interact with the message. Students at the university do a lot of reading unlike in secondary
school. Some tips to help in having good reading skills are active reading and styles of reading.
Strategies for Developing Reading Skills
Using Reading Strategies
Language instructors are often frustrated by the fact that students do not automatically transfer
the strategies they use when reading in their native language to reading in a language they are
learning. Instead, they seem to think reading means starting at the beginning and going word by
word, stopping to look up every unknown vocabulary item, until they reach the end. When they
do this, students are relying exclusively on their linguistic knowledge, a bottom-up strategy. One
of the most important functions of the language instructor, then, is to help students move past
this idea and use top-down strategies as they do in their native language.
Effective language instructors show students how they can adjust their reading behavior to deal
with a variety of situations, types of input, and reading purposes. They help students develop a
set of reading strategies and match appropriate strategies to each reading situation.
Strategies that can help students read more quickly and effectively include
Previewing: reviewing titles, section headings, and photo captions to get a sense of the
structure and content of a reading selection
Predicting: using knowledge of the subject matter to make predictions about content and
vocabulary and check comprehension; using knowledge of the text type and purpose to
make predictions about discourse structure; using knowledge about the author to make
predictions about writing style, vocabulary, and content
Skimming and scanning: using a quick survey of the text to get the main idea, identify
text structure, confirm or question predictions
Guessing from context: using prior knowledge of the subject and the ideas in the text as
clues to the meanings of unknown words, instead of stopping to look them up
Paraphrasing: stopping at the end of a section to check comprehension by restating the
information and ideas in the text
Instructors can help students learn when and how to use reading strategies in several ways.
By modeling the strategies aloud, talking through the processes of previewing, predicting,
skimming and scanning, and paraphrasing. This shows students how the strategies work
and how much they can know about a text before they begin to read word by word.
By allowing time in class for group and individual previewing and predicting activities as
preparation for in-class or out-of-class reading. Allocating class time to these activities
indicates their importance and value.
By using cloze (fill in the blank) exercises to review vocabulary items. This helps
students learn to guess meaning from context.
By encouraging students to talk about what strategies they think will help them approach
a reading assignment, and then talking after reading about what strategies they actually
used. This helps students develop flexibility in their choice of strategies.
When language learners use reading strategies, they find that they can control the reading
experience, and they gain confidence in their ability to read the language.
Reading to Learn
Reading is an essential part of language instruction at every level because it supports learning in
multiple ways.
Reading to learn the language: Reading material is language input. By giving students a
variety of materials to read, instructors provide multiple opportunities for students to
absorb vocabulary, grammar, sentence structure, and discourse structure as they occur in
authentic contexts. Students thus gain a more complete picture of the ways in which the
elements of the language work together to convey meaning.
Reading for content information: Students' purpose for reading in their native language is
often to obtain information about a subject they are studying, and this purpose can be
useful in the language learning classroom as well. Reading for content information in the
language classroom gives students both authentic reading material and an authentic
purpose for reading.
Reading for cultural knowledge and awareness: Reading everyday materials that are
designed for native speakers can give students insight into the lifestyles and worldviews
of the people whose language they are studying. When students have access to
newspapers, magazines, and Web sites, they are exposed to culture in all its variety, and
monolithic cultural stereotypes begin to break down.
When reading to learn, students need to follow four basic steps:
1. Figure out the purpose for reading. Activate background knowledge of the topic in order
to predict or anticipate content and identify appropriate reading strategies.
2. Attend to the parts of the text that are relevant to the identified purpose and ignore the
rest. This selectivity enables students to focus on specific items in the input and reduces
the amount of information they have to hold in short-term memory.
3. Select strategies that are appropriate to the reading task and use them flexibly and
interactively. Students' comprehension improves and their confidence increases when
they use top-down and bottom-up skills simultaneously to construct meaning.
4. Check comprehension while reading and when the reading task is completed. Monitoring
comprehension helps students detect inconsistencies and comprehension failures, helping
them learn to use alternate strategies.
Skimming And Scanning:
Skimming refers to the process of reading only main ideas within a passage to get an overall
impression of the content of a reading
selection.
How to Skim:
* Read the title.
* Read the introduction or the first paragraph.
* Read the first sentence of every other paragraph.
* Read any headings and sub-headings.
* Notice any pictures, charts, or graphs.
* Notice any italicized or boldface words or phrases.
* Read the summary or last paragraph.
Scanning is a reading technique to be used when you want to find specific information
quickly. In scanning you have a question in your mind and you read a passage only to
find the answer, ignoring unrelated information.
How to Scan:
* State the specific information you are looking for.
* Try to anticipate how the answer will appear and what clues you might use to help you
locate the answer. For example, if you were looking for a certain date, you would quickly
read the paragraph looking only for numbers.
* Use headings and any other aids that will help you identify which sections might
contain the information you are looking for.
* Selectively read and skip through sections of the passage.
Skimming and scanning are two very different strategies for speed reading.
They are each used for different purposes, and they are not meant to be used all the time. They
are at the fast end of the speed reading range, while studying is at the slow end.
People who know how to skim and scan are flexible readers. They read according to their
purpose and get the information they need quickly without wasting time. They do not read
everything which is what increases their reading speed. Their skill lies in knowing what specific
information to read and which method to use.
What Is Skimming?
Skimming is one of the tools you can use to read more in less time. Skimming refers to looking
only for the general or main ideas, and works best with non-fiction (or factual) material. With
skimming, your overall understanding is reduced because you dont read everything. You read
only what is important to your purpose. Skimming takes place while reading and allows you to
look for details in addition to the main ideas.
Many people think that skimming is a haphazard process How to skim. placing the eyes where
ever they fall. However, to skim effectively, there has to be a structure but you dont read
everything. What you read is more important than what you leave out. So what material do you
read and what material do you leave out?
Lets say you are doing research on a long chapter or a web site. By reading the first few
paragraphs in detail, you will get a good idea of what information will be discussed. Once you
know where the reading is headed, you can begin to read only the first sentence of each
paragraph. Also called topic sentences, they give you the main idea of the paragraph. If you do
not get the main idea in the topic sentence or if the paragraph greatly interests you, then you may
want to skim more.
At the end of each topic sentence, your eyes should drop down through the rest of the paragraph,
looking for important pieces of information, such as names, dates, or events. Continue to read
only topic sentences, dropping down through the rest of the paragraphs, until you are near the
end. Since the last few paragraphs may contain a conclusion or summary, you should stop
skimming there and read in detail. Remember that your overall comprehension will be lower
than if you read in detail. If while skimming, you feel you are grasping the main ideas, then you
are skimming correctly.
When to skim.Because skimming is done at a fast speed with less-than-normal comprehension,
you shouldnt skim all the time. There are many times, however, when skimming is very useful.
Suppose you are taking a presentation skills class and have to deliver an oral report in a few days
about the first computers ever made. You locate six books and four newspaper articles about this
topic. Because you must be ready soon, you do not have time to read each word, but you need a
large quantity of solid information.
Skimming will help you locate the information quickly while making sure you use your time
wisely. It will also increase the amount of usable material you obtain for your research.
Suppose you have an exam in a few days. You need to review the material you learned, but you
dont want to reread everything. By skimming, you can quickly locate the information you
havent mastered yet and study only that material.
While reading, ask yourself the following questions to help you decide whether or not to skim. If
you answer yes to any of these, then skimming is a useful tool.
Is this material non-fiction?
Do I have a lot to read and only a small amount of time?
Do I already know something about this?
Can any of the material be skipped?
If you have sufficient background knowledge or believe you dont need the information, then
skip it! Thats rightdont read it at all! Believe it or not, skipping material may sometimes be
the best use of your time. Just because someone wrote something doesnt mean you have to read
it. If you pick and choose carefully what you skim and skip, you will be pleasantly surprised at
the large amount of information you can get through in a short period of time.
What Is Scanning?
Scanning is another useful tool for speeding up your reading. Unlike skimming, when scanning,
you look only for a specific fact or piece of information without reading everything. You scan
when you look for your favorite show listed in the cable guide, for your friends phone number
in a telephone book, and for the sports scores in the newspaper. For scanning to be successful,
you need to understand how your material is structured as well as comprehend what you read so
you can locate the specific information you need. Scanning also allows you to find details and
other information in a hurry.
How to scan. Because you already scan many different types of material in your daily life,
learning more details about scanning will be easy. Establishing your purpose, locating the
appropriate material, and knowing how the information is structured before you start scanning is
essential.
The material you scan is typically arranged in the following ways: alphabetically,
chronologically, non-alphabetically, by category, or textually. Alphabetical information is
arranged in order from A to Z, while chronological information is arranged in time or numerical
order.
Information can be also be arranged in non- alphabetical order, such as a television listing, or
by category, listings of like items such as an auto parts catalog. Sometimes information is
located within the written paragraphs of text, also known as a textual sense, as in an
encyclopedia entry.
Reading journals, magazines and newspapers for comprehension:
READING SCIENTIFIC ARTICLES

There are many appproaches to reading scientific articles. Those of you who have had
significant experience reading such articles will have developed a style of you own. For those of
you who have not, I will discuss one approach.
One does not read a journal article like a novel or a newspaper article. There are several
reasons for this:
1) The information is too dense to comprehend it with a simple reading.
2) You may be interested in a specific aspect of the article rather than the entire
thing. The special structure of such articles allows one to find the desired section
more easily.
3) Understanding of one part of an article will often require backward or forward
reference to another part of the article.
For adequate understanding of an article, you should be prepared to read an article at least
two, three, or four times. You will often be amazed to discover that what seemed completely
incomprehensible on the first reading, appears to make perfect sense on subsequent readings.
You should be comforted to know that even experienced scientists must read articles over and
over again. Furthermore, there will be things you simply do not understand because 1) you do
not have the adequate background, 2) they are just too complicated, or 3) they simply do not
make sense. Do not overlook this last possibility simply because you see something in print.
You should be prepared to do some work in order to acquire sufficient background for
adequate understanding of an article. This will include:
1) looking up points made in the references;
2) looking things up in textbooks;
3) looking up words in dictionaries (particularly biological and medical dictionaries);
4) asking questions of people who may know.

In general, people do not try to conquer every article they encounter. There are simply too
many articles and it would require too much work. They tend to go through a sequential process
of studying the article - all the while deciding whether or not to give it further attention. The
decision is based on several factors:
1) Whether the article is of sufficient interest
2) Whether the article is relevant to their work
3) Whether the article is of general importance
4) Whether the article is if high quality and or accurate
5) Whether the article is clearly written and accessible at least after reasonable amount of
effort
6) Whether the article is "meaty"
7) Whether the article is short.

Phase I: Screening the article
1) Read the title once fast looking for key words. Read the title slowly until it makes sense.
2) Look through the authors to see if there is anyone whose name you recognize, whose
work you know. This is an important process in trying to judge the quality of the data.
3) Look at the date. In molecular biology, where information is rapidly changing, the date
may be all-important. With policy issues, the date is less important than the quality of thought.
Bear in mind that there is a definite lag period between when the research gets done, when the
article gets written and when it gets published. In addition to the publication date, many journals
list the date when the article was received, and the date when the article was accepted.
Interestingly, journals that are refereed (see below) are more likely to be delayed in their
publication, but are less likely to contain inaccurate or frivolous articles.
4) Some articles have a brief list of key words. Although they are sometimes misleading (as
anyone who has done a computer reference search knows) they are usually quite informative and
should be looked at early on.

Phase II: Getting the punch line.
1) Read the abstract once fast looking for key words. Read the abstract slowly until it makes
sense.
2) Read introduction. The introduction is often the easiest part of an article to read. In some
cases, it is also the most informative - not so much in terms of presenting new information, but in
consolidating background information. Some authors will also present the punch line of their
research in a way that is easier to understand than the way it is presented in the abstract.
3) The introduction will often cite many of the references. This is an excellent time to begin
looking at them. The references are particularly informative if they contain the titles of the
articles being cited. You will want to go back to the reference page over and over again.

Phase III: Understanding the approach
1) Peruse the figures and tables. You will not understand them this first time through but
this will help you know what to look for when you actually read the article.
2) Go to the discussion. Read the first few paragraphs and the last few paragraphs. If it is
short and/or easy to understand, read the whole thing.
Phase IV: First reading
1) If you get this far you may wish to photocopy the article if you have not already done so.
The monetary investment will surely be trivial in comparison to the investment of your time.
2) Skim the abstract and the introduction once again. At this point you should be able to
have an adequate understanding of them.
3) Skim the methods section. The methods section will need to be studied carefully only if
you intend to use some of the procedures in your research.
Certain parts of the methods, such as where the chemicals were purchased or whence the viral
strains were obtained do not actually contribute to an understanding of the article and may be
safely omitted. Other parts of the methods may remain obscure even after the rest of the article
is fairly clear. For our purposes, the methods should be studied only in so far as they contribute
to the understanding of the rest of article.
4) Read the results section.
5) Read the discussion.
6) Study the figures and tables.

Phase V: Increasing understanding
1) Reread the article in its entirety. You may wish to read several times.
2) Be sure to write on the article. Circle words you do not know. Check important points.
Question things you do not understand or that do not appear to make sense. X-off things that are
wrong. Jot down further ideas or questions.
3) Consult the references. Look up points that were not fully explained.
Consult textbook to clarify points of general biology. Look up words that are unfamiliar.
4) Before leaving the article, reread the abstract once again.
Reading newspaper:
Nulla nuova, buona nuova meaning no news is good news is a famous Italian usage. It may be
true in the ambience of too much news of disturbing nature pouring in from all directions all the
time nolens volens. But, news is sine qua non for active life. None can ignore the milieu in which
he lives. Only news keeps us in touch with the milieu in which we live. It gives us the insight to
the dynamics that form the environment around us, it be in local or regional or national or
international level. Keeping doors shut from news renders us deadwood and leads to isolation
from the world around us and ultimately to atrophy.

The main conveyor of news is newspaper. Though there are many other sources of news like
magazines and books in print media, radio and television channels and Internet connections in
electronic media, words of mouth and telephone and wireless communications etc, no other
source ever could come near the newspaper in importance. It is true of the past and the present
and it is true of the future also. Neither the advent of the television nor that of the Internet could
affect the importance of the newspaper. The reason for this is the width, breadth and the depth of
the news provided by the newspaper, its low cost and the ease of providing the news at our
leisure and comfort as many times as we desire.

Newspapers are very important in many ways. They give us lots of information about various
matters at various levels that are not available anywhere. Though magazines and books also give
lots of information, the scope of the news there is limited to a few selected topics. Televisions
and internet connections while provide news faster than the newspapers, it cannot have the
width, breadth and depth of the newspapers and do not provide the comfort of the repeated
references at our leisure and comfort apart from harming our eyes because of the glare and being
the source of health hazards because of radiations.

People of all profession need newspapers. Engineers, doctors, scientists, professors and other
professionals need them to know the day-to-day developments in their respective fields.
Businessmen need newspapers to keep in touch with the economic and commercial trends in the
country and see current share prices. Politicians need them to read recent political events in the
country. Others read newspapers to know how changes around them affect their life. Students
read newspapers to broaden their knowledge and keep abreast of the recent developments in
various fields, be it in politics, economics, science, sports or art and culture. Newspaper is an
important tool of the learning process for students.

Advertisements in newspapers are also very informative and give lots of information about the
world around us and recent trends apart from being very entertaining. The editorials and the
articles in the editorial page of the newspapers are always very analytical and give insight to the
news and their background. Reading newspapers is incomplete sans a glance to the editorials and
the articles.

Reading newspapers everyday is must for both students and adults for growth and enlightenment
irrespective of the class or field of their life. For, reading newspaper everyday is highly
educational, and an important informal education in that. One can ignore this important function
of the life at own peril.

Practical use of English
Conversation:
Interaction describes a range of processes. A previous On Modeling article presented models
of interaction based on the internal capacity of the systems doing the interacting [1]. At one
extreme, there are simple reactive systems, such as a door that opens when you step on a mat or a
search engine that returns results when you submit a query At the other extreme is conversation.
Conversation is a progression of exchanges among participants. Each participant is a learning
system, that is, a system that changes internally as a consequence of experience. This highly
complex type of interaction is also quite powerful, for conversation is the means by which
existing knowledge is conveyed and new knowledge is generated.
We talk all the time, but were usually not aware of when conversation works, when it doesnt,
and how to improve it. Few of us have robust models of conversation. This article addresses the
questions: What is conversation? How can conversation be improved? And, if conversation is
important, why dont we consider conversation explicitly when we design for interaction? This
article hopes to move practice in that direction. If, as this forum has often argued, models can
improve design, we further ask, what models of conversation are useful for interaction design?
We begin by contrasting conversation with communication in a specific sense. We then offer
a pragmatic but not exhaustive model of the process of conversing and explore how it is useful
for design.
What Is the Process of Conversation?
Conversation at its simplest takes place when participants perform these tasks:
1) Open a channel.
When participant A sends an initial message, the possibility for conversation opens. For
conversation to follow, the message must establish common ground; it must be comprehensible
to participant B.
2) Commit to engage.
Participant B must pay attention to the message and then commit to engaging with A. Such a
commitment may amount to nothing more than continuing to pay attention. For conversation to
persist, the commitment must be symmetrical, and either side may break off for any reason, at
any time. Put another way, each participant must see value in continuing the conversation, which
offsets the personal cost of being engaged: what we call the bio-cost, or the energy, time,
attention, and stress required [3].
3) Construct meaning.
Conversation enables us to construct (or reconstruct) meaning, including meaning that is new to
the destination. Conversation theory has a highly detailed model that we must leave to other
descriptions though it is useful even in this skeletal form [4].
Messages are composed with topics or distinctions that are already shared, on the basis of prior
conversation or shared contexts, such as common language and social norms. Participant A uses
the message channel to convey what these topics are and how they are distinct from one another
(descriptive dynamics), along with a kind of glue that explains just how these topics interact to
make up the new concept (prescriptive dynamics). Participant B takes all this in and puts it all
together to reproduce As meaning (or something close enough).
This can occur because, first, the descriptive and prescriptive dynamics come together to express
an inherent coherence for the conceptthey fit together like gears in a watch and only in a
limited way or ways. Second, the human nervous system has evolved especially to make sense of
the messages that arrive [5]. This meaning making (the taking all this in and putting it all
together) is a mini AHA moment, every time we get what someone is saying [6].
4) Evolve.
Participant A or B (or both) are different after the interaction. Either or both hold new beliefs,
make decisions, or develop new relationships, with others, with circumstances or objects, or with
themselves.
Here we define an effective conversation as an interaction in which the changes brought about
by conversation have lasting value to the participants.
5) Converge on agreement.
Participant B may wish to confirm understanding of As concept. To do so, B must create and
transmit a different formulation of the topic(s) under discussion, one that captures his model of
the concept. On receipt, participant A attempts to make sense of Bs formulation and compares it
with her original intention. This may lead to further exchanges. When both A and B judge that
the concepts match sufficiently, they have reached an agreement over an understanding. Such
agreement may involve a fact about the world or merely shared belief. Sometimes participants
agree on the qualities of a song, or that they like each other enough to continue talking.
6) Act or Transact.
Sometimes one or more of the participants agrees to perform an action as a result of, and beyond,
the conversation that has taken place. For example, they may agree to play a game together or
enter into a relationship. Or they may agree to an exchange, as when money is traded for a
product or service.
Thus we have a simplified description of conversation. All of us experience breakdowns in
conversations; it is near miraculous that we understand each other at all. But if you comprehend
this, the process of conversation is working right now.
Lecture or Speech:
Whole class teaching is generally done by following the lecture method. It is the easiest of all the
teaching methods. The number of students running into 70 or 80 or more is no deterrent to this
method of teaching. The teacher is to have the simple requirement of a passive audience. If that
is taken care of, he can go on and on with his discourse. Teacher preparation is minimal here. He
has to have the ability of presenting the textual material in a sequential order. Students listening
to the lecture is not ensured here. Yet, if there is no hindrance from the students side in the form
of shouting, catcalling etc., the teacher can go on with his business and at the end of the period
leave the classroom with the feeling of having completed his mission. Lectures are one sided.
There is no guarantee that the students are with the teacher when the lecture is on. There is also
no guarantee that the students listen to what the teacher teaches. There is no compulsion on their
part to take down notes. They need to simply keep quiet and facilitate the teacher having a go
at his discourse.A lecture is a carefully prepared oral presentation of a subject by a qualified
expert. It is usually rather formal.
The lecture or speech may be used
1. To present factual material directly and logically.
2. To present one point of view on a controversial subject.
3. For accounts of travels or personal experiences.
4. To entertain or inspire an audience.
5. To stimulate thinking and further study on a problem and to open the subject for general
discussion.
Some advantages
1. It is suitable for audiences of any size.
2. It is easy to organize.
3. Some people can learn more easily by listening than by reading.
Some limitations
1. Good speakers informed on subjects of interest to the group may be hard to find. Experts
are not always good speakers.
2. The role of the audience is passive.
3. Feedback is limited.
4. Only one side of a question is presented with little chance for challenge or rebuttal.
Physical requirements
1. Adequate seating so every member of the audience may see and hear the speaker in
comfort.
2. A stage or slightly raised platform and a speakers rostrum.
Procedure
1. The chairperson should introduce the speaker to the audience with brief remarks as to his
or her position, experience or special qualification for this particular appearance.
2. If visual aids such as films, slides, maps or charts are to be used, they should be
appropriate to the subject and to the audience. Use them to heighten audience interest, not
to distract the audiences attention.
3. At the conclusion of the prepared lecture, the chair-person should thank the speaker and
call for a questions period, discussion or whatever has been planned as follow-up.


Seminar:
The seminar is a group of people engaged in specialized study led by a recognized authority in
the subject being studied. It may be a single session or a series of sessions. Seminar is a
structured group discussion that may precede or follow a formal lecture, in the form of an essay
or paper presentation. This method can be used when the students are willing for presenting the
topic on hand as a research paper with a view to having an in depth discussion following the
presentation. The major advantage of the seminar as a mode of instruction is its stimulation and
testing of students power of comprehension and evaluation.

The seminar may be used
1. To study a subject in depth under the guidance of an authority.
Some advantages
1. A recognized authority is available to guide discussion and to assist the learners.
2. Detailed and systematic discussion and inquiry can take place.
3. All members of the group have the opportunity to participate, over time, in the discussion
and in formal presentations.
Some limitations
1. It may be difficult to find the right person to direct the seminar.
2. Members may not want to spend all the time required for preparation or reports.
3. The presence of an expert may inhibit participation of some members.
4. It may be difficult to find all the source materials desired.
Physical requirements
1. If the group is not too large, arrange the participants around a conference table. If the
group is too large or if such arrangements are not possible, arrange the chairs in a
semicircle to facilitate group discussions.
Procedure
1. Responsibilities for the giving of reports are assigned and these are prepared in advance
of the seminar.
2. Reports are made, including the use of visuals and written handouts if needed.
3. All participants discuss the report and question the reporter.
4. Evaluation and follow-up as needed.
Discussion Group:
A group of persons meet together to discuss informally and deliberate on a topic of mutual
concern.
The discussion group may be used
1. To develop a nucleus of leadership for community service or informal education.
2. To identify, explore and seek solutions for problems and to develop plans of action.
3. To change attitudes through discussion and the examination of information.
Some advantages
1. Group discussion permits full participation.
2. It can establish consensus democratically.
3. It pools the abilities, knowledge and experience of all to reach a common goal.
Some limitations
1. Group discussion is time-consuming, particularly if the group includes people of widely
different backgrounds.
2. A bossy leader or a few members may dominate the discussion.
Physical requirements
1. The group is usually seated around a large table (or tables arranged in a rectangle). Face-
to-face discussion is essential. An informal and relaxed atmosphere will permit free
discussions.
Procedure
1. Should be governed by the group itself. Generally the leader will preside and moderate
the discussion.
2. A group may meet as long and as often as is necessary and convenient.
3. A change may be made to use special individual abilities. For example, different leaders
may be used in the deliberative, planning and action phases of the groups work.
4. The group may appoint a recorder to keep track of its deliberations and to report on its
progress from time to time.
Reference skills:
Using dictionary:
Of the approximately 1 million words in the English language, the average English speaker
knows 60,000 of those words, A dictionary can be a very handy tool. Besides helping with
spelling and word meanings, being able to use a dictionary effectively and regularly is a perfect
way to improve your English language skills through the dictionary's range of other helpful
information on everyday language usage and grammar. This article will explain how to make the
most of using your dictionary.
Familiarize yourself with your dictionary. Dictionaries vary in approach. The best way to
learn how to use your particular dictionary effectively is to read its introductory section where
you'll find out how the entries are arranged. The introductory section of your dictionary will
explain important information such as the abbreviations and pronunciation symbols used
throughout the entries. There may also be information on pronunciation of words with similar
spellings; this can be helpful if you have only heard a word and you're not sure of its spelling.
For example, if you hear "not", it might also be "knot" but the "k" is silent, and this list can help
you with suggestions.
Know how to look up a word. When you come across a word you don't recognize or know the
meaning of, keep a note of it. When you get around to looking it up, here is the sequence to
follow:
to the letter of the alphabet that your word begins with. For example, "dog" begins
with "d". Don't forget the possible spellings for trickier words, such as "gnome" begins with a
"g", or "psychology" begins with a "p", or "knock" begins with a "k", etc.
an indication of how close you are to locating your word, speeding up the process of going
through the pages.
run down the page and locate your word.
For example, if you were looking for the word "futile", "u" is the second letter. Perhaps you will
see "furrow/futtock" in the upper left corner of the left page and "futtock plate/gaberlunzie" in
the upper right corner of the right page. Now you know that "futile" is going to be located on one
of these two pages.
entry words moving past "Furry" and "Fuse" and "Fuss". Since the
example word begins with "Fut", go past all the "Fur" and all the "Fus" words alphabetically
until you reach the "FUT" area of the page. In this example, move right down through "Fut" and
"Futhark" and this is at last, where you will find "futile".
Know how to make the most of your find. Once you've located the word, there are several
useful elements that you can discover about the word from the dictionary entry. Read the
information given about this entry, and depending on your dictionary, you might find many
things:
A definition of the word.
One or more pronunciations. Look for a pronunciation key near the beginning of the
dictionary to help you interpret the written pronunciation. Learn how to use the stress
marks, as these will aid your pronunciation. The stress mark ' is place just prior to the
syllable where the stress is placed.
[2]

Capitalization, where relevant.
Prepositions, such as "in", "on", etc. and their use with the word in question.
Irregular endings for verbs.
Synonyms and antonyms. You can use these in your writing, or as further clues towards
the word's meaning.
An etymology, derivation, or history of the word. Even if you don't know Latin or
Ancient Greek, you may find that this information helps you to remember or understand
the word.
Examples or citations of how the word is used. Use these to add context to the meaning
of the word.
Derived terms and inflections (I am, you are, etc).
Phrases or idioms associated with the word, and slang usage. In addition, the dictionary
may explain whether a word is formal or informal.
Plurals of nouns.
Near neighbor words that might be related, such as "futility".
Using thesaurus effectively:
Words or rather the appropriate use of them is the lifeblood of effective writing and quality
written communication. Just as a chef uses a variety of spices and other ingredients to add flavor
to cooking, writers should use a thesaurus to add spice to their writing. Using a thesaurus can
bring new life to a mediocre piece of writing.
A thesaurus is a general reference work that comes in both print and electronic formats. Most
word processing programs offer a thesaurus option within their tools menu. There are several
online thesaurus sites that will not only provide the general information within a thesaurus but
also will include basic dictionary and etymology.
What information is contained within a thesaurus?
A thesaurus contains an alphabetical listing of entries with words that are either synonyms or
antonyms. A synonym is a word that has the same or similar meaning of the main entry. For
example, the entry for the term word might include: remark, statement, speech or declaration.
This listing includes terms that are similar in meaning to the term word. An antonym is a word
that means the direct opposite entry term. For example, some antonyms for the term dark might
include: bright, light, clear, and vivid. Use of a thesaurus can benefit the work and word craft of
a writer in many different and unique ways.
Ways a thesaurus can improve word craft
1. Increased variety of words
One major way to improve the overall quality of writing is to improve the quality of word craft.
Word craft is the ability to creatively craft sentences, structure basic word order and create
effective pieces of writing. Using a thesaurus will stretch the writer's ability to use a greater
variety of words that will add impact and influence to the final product.
2. Deeper implied meaning
A thesaurus offers a means for the writer to add deeper meanings by use of related words.
Instead of describing something that is blue, use another term as a means of creating depth in the
writing. There are more vivid ways to describe something than by just saying the color is blue.
Blue has a variety of related terms that are technically different shades of the color. Here are just
a few examples: azure, cobalt, navy and cerulean. Just as describing colors in shades adds
specific detail, use of a thesaurus can help the writer create many new shades of word craft.
3. Greater overall creativity
Using a thesaurus can also add an overall deeper level of creativity than before. Writers strive to
make a greater use of their art through words and using a thesaurus is a simple way to achieve
new levels of creativity. One quick way to learn the uses of a thesaurus is to take an old piece of
writing and recreate it by using the thesaurus to communicate in a different manner.
One excellent aspect of using a thesaurus is that the writer actually increases their vocabulary
and their ability to write in a more creative manner. Word craft and writing effectively is truly an
art. Think of all the most memorable pieces of writing. Where would those same pieces be with
mediocre word craft?
Word craft requires time, effort and energy on the part of the writer. Be careful a thesaurus can
also make writers become lazy in working through their own word craft. Use the thesaurus to
increase the effort and work of creating, not as a quick replacement of hard work.
Using encyclopedia effectively:
An encyclopedia is a book, or series of books, that contains general information about many
topics and subjects. While often found with dictionaries in resource libraries, encyclopedias may
be much longer and contain more information about the subjects within them. In the past, these
works were collected in multiple published volumes. More modern publications, however,
include digital formats such as software on a disc or websites with information on them.
Format and Purpose
Some people can confuse an encyclopedia with a dictionary, although they are inherently quite
different. A dictionary offers definitions of words, occasionally accompanied by illustrations, to
provide the reader with the meaning of individuals terms or phrases. On the other hand, an
encyclopedia explores topics in greater depth and more often includes illustrations, maps, and
photographs. While most encyclopedias are organized alphabetically, some are arranged by
categories or cross-referenced articles to allow for easier reading.
Readers can find a wide range of subjects within these volumes, making them excellent research
texts. Historical events, such as the dates and major battles of various wars; scientific
information, like pertinent data regarding different theories; and popular culture, such as names
and short biographies of various celebrities, can all be found in these volumes. As time goes on,
publishers make revisions and release new volumes with more information, to keep them
relevant.
Historical Encyclopedias
Pliny the Elder wrote the first documented encyclopedia in the first century BC with the help of
his nephew. This work consisted of 37 volumes and covered subjects ranging from anthropology
and human physiology to agriculture, painting, and pharmacology. Through the following few
centuries, encyclopedias adopted a religious overtone. The first Christian edition was published
in 560 AD, and the first Muslim volume came to light soon after.
One of the longest encyclopedias ever was created in 1403 when the Yongle Encyclopedia was
published in China. It consisted of 11,000 handwritten volumes; most of the original work has
been lost through the centuries, and less than 400 volumes survive today. The word
"encyclopedia" comes from the Greek enkyklia paideia, which means "a general knowledge." It
has been in use for at least 500 years, since the publishing of Encyclopaedia, or Knowledge of
the World of Disciplines in 1559.
Modern Formats
In the 20th century, the Encyclopedia Britannica became the most well known western work of
this type. Topical encyclopedias also came into popularity, covering topics as varied as
economics, bioethics, or Judaica. Toward the end of the century, many publishers began
releasing them in digital formats such as Compact Discs (CDs) and Digital Versatile Discs
(DVDs).
Some encyclopedias have become entirely available online, with no corresponding print version.
One of the most important advantages of online encyclopedias is that they can be edited
frequently, so they remain up to date. Traditionally, a single writer wrote an encyclopedia alone
or as a collaborative effort with peers, but a team of writers, who often have no face to face
contact with each other, can now put together numerous volumes at a distance.
Error shooting for better use of English:
What is an error in English?
The concept of language errors is a fuzzy one. Ill leave to linguists the technical definitions. Here
were concerned only with deviations from the standard use of English as judged by sophisticated
users such as professional writers, editors, teachers, and literate executives and personnel officers.
The aim of this site is to help you avoid low grades, lost employment opportunities, lost business,
and titters of amusement at the way you write or speak.

But isnt one persons mistake anothers standard usage?
Often enough, but if your standard usage causes other people to consider you stupid or ignorant,
you may want to consider changing it. You have the right to express yourself in any manner you
please, but if you wish to communicate effectively, you should use nonstandard English only when
you intend to, rather than fall into it because you dont know any better.

Why dont you cover all important points of grammar?
Other sites do this; mine is dedicated to errors in usage. This is not a site dealing with grammar in
general.

Im learning English as a second language. Will this site help me improve my English?
Very likely, though its really aimed at the most common errors of native speakers. The errors
others make in English differ according to the characteristics of their first languages. Speakers of
other languages tend to make some specific errors that are uncommon among native speakers, so
you may also want to consult sites dealing specifically with English as a second language (see
http://www.cln.org/subjects/esl_cur.html and http://esl.about.com/education/adulted/esl/). There is
also a Help Desk for ESL students at Washington State University at
http://www.wsu.edu/~gordonl/ESL/. An outstanding book you may want to order is Ann Raimes
Keys for Writers.

Arent some of these points awfully picky?
This is a relative matter. One persons gaffe is anothers peccadillo. Some common complaints
about usage strike me as too persnickety, but Im just discussing mistakes in English that happen to
bother me. Feel free to create your own page listing your own pet peeves, but I welcome
suggestions for additions to these pages. First, read the Commonly Made Suggestions page, and if
you still want to write me, please do so, after reading the instructions on that page.

What gives you the right to say what an error in English is?
I could take the easy way out and say Im a professor of English and do this sort of thing for a
living. True, but my Ph.D. is in comparative literature, not composition or linguistics, and I teach
courses in the history of ideas rather than language as such. But I admire good writing and try to
encourage it in my students.

I found a word you criticized in the dictionary!
You will find certain words or phrases criticized here listed in dictionaries. Note carefully labels
like dial. (dialectical), nonstandard, and obsolete before assuming that the dictionary is endorsing
them. The primary job of a dictionary is to track how people actually use language. Dictionaries
differ among themselves on how much guidance to usage they provide; but the goal of a usage
guide like this is substantially different: to protect you against patterns which are regarded by
substantial numbers of well-educated people as nonstandard.

Why do you discuss mainly American usage?
Because Im an American, my readers are mostly American, and American English is quickly
becoming an international standard. I often take note of ways in which American English differs
from standard British practice. However, the job is complicated by the fact that Canadians,
Australians, and many others often follow patterns somewhere between the two. If the standard
usage where you are differs from what is described here, tell me about it, and if I think its
important to do so, Ill note that fact. Meanwhile, just assume that this site is primarily about
American English. If you feel tempted to argue with me, click here first.