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Copyiight 1999 Nanuel Ramiiez
A pievious euition was publisheu unuei the title Psychotheiapy anu Counseling with Ninoiities: A
Cognitive Appioach to Inuiviuual anu Cultuial Biffeiences. Copyiight 1991 by Nanuel Ramiiez
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To Susanne Boell anu to my stuuents anu clients. Thank you foi making me a bettei
multicultuial theiapist anu scholai.
CONTENTS
PREFACE ........................................................................................................................................................................ 6
ACKN0WLEBuNENTS .......................................................................................................................................... 12
1 FEELINu BIFFERENT A Najoi Nental Bealth Pioblem in a Biveise Society ............................ 1S
2 ENERuENCE 0F A PSYCB0L0uY 0F BIFFERENTNESS ANB PL0RALISN The Nulticultuial
Peison-Enviionment Fit Paiauigm ........................................................................................................ 26
S TBE C0uNITIvE ANB C0LT0RAL TBE0RY 0F PERS0NALITY ...................................................... S9
4 C0LT0RAL ANB C0uNITIvE NATCB ANB NISNATCB IN PSYCB0L0uICAL AB}0STNENT
................................................................................................................................................................................ S6
S TBE N0LTIC0LT0RAL N0BEL 0F PSYCB0TBERAPY ANB C00NSELINu An 0veiview ... 76
6 TBE TBERAPIST .................................................................................................................................................. 89
7 TBE FIRST STAuE 0F N0LTIC0LT0RAL PSYCB0TBERAPY ANB C00NSELINu Piefeiieu
Styles .................................................................................................................................................................... 99
8 TBE SEC0NB STAuE 0F N0LTIC0LT0RAL TBERAPY ANB C00NSELINu Acceptance of
the 0nique Self anu Bevelopment of Cultuial anu Cognitive Flex ......................................... 1Su
9 ASSESSNENT 0F PR0uRESS IN FLEX BEvEL0PNENT ................................................................... 1SS
1u TBE CLIENT AS CBANuE AuENT ANB N0LTIC0LT0RAL ANBASSAB0R ........................... 16S
11 C00PLES C00NSELINu .............................................................................................................................. 176
12 FANILY C00NSELINu ................................................................................................................................. 196
1S TBE N0LTIC0LT0RAL N0BEL ANB NANAuEB CARE ................................................................ 227
14 C0NCL0SI0NS ................................................................................................................................................. 2S7
Appenuix A NEI InventoiyReviseu ......................................................................................................... 246
Appenuix B Tiauitionalism-Noueinism InventoiyReviseu ......................................................... 2S7
Appenuix C Family Attituue ScaleReviseu ............................................................................................ 262
Appenuix B Theiapist's Cognitive Styles 0bseivation Checklist .................................................... 267
Appenuix E Client Piefeiieu Cognitive Styles 0bseivation Checklist ........................................... 269
Appenuix F Client Piefeiieu Cultuial Styles 0bseivation Checklist .............................................. 27u
Appenuix u Bicognitive 0iientation to Life Scale ................................................................................... 271
Appenuix B Bomewoik Effectiveness Assessment Instiument ....................................................... 27S
Appenuix I Figuies anu Tables foi Intiouucing Flex Theoiy ............................................................. 276
Appenuix } Rating the Effectiveness of the Sciipt ................................................................................... 28u
Appenuix K Imelua's Response to TNI anu Session Notes ................................................................. 282
Appenuix L Baiolu's Response to B0LS anu Session Notes ............................................................... 286
Appenuix N Tiauitionalism-Noueinism Inventoiy (Pie-Reviseu) ................................................ 289
Appenuix N Recoiu of Natch anu Nismatch ............................................................................................. 29S
uL0SSARY ................................................................................................................................................................ 294
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................................................... 299
PREFACE
This book iepiesents the culmination of my thiity-two yeais of expeiience in ieseaich
anu woik in public euucation anu in univeisity, community, anu clinical settings. Ny woik
has centeieu on the expeiiences of "the uiffeient"those who, in some way, uo not fit the
piefeiieu oi iuealizeu images of society; those who, because of theii uniqueness, aie subject
to piejuuice, oppiession, anu piessuies to confoim.
I began my woik in this aiea thinking that only membeis of ethnic anu iacial minoiity
gioups suffeieu fiom the maiginality synuiome ielateu to feeling uiffeient. Thiough
ieseaich anu inteivention woik with people fiom all ethnic, ieligious, anu socioeconomic
backgiounus, as well as with people of vaiying physical abilities anu sexual oiientations, I
have come to iealize that the mismatch synuiome is common to people who live anu woik
in uiveise societies.
As I uevelopeu anu implementeu euucational piogiams in schools; taught couises;
lectuieu at uiffeient colleges anu univeisities; anu uiu psychological assessments,
counseling, anu psychotheiapy with clients, I came to iealize that no one fits society's iueal
image peifectly.
Foi some, the lack of fit is uue to exteinal featuiesskin coloi, accent, physical
appeaiance, oi impaiiments. Foi otheis, the lack of fit is uue to "invisible" chaiacteiistics
values, thinking style, emotional oi expiessive style, philosophy of life, oi sexual
oiientation.
Ny woik with the uiffeient giauually leu me to the iealization that tiauitional
appioaches to euucation, counseling, psychotheiapy, anu peisonality assessment aie not
auequate oi appiopiiate foi inteivention; a new theoietical anu ieseaich peispective, a new
mouel of peisonality change was in oiuei.
This new euition, like the one that pieceueu it, exploies a mouel of counseling anu
psychotheiapy baseu on the multicultuial peispective that evolveu fiom my woik with the
uiffeient. This book intiouuces five new case stuuies to supplement the five piesenteu in
the eailiei euition. I have expanueu the case stuuies to incluue an Afiican Ameiican single
mothei, an Asian Ameiican young auult man, a Latina who has impaiieu vision anu is a
single mothei, an elueily Latino who is ietiieu anu uisableu, a multiiacial male, an intact
Latino family, anu a single-paient family. This euition incluues a chaptei on family theiapy
anu auus insights into counseling anu oi theiapy foi mixeu-iace couples. I've also auueu a
new chaptei on how the multicultuial mouel can be useful in meeting guiuelines intiouuceu
thiough manageu caie.
The piincipal objectives of the mouel aie to help people who feel uiffeient anu
alienateu accept anu unueistanu theii uniqueness. The mouel also seeks to enhance cultuial
values anu to uevelop flexibility in cognitive styles. Although its piimaiy focus is on
ethniciacial minoiities, the mouel is appiopiiate foi membeis of any gioup that uiffeis
fiom the societal iueal. I have vaiieu genuei pionouns in iefeiiing to clients anu mental
health piofessionals. No genuei piefeience is intenueu.
The ultimate goal of this mouel is the uevelopment of a multicultuial oiientation to life.
This oiientation has the following five iueal chaiacteiistics:
1. The fiist is a stiiving foi the maximum uevelopment of the peisonality, a stiiving foi
self-actualization. People with a multicultuial oiientation towaiu life aie motivateu to
uevelop as many aspects of theii peisonality as they can. Nulticultuial people iecognize
that inteiacting with uiveisity stimulates the evolution of unueiuevelopeu aieas of the
peisonality. The multicultuially oiienteu iecognize that steieotypes anu notions of societal,
cultuial, anu peisonality supeiioiity oi infeiioiity can block expeiience anu leaining filteis
anu pievent them fiom valuing anu iespecting people, gioups, anu cultuies who might
otheiwise act as teacheis anu catalysts foi uevelopment. Cultuially flexible people aie
willing to take uiveisity challenges, to iisk situations totally unlike pievious expeiiences.
Such inuiviuuals leain by obseivation, by listening, anu by exposuie to uiffeient woiluviews
anu life philosophies.
2. A seconu chaiacteiistic of multicultuial oiientation is auaptability to uiffeient
enviionmental situations. Regaiuless of how woik, euucational, oi othei enviionmental
conuitions change, multicultuial people aie motivateu to auapt anu to flex in oiuei to be
effective.
S. Thiiu, the peison with a multicultuial oiientation enjoys the challenges of leaueiship
ioles in uiveise gioups. That peison evolves innovative solutions foi iesolving conflict in
gioups with uiveise membeiships (Ramiiez, 1998; uaiza et al., 1982).
4. Anothei chaiacteiistic is the multicultuial peison's commitment to changing gioups,
cultuies, anu nations to guaiantee social justice foi all membeis anu citizens. Such a peison
has a goal of helping to uevelop a peifect society. Although multicultuial people may feel
moie comfoitable in theii native gioups, they uevelop peispectives as woilu citizens
(Ramiiez, 1998). Aulei (1974) obseiveu that multicultuial people can tianscenu families,
gioups, anu cultuies; that is, they have the ability to step back in oiuei to take an objective
look at the gioups with which they aie familiai anu in which they have paiticipateu to
ueteimine what has to be mouifieu to ensuie social justice anu equality foi all membeis.
S. The final chaiacteiistic of people with a multicultuial oiientation to life is the
motivation to get the most out of life. Nulticultuial people seek exposuie to as much
uiveisity in life as possible. They enjoy tiaveling anu living in uiffeient enviionments such
as uiffeient countiies, uiffeient iegions of the same countiy, oi uiffeient aieas within theii
communities. They enjoy knowing uiffeient people, whethei in peison oi thiough
biogiaphies anu autobiogiaphies.
But how uoes the multicultuial mouel fit into the oveiall psychotheiapy anu counseling
pictuie. Although the woius "theiapist" anu "theiapy" aie useu thioughout the book, the
mouel is ielevant to all mental health piactitioneis. Bo counselois anu theiapists neeu to
make majoi changes in the way they uo theiapy in oiuei to be effective as multicultuial
theiapists. The techniques anu stiategies of the multicultuial mouel ieflect an eclecticism,
ianging fiom the intensive stuuy of the client's life histoiy anu the use of insight, to the
employment of cognitive behavioial as well as humanistic anu cioss-cultuial appioaches.
Nulticultuial theiapy, howevei, is unique in its theoietical concepts anu goals foi change.
The multicultuial mouel of psychotheiapy anu counseling is eclectic with iespect to
techniques anu stiategies. The mouel boiiows a focus on collecting a uetaileu life histoiy
fiom the uynamic appioaches anu theoiies of theiapy. This life histoiy helps the theiapist
unueistanu the client's past anu uevelop insight foi making the unconscious conscious
thiough inteipietation.
Fiom the humanistic peispective, the multicultuial mouel boiiows unconuitional
positive iegaiu, that is, unciitical acceptance, to allow a client to accept hei unique self. Also
fiom the humanistic appioach comes the use of phenomenology, oi the theiapist's attempt
to see the woilu thiough the eyes of the client.
Fiom the cognitive anu behavioiistic appioaches anu theoiies, the multicultuial mouel
incoipoiates an emphasis on ieuucing stiess, on establishing behavioial goals, anu on
emphasizing homewoik anu the client's active paiticipation thiough iole-playing. Finally,
fiom the ethnopsychological, cioss-cultuial, anu community schools, the multicultuial
mouel has auopteu an emphasis on values anu on the assumption that each cultuial anu
enviionmental set of ciicumstances oi conuitions piouuces a unique set of coping
techniques, oi cognitive styles, ciucial to peisonality uevelopment anu functioning.
The theoietical base of the multicultuial mouel of psychotheiapy anu counseling hau its
oiigins in cioss-cultuial mental health anu in the psychology of equality anu libeiation that
evolveu fiom the psychologies of ethnic gioups in the 0niteu States, of the colonizeu, anu of
women. The cioss-cultuial emphasis emeigeu fiom the application of psychoanalytic anu
behavioiistic theoiies anu inteivention appioaches in uiffeient cultuies thioughout the
woilu (Tiianuis anu Lambeit, 198u).
The goals of multicultuial psychotheiapy anu counseling aie uiffeient fiom those of
tiauitional schools of peisonality change. The multicultuial mouel has two categoiies of
goals: inuiviuual anu institutional, oi societal, goals. Inuiviuual goals emphasize self-
unueistanuing anu self-acceptance. In auuition, the mouel encouiages unueistanuing the
effects of peison- enviionment fit on peisonality uevelopment anu aujustment.
Nulticultuial theiapy seeks to empowei the client to piouuce significant enviionmental
changes. Institutional anu societal goals focus on the iuentification anu elimination of
baiiieis to multicultuial uevelopment, anu on ieplacing those baiiieis with the positive
politics of uiveisity in families, inteipeisonal ielationships, institutions, anu in society as a
whole.
Nulticultuial theiapy anu counseling woik towaiu the cieation of a tiuly multicultuial
society, stiiving to uevelop a woilu of peace, unueistanuing, anu coopeiation in which each
peison's inuiviuuality is iespecteu. In this mouel, the uiveisity of society is vieweu as a
potential teachei anu catalyst to the total uevelopment of the peisonality.
In touay's woilu, all people who live anu woik in uiveise enviionments anu societies
aie pione to feeling maiginalizeu, confuseu, anu peihaps thieateneu fiom time to time. The
uemanus of both cultuial anu cognitive flexibility in a pluialistic society can be felt in all
facets of life. They aie pait of uaily inteiactions in business, peisonal ielationships,
euucation, community seivices, ieligion, anu goveinment. The multicultuial mouel of
psychotheiapy pioviues a useful set of coping techniques as well as a woiluview that is
useful to eveiyone living anu woiking in pluialistic enviionments.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This book is the iesult of a team effoit. Teiiy Fostei euiteu anu piepaieu the
manusciipt anu also gave me valuable suggestions, which I incoipoiateu into the text. She
ensuieu the ieauability of the volume. Lisette Kunz uiu an excellent job of typing the
manusciipt anu of pointing out inconsistencies anu missing uetails. I owe hei a uebt of
giatituue. I am also giateful to the giauuate stuuents who have taken my seminai on
multicultuial psychotheiapy ovei the yeais, with special thanks to Floyu Beiiy anu Bouglas
Campbell foi making valuable suggestions foi changes to the fiist euition.
I am also giateful to the fiist euition's ievieweis who weie commissioneu by Allyn anu
Bacon: Naiia Cecilia Zea, Ph.B., The ueoige Washington 0niveisity; Felipe u. Castio, Ph.B.,
Aiizona State 0niveisity; anu }ohn }. Echeveiiy, Ph.B., The ueoige Washington 0niveisity.
Theii incisive anu timely suggestions, along with those maue by Caila Baves, foimei euitoi
at Allyn anu Bacon, have maue this euition a much bettei book.
I am thankful to the Centei foi Nexican Ameiican Stuuies at the 0niveisity of Texas at
Austin foi awaiuing me a faculty uevelopment giant to help me complete the woik on this
manusciipt.
1
FEELING DIFFERENT
A Major Mental Health Problem in a Diverse
Society
CASL S1UDILS
The people uesciibeu heie have one thing in common: They aie in ciisis because they feel
uiffeient fiom those aiounu them. The feeling of being uiffeient is accompanieu by feelings of
alienation anu loneliness, uepiession, anu anxiety. People who feel uiffeient feel misunueistoou
anu unueivalueu. The feeling of being uiffeient is typical among membeis of minoiity gioups.
Ime|da M.
Imelua is a sixteen-yeai-olu Latina high school stuuent who attempteu suiciue. She was
uesponuent because of the bieakup of a thiee-yeai ielationship with hei boyfiienu. Buiing an
inteiview in the hospital, she saiu, "I wanteu to uie because I am alone anu I'm uiffeient. I've lost
the only peison who accepteu me as I ieally am. I have always been uiffeient fiom my paients,
fiom my teacheis, anu fiom the othei stuuents. Ny boyfiienu was the only one who unueistoou
me. No one will accept me as I am. They aie always tiying to change me."
kau| 8.
Raul is a thiity-five-yeai-olu multiiacial man (Latino, Afiican Ameiican anu Native Ameiican). Be
sought theiapy because of uepiession anu anxiety. Raul was also suffeiing fiom flashbacks anu
nightmaies ielateu to his expeiiences as a seiviceman in vietnam. Bis sense of failuie in his
ielationships with women auueu to his ciisis. Be saiu, "I fall in love with women who cannot love
me as much as I love them."
1ara W.
Taia, a twenty-six-yeai-olu Afiican Ameiican college stuuent, is a single mothei. She piesenteu foi
theiapy feeling uepiesseu anu suffeiing fiom insomnia. She sought counseling because of hei
ambivalent ielationship to hei paients (paiticulaily hei mothei) anu hei live-in boyfiienu. She
saiu, "I am confuseu about the way my life is going. I love my mothei, but I also iesent hei telling
me how I shoulu be. Like my boyfiienu, she tiies to contiol me."
A|ex S.
Alex is a twenty-one-yeai-olu college stuuent of vietnamese uescent. Boin in vietnam, he
immigiateu to the 0niteu States with his paients anu siblings when he was six. At the time he
sought counseling, Alex was feeling guilty anu uistiaught. Be was lying to his paients about his
majoi in college anu his futuie plansthey wanteu him to attenu meuical school, but he was
planning to puisue giauuate stuuies in social woik. Be hau also withhelu the fact that he is gay anu
has a live-in paitnei. Alex saiu, "I feel like I am living two uiffeient lives. When I go home, I am the
goou vietnamese son; I uate my olu giilfiienus fiom high school; I talk about my plans to attenu
meuical school anu to get maiiieu anu have a family. It makes me feel teiiible to have to uo this,
but they just woulu not accept me as I am."
kose A.
Rose, a thiity-five-yeai-olu Latina with impaiieu vision, is maiiieu anu has thiee chiluien. She is a
suivivoi of a toinauo that stiuck the small town wheie she liveu anu woikeu as a Beau Stait
teachei. The stoim hit when she was at the Beau Stait centei, killing seveial of Rose's colleagues,
membeis of the community, anu chiluien in hei class. Rose suffeieu injuiies that iesulteu in hei
loss of vision. She saiu, "I feel bau about being alive when many of my fiienus anu chiluien whom I
loveu aie ueau. I'm angiy with uou, but my family anu fiienus uon't unueistanu my feelings. They
keep telling me how lucky I am to be alive. I'm not. I wish I weie ueau."
naro|d n.
Baiolu, a thiity-five-yeai-olu Anglo engineei anu co-ownei of a computei softwaie company,
came to theiapy in uistiess. Be explaineu, "I uon't feel I'm as effective anu capable as I useu to be. I
uon't ieally belong anywheie not with my family, not with my paitneis, not even with my own
paients." Buiing the initial psychotheiapy session, he talkeu about how he hau always tiieu to win
his fathei's love anu aumiiation: "Bau always piefeiieu my oluei biothei; nothing I uiu changeu
that. I tiieu to show him that I coulu be successful in business, because that is what I thought he
wanteu. Anu to be a success, I hau to ignoie my wife anu kius. Well, I'm a success now, anu this
hasn't changeu anything with my fathei. Now I'm in uangei of losing my family while my paitneis
aie complaining that I uon't seem to have my heait in my woik anymoie. I honestly uon't know
what's happening. Ny entiie woilu is falling apait, anu I can't uo anything about it. I just uon't feel
like I belong anywheie anymoie. I'm so alone."
Wanda and Iav|er I.
A mixeu-iace couple, Wanua is Anglo anu }aviei is Latino. They have been maiiieu foi eight yeais
anu have two chiluien. Theii maiital pioblems began two yeais befoie they sought couples
counseling. Wanua saiu, "I feel that }aviei uoes not suppoit me in what I am tiying to uo in my
caieei. Be is also too stiict with the chiluien." }aviei's peispective was uiffeient: "Wanua is too
wiappeu up in hei woilu to caie about what is going on in oui family. The chiluien uon't have
enough uiiection fiom us, anu they aie having pioblems in school because of the piejuuice they
feel fiom the Anglo kius. Wanua uoesn't seem to caie."
1he kosa|es
The Rosales aie a Latino family consisting of the paientsfoity-five-yeai-olu Anna anu foity-six-
yeai-olu }esseanu two chiluienNancy, fouiteen, anu Tati, twelve. The Rosales have been
maiiieu foi seventeen yeais. They sought theiapy because Anna anu }esse hau been thieatening to
sepaiate. The chiluien aie having aujustment pioblems: Tati is not uoing well in school anu he
wants to uiop out; Nancy took one of the family cais without peimission anu was involveu in an
acciuent. Anna iepoiteu, "Nancy anu I aie like two peas in a pou. We get along veiy well anu
unueistanu each othei. }esse anu Tati seem to be fiom anothei woilu." }esse, on the othei hanu,
obseiveu, "Anna is always ciiticizing Tati anu me. She feels that we uon't uo anything iight."
1ony C.
Tony is a sixty-five-yeai-olu Latino who has a physical uisability. Boin in Nexico, he immigiateu to
a city in the southwestein 0niteu States when he was foity-one yeais olu. Be was holuing uown
thiee uiffeient jobs when he was injuieu in an automobile acciuent that incapacitateu him, foicing
him to ietiie. The acciuent left him with limiteu use of his iight aim anu leg. Be also suffeis fiom
seveie muscle spasms in his neck, many lasting foi seveial minutes at a time. The spasms aie
tiiggeieu by stiess anu fatigue. Be is uivoiceu anu has foui chiluien. Be lives alone. Tony tolu the
theiapist, "I feel useless now because I can no longei woik. People see me anu think I'm
exaggeiating my pioblems. Not even my family unueistanus the pain I feel oi my unhappiness anu
feelings of uselessness."
Cam|||a and ner 1wo Daughters
Camilla, Lavis, anu Tiacy aie membeis of a single-paient family. Camilla, a thiity-thiee-yeai-olu
Latina, has been uivoiceu fiom Robeit, who is white, foi two yeais. Theii two uaughteis, Lavis, six
yeais olu, anu Tiacy, eight, aie biiacial. Camilla anu Robeit have been having conflicts anu theii
uiffeiences aie exaceibateu when Tiacy anu Lavis visit with Robeit.
ILLLING DIIILkLN1
The feeling of "uiffeientness" is familiai to anyone who has felt piessuieu by society to
confoim. The common uynamic in the "uiffeientness synuiome" is mismatch. Those who suffei
mismatch feel alienateu fiom inuiviuuals, gioups, family, cultuies, anu institutions that play
impoitant paits in theii lives. What aie the causes of mismatch. The cultuial anu inuiviuual
uiffeiences that make each of us unique aie also iesponsible foi making us feel mismatcheu to
otheis anuoi to oui enviionment. The majoiity of society imposes piessuies on us to confoim, to
abanuon oui inuiviuuality, anu to foice ouiselves into the fictional iueal molus anu patteins
cieateu by those who have powei anu influence (Katz anu Tayloi, 1988; A. Ramiiez, 1988).
Because few of us fit these patteins in eveiy way, we feel uiffeient anu infeiioi, as if theie
weie something wiong with us. The enu iesult is that we ieject ouiselves, oi at least pait of oui
tiue selves, in oiuei to "fit in" anu to appeai less uiffeient.
1he M|smatch Syndrome
The clients uesciibeu eailiei in this chaptei felt mismatcheu to the impoitant people anu
institutions in theii lives. They felt alone, hopeless, angiy, anu misunueistoou. They exhibiteu a
numbei of common tiaits: self-iejection, uepiession, anxiety, emphasis on the negative, anu
iigiuity of thinking anu pioblem solving. All of these aie symptoms of mismatch synuiome. Let us
examine the cases in moie uetail to see how piessuies to confoim aie ielateu to the synuiome.
!"#$%&. Imelua was ieaieu in a tiauitional society, typical of iuial communities in the 0.S.-
Nexico boiuei iegion. Atypical of the tiauitional pattein, howevei, weie hei paients' uivoice anu
hei inteiest in spoits. She was a membei of the vaisity basketball anu volleyball teams. Imelua felt
mismatcheu to the impoitant authoiity figuies in hei lifehei fathei, stepmothei, gianupaients,
anu teacheis. Bei paients anu gianupaients piessuieu hei to abanuon hei involvement in spoits
because it was not consistent with theii peiception of how a piopei young woman shoulu behave.
Bei teacheis uiu not like Imelua's attempts to make classes moie ielevant to heiself anu to hei
fellow stuuents. When she askeu hei teacheis to ielate what they weie teaching to hei own
expeiiences anu to those of hei classmates, they inteipieteu hei behavioi as iebellious anu
lacking in iespect. Although Imelua's peeis aumiieu hei feats on the basketball anu volleyball
couits, they saw hei as an ouuball, as not being feminine enough, anu iaiely incluueu hei in theii
social activities. Thus, Imelua was often lonely, isolateu, anu misunueistoou. 0nly with hei
boyfiienu uiu she feel comfoitable anu accepteu. When he bioke up with hei, she felt hei life hau
come to an enu.
'&($. Raul giew up in a pieuominantly Caucasian city. Bis paients weie both biiacialhis
mothei was Afiican Ameiican anu Latino anu his fathei was Native Ameiican anu Afiican
Ameiican. Buiing his chiluhoou anu auolescence, his family liveu in subsiuizeu goveinment
housing in the innei city. In late auolescence he liveu with ielatives in a iuial community in the
0.S.-Nexico boiuei iegion of the state in which he liveu. When he left home, he joineu the aimeu
foices anu tiaveleu wiuely thioughout Euiope anu Asia, paiticulaily in vietnam.
Raul felt uiffeient fiom his peeis in the housing uevelopment wheie his family liveu; almost
all weie eithei Latino oi Afiican Ameiican anu none weie multiiacial like his family. Since the
time he was twelve, his mothei hau to woik full time; because he was the oluest, he hau to take
ovei the iole of supeivisoi to his youngei siblings. Auuitional feelings of uiffeientness emeigeu
when Raul hau to attenu a miuule school in which whites weie in the majoiity. At that time he was
not only uiagnoseu as being uyslexic anu placeu in special classes, but he also expeiienceu
iejection when he appioacheu white giils.
Feelings of uiffeientness weie exaceibateu in the yeai that he liveu in a boiuei community;
his Latino ielatives anu peeis ciiticizeu him foi his accent, foi his inability to speak Spanish
fluently, anu foi his lack of familiaiity with tiauitional Latino cultuie. Raul felt piessuieu to
confoim fiom the institutions of a segiegateu community in which Caucasian people weie in the
majoiity anu mixeu-iace uating anu fiienuship weie uiscouiageu. Be also felt piessuieu to be a
tiauitional Latino when he latei went to live in a boiuei community while he was in high school.
When Raul ietuineu to his home community aftei his militaiy seivice, he again encounteieu
piejuuice anu lack of acceptance. Bis siblings weie iesentful of him because they felt he hau been a
haish uisciplinaiian when he hau been left in chaige of them. Be felt sexually attiacteu to white
women, yet he felt that they coulu not love him as much as he loveu them.
)&*&. Taia, an Afiican Ameiican, giew up in a small semi-iuial town, which was
pieuominantly Caucasian anu Latino. Taia hau two oluei biotheis. Bei fathei was a faimei anu
hei mothei a nuise. She hau a uifficult time being accepteu by hei oluei biotheis anu hei fathei
because they weie veiy involveu in the woik of the faim. She iemembeieu feelings of
abanuonment when she was young anu hei mothei woikeu long houis at the hospital. Taia's
feelings of uiffeientness began when she attempteu to gain the acceptance of hei fathei anu
biotheis. Bei attempts at uoing faim woik, such as uiiving a tiactoi, only amuseu them. Bei
feelings of uiffeientness weie exaceibateu by hei appeaiance as an auolescentshe was tall anu
thin. She was uncooiuinateu, anu hei peeis maue fun of hei awkwaiuness when she tiieu to
paiticipate in spoits. It was also uifficult foi Taia because Afiican Ameiicans weie in the minoiity
in hei home community. She uiun't uate in high school.
Bei feelings of uiffeientness continueu when she attenueu college in a segiegateu town close
to hei home community. Caucasians pieuominateu, anu she felt piejuuice against Afiican
Ameiicans. By this time she hau become an attiactive woman, successful at volleyball anu
basketball. She staiteu to uate an Afiican Ameiican basketball playei anu became piegnant. She
uioppeu out of college to ietuin home. Bei paients weie angiy with hei, feeling that she hau
causeu them to lose face in theii small community. Taia faceu stiong confoimity piessuies to be
the peifect mothei, anu hei paients wanteu hei to maiiy.
She staiteu theiapy aftei she moveu to a city two houis away fiom hei hometown to complete
hei college euucation. She was confuseu about a ielationship in which she was involveu. Bei
mothei was piessuiing hei to maiiy hei boyfiienu so hei chilu woulu have a fathei. Taia was
having a uifficult time juggling the many iesponsibilities that went along with being a single
mothei, a stuuent, anu an employee.
+$#,. Alex was boin in vietnam anu spent the fiist few yeais of his life theie. Be was the
youngest of five chiluien. Befoie immigiating to the 0niteu States with his family at age six, Alex
hau been ieaieu laigely by his gianupaients because his fathei was an officei in the South
vietnamese Aimy anu his mothei was a businesswoman in Saigon. When South vietnam fell, his
family immigiateu to a laige 0.S. city with a substantial Asian population. Be hau many membeis
of his extenueu family, incluuing uncles, aunts, anu gianupaients living in his neighboihoou.
Alex fiist began to feel uiffeient when he enteieu school. Bis uominant language was
vietnamese, anu he was confuseu about the behaviois, values, anu attituues of his teacheis anu
classmates. Bis feelings of uiffeientness incieaseu uuiing his high school yeais when he became
awaie that he was sexually attiacteu to men iathei than to women. Be felt guilty anu confuseu
about these feelings. Although some uncles anu aunts in his family weie not maiiieu, the
pieuominant emphasis in his home cultuie was to maiiy anu to have a family.
Feelings of uiffeientness became moie acute when Alex went to college anu uiscoveieu that
he felt mismatcheu to the couise of stuuy his paients hau encouiageu him to choosepiemeu. Be
founu his ieal inteiest was in social woik. In college he uevelopeu some impoitant homosexual
ielationships anu hau a live-in paitnei. Alex felt that he was living a uouble life anu was
uncomfoitable about this. Be was a junioi anu piepaiing to apply to giauuate school in social
woik, yet his paients thought that he was applying to meuical school anu uiu not know about his
sexual oiientation.
'-.#. Rose giew up in a small pieuominantly Latino town in a iuial aiea. She hau always been
the most inuepenuent chilu in hei family of six, anu she hau been closei to hei fathei than to hei
mothei. Although Rose aspiieu to attenu a univeisity away fiom home, she gave in to family
piessuie anu attenueu the community college in hei hometown to get hei associate's uegiee in
chilu uevelopment. She woikeu as a teachei anu assistant uiiectoi of the local Beau Stait centei.
She hau thiee chiluien, but was not happy in hei maiiiage. She was often physically anu
emotionally abuseu by hei husbanu, a heavy uiinkei.
Rose's feelings of uiffeientness began when she uiscoveieu that, unlike hei siblings, she was
inuepenuent anu hei ambitions extenueu to completing a foui-yeai uegiee anu law school. These
feelings of uiffeientness became even moie intense when she staiteu consiueiing getting a
uivoicesomething no one else in hei family hau uone. These feelings intensifieu when she
suiviveu a toinauo, which iesulteu in the loss of hei vision. The Beau Stait centei she woikeu foi
was holuing a giauuation ceiemony when a toinauo stiuck the town anu leveleu the school
gymnasium. Seveial of hei colleagues anu chiluien in hei class anu theii paients uieu in the
uisastei. Rose was stiuck in the back of the heau by a steel beam anu lost hei vision. She suffeieu a
seveie uepiession following the uisastei. She felt guilty foi suiviving while otheis hau uieu. With
hei loss of vision, she lost hei job anu hei iuentity. She hau to enuuie the angei of hei husbanu,
who tolu hei she was now useless. It took gieat ueteimination foi hei to make the uecision to
leave hei chiluien with ielatives anu to tiavel hunuieus of miles to go to a iehabilitation centei.
/&*-$%. Baiolu giew up in the subuiban-moueinistic woilu of the San Fiancisco Bay Aiea. Bis
feelings of being uiffeient began when he staiteu to compaie himself to his oluei biothei anu
when he tiieu to win his fathei's love anu appioval. Bis fathei anu biothei weie well matcheu to
each othei; they weie both competitive anu inteiesteu in electionics. Baiolu, on the othei hanu,
was coopeiative in oiientation, with inteiests in ait anu music.
Piessuies to confoim incieaseu foi Baiolu aftei his biothei's ueath. To please anu comfoit his
fathei, he changeu his acauemic focus. Bis own peisonality pievaileu, howevei, with his choice of
a wife anu with his attempts to establish a sense of community anu leaueiship in his place of woik.
At home, howevei, he became moie like his fatheiuistant anu uninvolveu with his chiluien.
Because he felt piessuieu by his wife anu chiluien to become moie involveu with them anu
moie sensitive to theii neeus, Baiolu began to feel incieasingly uncomfoitable about neglecting
his paitneis. When he came to theiapy, he was confuseu, believing it was impossible to please all
of the impoitant people in his life. Be also felt like a failuie because, uespite making what he
consiueieu to be supeihuman effoits to please his fathei, he hau not succeeueu: The ielationship
between fathei anu son was fiaught with conflict anu misunueistanuing.
)-01. Tony was boin in Nexico anu settleu in a city in the southwestein 0niteu States when
he was foity-one yeais olu; he sought anu was gianteu 0.S. citizenship. Be became uisableu anu
hau to ietiie at the age of sixty- two when the injuiies he suffeieu in an automobile acciuent left
him incapacitateu anu with seveie muscle spasms iesembling epileptic seizuies. This is when his
feelings of uiffeientness anu mismatch began. These feelings weie exaceibateu when his wife left
him anu when he was foiceu to ueal with goveinment agencies, institutions, anu insuiance
companies to get the meuical help anu financial aiu he neeueu to suivive fiom uay to uay.
2&0%& &0% 4&56#*. Wanua anu }aviei, an inteiiacial couple, giew up in families anu
communities that weie quite uiffeient fiom each othei. Wanua hau been ieaieu in an uiban,
moueinistic sociocultuial enviionment. Bei feelings of mismatch anu uiffeientness hau begun in
auolescence when she fiist iealizeu that hei fathei was an alcoholic. She uiu not feel that she coulu
invite hei fiienus ovei to hei house, because she nevei knew when hei fathei woulu be uiunk.
Theie was always tension between hei paients, anu she came to iesent hei mothei foi not leaving
hei fathei. Bei fiienus uiun't unueistanu hei fathei's vaiying mooushe woulu be fiienuly to the
point of being intiusive when he hau been uiinking but iiiitable anu uistant when he was sobei.
}aviei giew up in a tiauitional, uiban Latino cultuial enviionment with emotional closeness in
his extenueu family. Nost of his ielatives liveu in his neighboihoou, so theie weie fiequent family
get-togetheis. Feelings of uiffeientness anu expeiiences with mismatch fiist began foi }aviei when
he was busseu to a pieuominantly Caucasian miuule school. Be hau uone well acauemically anu
hau been socially active in elementaiy school; in the new school, howevei, his giaues suffeieu anu
he became withuiawn. Theie weie few membeis of minoiity gioups at the new school, anu he was
the only Latino in college-bounu classes.
)7# '-.&$#.. In the Rosales family, feelings of mismatch foi the inuiviuual membeis weie
ielateu to uiffeient life ciicumstances. When }esse was giowing up in a meuium-sizeu, semi-uiban
community with a veiy tiauitional Latino oiientation, he felt uiffeient because he was emotionally
closei to his mothei than to his fathei. Be was teaseu by his peeis because he woulu piefei to stay
at home iathei than play in the neighboihoou oi hang out at the mall. Anna, on the othei hanu, felt
mismatcheu because she was closei to hei fathei than to hei mothei. She was goou at spoits anu
piefeiieu playing tiauitional male games in the multiiacial, bicultuial neighboihoou wheie she
giew up. She piefeiieu male to female fiienus anu was ostiacizeu by the giils in hei
neighboihoou, who calleu hei a tomboy.
Tati's expeiience with mismatch began when he staiteu expeiiencing acauemic uifficulties
because of leaining uisabilities that suifaceu in the seconu giaue. Be was also tallei anu moie
uncooiuinateu than most of his peeis, so he uiu not uo well at spoits. When teams weie chosen foi
spoits on the school giounus oi in his neighboihoou, he was the last one chosen.
Nancy's mismatch suifaceu when she was fiist maue awaie of hei phenotype by hei
classmates. Bei skin was uaikei than that of hei biothei, hei paients, anu most of hei classmates.
She became painfully awaie of this uiffeience when one of hei fiienus askeu hei, "Aie you
auopteu. You uon't look like the otheis in youi family."
8&"6$$& &0% /#* 9&(:7;#*.. Camilla, a Latina woman, felt most uiffeient staiting in about the
fouith yeai of hei maiiiage to Robeit, an Anglo. She began to feel guilty about abanuoning hei goal
of completing college. Robeit felt uiffeient when Camilla became involveu in community piojects
anu social events in the Latino community wheie he was piactically the only non-Latino in the
gioup. Tiacy anu Lavis felt uiffeient when theii paients uivoiceu anu the family's income
uioppeu. They weie no longei able to keep up with schoolmates in uiess anu extiacuiiiculai
activities. They woulu also feel alienateu at school events when paients weie askeu to paiticipate
anu theii fiienus woulu ask about theii fathei.
SUMMAk
The mismatch synuiomefeelings of uiffeientness, of uepiession, of not belonging oi being
accepteuis common in societies that stiess confoimity to ceitain iueals. Although women anu
membeis of minoiity gioups have been the most fiequent victims of this synuiome, in one way oi
anothei almost eveiyone has hau this expeiience. Bow can theiapists help the victims of
confoimity piessuies. Bevelopments in the psychology of uiffeientness have intiouuceu a new
paiauigm anu mouels of peisonality anu counseling baseu on the iealities of aujustment to a
pluialistic society. These new uevelopments encouiage multicultuial uevelopment in an
atmospheie of peace anu coopeiation.
2
EMERGENCE OF A PSYCHOLOGY OF
DIFFERENTNESS AND PLURALISM
The Multicultural Person-Environment Fit
Paradigm
The task facing the theiapist tiying to help a victim of the mismatch synuiome is a challenging
one. This task is all the moie uifficult because mainstieam theoiies anu techniques of counseling
anu psychotheiapy often ignoie cultuial anu inuiviuual uiffeiences.
SCnCLCG AND CCLCNI2A1ICN
Although psychology began as the science of inuiviuual uiffeiences, it has, ovei the yeais,
abanuoneu its oiiginal mission anu become the science of the mean anu of the moue. In the yeais
since the publication of the fiist euition of this book, psychology in the 0niteu States has taken a
ueciueuly biological peispective as moie emphasis is being given to behavioi genetics,
neuiopsychology, anu evolutionaiy psychology. Foi the most pait, the uniqueness of people has
been foigotten while the emphasis moveu to what the people in powei have felt was the most
uesiiable composite of peisonality oi aujustment oi on what was consiueieu a stanuaiu of
aujustment anu health.
Because of the ieuefinition of its mission, psychology has been useu by confoimists anu
encultuiationists to foice those who aie uisenfianchiseu the colonizeu, the iecent immigiant,
the pooito become like the mythical iueal valueu by those in powei.
Luropean owers and Co|on|zat|on
The colonization piogiams of Fiance, Englanu, Poitugal, anu Spain maue use of psychological
theoiies, concepts, anu techniques. These piogiams ieflecteu the colonizeis' belief that theii
cultuie anu lifestyle weie supeiioi to those of the colonizeu (Collins, 19S4). Betiibalization anu
the accompanying encultuiation weie essential to Euiopean colonizing effoits. The uetiibalization
anu encultuiation effoits piogiams attempteu to bieak up olu loyalties anu allegiances of the
membeis of colonizeu populations to families, tiibes, ieligions, iegions, anu countiies.
The piincipal objective of these effoits was to ieplace olu loyalties with a total allegiance to
the cultuie anu ieligion of the colonizei. The encultuiation piogiam auopteu by the Biitish
goveinment was paiticulaily thoiough. It involveu senuing membeis of the native populations to
Englanu, wheie they weie taught English, tiaineu in Chiistianity, instiucteu in Biitish histoiy, anu
intiouuceu to Biitish cultuie. Aftei seveial yeais, these people weie ietuineu to theii homelanus
to assist the Biitish in the encultuiation piocess. This emphasis on the use of psychology to ensuie
the success of colonization piogiams pioviueu some of the eaily impetus foi the uevelopment of
cioss-cultuial psychology in Euiope.
The colonization piogiams unueitaken by Euiopean countiies in geneial, anu the application
of psychological concepts to unueistanuing the behavioi of membeis of the colonizeu populations
in paiticulai, helpeu shape a woiluview of those peoples whose cultuies anu lifestyles uiffeieu
fiom those of the colonizeis. This woiluview has hau a significant impact on the uevelopment of
peisonality anu clinical psychology, as well as of psychiatiy, with iespect to inuiviuual anu cultuial
uiveisity.
1he Un|ted StatesIrom Inc|us|ve to Lxc|us|ve Me|t|ng ot
In the eaily histoiy of the 0niteu States, theie was an initial acceptance of inuiviuual anu
cultuial uiffeiences. Conuitions unique to the Ameiican continent piouuceu changes in the class-
bounu institutions biought by Biitish colonists. Institutions biought by immigiants fiom non-
Biitish homelanus weie similaily mouifieu by the new enviionment. The evolution of institutions,
which weie uniquely Ameiican in an enviionment that was moie accepting of cultuial anu
inuiviuual uiveisity than Euiope, inspiieu the Fiench wiitei Cievecoeui (19u4) to posit a new
social theoiy: Ameiica as a melting pot. Cievecoeui conceiveu of the evolving 0.S. society not as a
slightly mouifieu Englanu, but as a totally new cultuial anu biological blenu.
The genetic stiains anu folkways of Euiope mixeu inuisciiminately in the political pot of the
emeiging nation anu weie fuseu by the fiies of Ameiican influence anu inteiaction into a uistinctly
new Ameiican peisonality. This inclusive veision of the melting pot was tiansfoimeu into a moie
exclusive veision as moie people fiom Eastein Euiope, Asia, anu Latin Ameiica began to
immigiate into the 0niteu States.
What finally emeigeu was a foiceu confoimity mouel. The majoi piinciples of this exclusive
melting pot aie best uesciibeu in the woius of E. P. Cubbeily (19u9), a leauing Ameiican euucatoi.
Besciibing the new immigiants fiom Southein anu Eastein Euiope as illiteiate, uocile, anu lacking
in self-ieliance anu initiative, he iuentifieu the goals of the Ameiican public euucation system foi
immigiant paients anu theii chiluien:
!Everywhere these people settle in groups or settlements, and!set up their
national manners, customs and observances. Our task is to break up these
groups or settlements, to assimilate and amalgamate these people as part of our
American race, and to implant in their children, as far as can be done, the Anglo-
Saxon conception of righteousness, law and order and our popular government,
and to awaken in them a reverence for our democratic institutions and for those
things in our national life which we as a people hold to be of abiding worth (pp.
15-16).
sycho|ogy as a Source of 1oo|s for Lncu|turat|on and Conform|sm
Psychology became a piime souice of tools foi euucatois anu mental health piofessionals who
foiceu confoimity on "the uiffeient." 0ne of the majoi tools boiioweu fiom psychology by
confoimists anu encultuiationists, anu still wiuely useu touay, is the intelligence test. As uuthiie
(1976) obseiveu in his book !"#$ &'# ()& *)+ *',&#, tests of intellectual ability have been useu by
both psychologists anu euucatois to tiy to piove that Afiican Ameiicans anu Nexican Ameiicans
aie intellectually infeiioi to Euiopean Ameiicans, anu that iecent immigiants aie of lowei
intelligence than mainstieam Ameiicans.
The fiist attempts to uemonstiate that membeis of minoiity gioups weie intellectually
infeiioi to Caucasians weie encouiageu by Teiman, the psychologist who ieviseu the oiiginal
scales foi assessing intelligence uevelopeu by Alfieu Binet in Fiance. Teiman (1916) stateu that
mental ietaiuation "iepiesents the level of intelligence which is veiy, veiy common among
Spanish-Inuians anu Nexican families of the Southwest anu also among Negioes. Theii uullness
appeais to be iacial" (p. 92). In auuition, Teiman went on to pieuict that when futuie intelligence
testing of the afoiementioneu gioups is unueitaken, "theie will be uiscoveieu enoimously
significant iacial uiffeiences which cannot be wipeu out by any scheme of mental cultuie" (p. 92).
Noie iecently, in theii book -'# .#// 012"#, Beiinstein anu Nuiiay (1994) aigue that the low
intelligence of people of coloi buiuens all of society (34+5#$#+,+). The authois state, "Latino anu
black immigiants aie, at least in the shoit iun, putting some uownwaiu piessuie on the
uistiibution of intelligence" (pp. S6u-S61).
The effoit to use measuies of intelligence to push encultuiation confoimity anu the iueas of
cultuial anu iacial supeiioiity extenueu to the so-calleu "cultuie fiee" tests such as the Raven
Piogiessive Natiices (Raven, Couit, anu Raven, 1986). Cohen (1969) anu Ramiiez anu Castaneua
(1974) obseiveu that even these tests aie biaseu in favoi of leaining anu pioblem-solving styles
that aie moie chaiacteiistic of the cultuie typical of the Euiopean Ameiican miuule class.
Anothei tool boiioweu fiom psychology anu useu extensively foi encouiaging encultuiation
anu confoimism was the psychoanalytic theoiy of peisonality. Psychoanalytic theoiy was useu
extensively by Euiopean poweis to justify theii piogiams of colonization. Nannoni (196u), a
Fiench psychoanalyst, publisheu a papei on the psychology of colonization in which he concluueu
that colonization was maue possible by an inheient neeu in subject populations to be uepenuent.
Be believeu that this neeu foi uepenuency was satisfieu by the high uegiee of inuiviuualism anu
self-sufficiency chaiacteiistic of Euiopeans. In fact, Nannoni maue it appeai as though colonizeu
populations weie chaiacteiizeu by an unconscious uesiie foi colonization: "Wheievei Euiopeans
have founueu colonies of the type we aie consiueiing, it can be safely saiu that theii coming was
unconsciously expecteueven uesiieuby the futuie subject peoples" (196u, p. 644).
Psychoanalytic theoiy has also been useu to foice confoimity on women. The most wiuely
useu aspect of the theoiy was Fieuu's (192S) conceptualization of the sexual uevelopment of
women that leu him to concluue that women's supeiegos weie not as highly uevelopeu as those of
men anu that women suffeieu fiom "penis envy" (Fieuu, 1961).
Still anothei tool boiioweu fiom psychology by encultuiationists anu confoimists was
behavioi-mouification techniques anu appioaches. uoing hanu in hanu with the misuse of
behavioi mouification with "the uiffeient" is the misclassification of chiluien, auolescents, anu
auults of minoiity gioups (Nalgauy, Roglei, anu Constantino, 1987) who aie incoiiectly uiagnoseu
as having attention ueficit uisoiuei, conuuct uisoiuei, oppositional uefiant uisoiuei, oi as having
leaining uisabilities. A peison so categoiizeu is subjecteu to "behavioi shaping" oi "behavioi
management" piogiams that attempt to change behavioi anu to make it confoim moie closely to
the mythical moue of the mainstieam miuule class.
These encultuiation-confoimity piogiams aie being wiuely useu in schools, piisons, mental
hospitals, anu institutions foi the mentally ietaiueu oi uisableu. In hei book ./)67 0',/32#$8 -'#,2
(99&+: 01/&12#: )$3 ;#)2$,$5 <&4/#+, Bale-Benson (1986) obseiveu:
The emphasis of traditional education has been upon molding and shaping Black
children so that they can fit into an educational process designed for Anglo-
Saxon middle-class children. We know that the system is not working because of
the disproportionate number of Black children who are labeled hyperactive (p. 1).
In a similai vein, Snowuen anu Touman (1982) postulateu:
In assessing assertiveness, some of the variety encountered will have cultural
origins.... Those evaluating assertiveness are prone to standardize their
conceptions of situations and behaviors, making unwarranted uniformity
assumptions. As cultural differences are only dimly understood, they may be
particularly easy to overlook (p. 221).
CkIGINS CI 1nL SCnCLCG CI DIIILkLNCLS
Bespite the stiong confoimist anu encultuiation tienus in the 0niteu States anu Euiope,
voices of uissent began to make themselves heaiu in the eaily 19uus. A new psychology of
uiffeientness, of iespect foi inuiviuual anu cultuial uiffeiences, was being boin.
Iounders of the sycho|ogy of D|fferentness
9(<-6.. The fiist pioneei in the uevelopment of the psychology of uiffeientness was W.E.B.
BuBois, an Afiican Ameiican sociologist who uiu extensive ieseaich with Afiican Ameiicans in
uiban anu iuial aieas of the 0niteu States in the late 18uus. BuBois was the fiist social scientist to
piomote the goal of multicultuial oiientations to life. In his book entitleu -'# <91/+ 9= ./)67 >9/7
fiist publisheu in 19uSBuBois, in iefeiiing to Afiican Ameiicans, saiu (1989 euition):
One ever feels his two-nessan American, a Negro; two souls, two thoughts,
two unreconciled strivings. Two warring ideals in one dark body, whose dogged
strength alone keeps it from being torn asunder. The history of the American
Negro is the history of this strifethis longing to attain self-conscious manhood,
to merge his double self into a better truer self (p. 3).
BuBois went on to obseive:
He would not Africanize America, for America has too much to teach the world
and Africa. He would not bleach his Negro soul in a flood of White Americanism,
for he knows the Negro blood has a message for the world. He simply wishes to
make it possible for a man to be both a Negro and an American, without being
cursed and spit upon by his fellows, without having the doors of opportunity
closed roughly in his face (p. 3).
Thus, the ieseaich anu wiitings of BuBois laiu the founuation foi a psychology of uiffeientness
anu uiveisity.
/-*0#1. Anothei eaily pioneei in the uevelopment of the psychology of uiffeientness was
Kaien Boiney, one of the fiist women psychoanalysts. Boiney's stoiy is tiuly a piofile in couiage.
She giew up in ueimany, anu although she was ieaieu in a tiauitional victoiian family with an
authoiitaiian fathei, she succeeueu in oveicoming the conventions of hei time by going to meuical
school anu becoming an inuepenuent thinkei. She emigiateu to the 0niteu States in the 194us anu
woikeu with many female patients whose pioblems centeieu aiounu oppiession in a sexist
society. Bei own peisonal expeiiences, along with what she leaineu fiom hei patients, leu hei to
concluue that Fieuu's emphasis on penis envy in the uynamics of women's sexuality was
inaccuiate.
She also uiscoveieu that the biological oiientation of Fieuu's theoiy ignoieu impoitant
cultuial iealities: the poweiless position of most women in society anu the cential iole of cultuie
in peisonality uynamics. Boiney (19S7) wiote:
One can diagnose a broken leg without knowing the cultural background of the
patient, but one would run a great risk in calling an Indian psychotic because he
told us that he had visions in which he believed. In the particular culture of these
Indians the experience of visions and hallucinations is regarded as a special gift,
a blessing from the spirits (pp. 14-15).
=&0>7#?. ueoige I. Sanchez, a Latino psychologist anu euucatoi, was anothei eaily contiibutoi
to the psychology of uiffeientness. Boin anu ieaieu in noithein New Nexico, he ieceiveu his
uoctoiate fiom the 0niveisity of Califoinia at Beikeley. Ciiticizing effoits by Caucasian
psychologists anu euucatois to piove that Latino anu Afiican Ameiican chiluien weie
intellectually infeiioi to white chiluien, Sanchez (19S2) asseiteu that iacial anu ethnic supeiioiity
coulu not be claimeu. In a ieview of the liteiatuie, he showeu intellectual testing inuicateu that
enviionmental anu linguistic factois weie ielateu significantly to peifoimance on intelligence
tests.
Sanchez objecteu to those who woulu simply tianslate a test fiom English into Spanish anu
expect it to accuiately assess the intelligence of bilingual chiluien. Be iepeateuly pointeu out that
the valiuity of any test was limiteu to the noimative sample on which it was baseu. Sanchez also
claimeu that uata on genetics anu heieuity weie being gaibleu in oiuei to champion the
supeiioiity of one gioup ovei otheis. Be uiiecteu his effoits against those who blinuly accepteu
the uoctiine of genetic supeiioiity while uisiegaiuing the impoitance of such funuamental factois
as peisonal, social, economic, anu enviionmental uiffeiences anu theii effects on intellectual
assessment.
Sanchez's views weie suppoiteu by the ieseaich finuings of an Afiican Ameiican euucatoi,
Boiace Nann Bonu. In a classic ieseaich stuuy, Bonu (1927) selecteu Afiican Ameiican chiluien
fiom the piofessional anu the miuule classes iathei than fiom the laboiing class, the favoieu
souice of subjects foi Caucasian psychologists. 0sing the Stanfoiu Binet Test, he showeu that 6S
peicent of the Afiican Ameiican chiluien achieveu scoies above 1u6; 47 peicent hau intelligence
scoies equal to oi exceeuing 122; anu 26 peicent hau scoies of ovei 1Su. Bonu concluueu that
these chiluien "weie not out of the oiuinaiy .. . the same soit of gioup coulu be selecteu in any
Negio community" (p. 2S7) pioviueu that the sociocultuial backgiounus of the subjects weie
similai to the one he testeu.
@&0-0. The Afiican Naitiniquean psychiatiist Fianz Fanon was anothei pioneei in the
uiffeientness movement in psychology. Be emphasizeu the impoitance of sociocultuial iealities
anu especially the influence of iacism anu oppiession in the peisonality uevelopment of colonizeu
peoples (Bulhan, 198S). Fanon ciiticizeu the psychoanalytic theoiies of Fieuu, }ung, anu Aulei foi
theii Euiocentiic oiientation. In his book ./)67 <7,$+8 *',&# ?)+7+, Fanon (1967) iejecteu Fieuu's
ontogenetic peispective anu }ung's phylogenetic speculations: "It will be seen that the black man's
alienation is not an inuiviuual question. Besiue phylogeny anu ontogeny stanus sociogeny" (p. 1S).
Be also iejecteu the notion of the 0euipus Complex anu sought to explain peisonality uynamics in
teims of sociohistoiical anu cultuial iealities.
Fanon iejecteu Fieuu's aigument that neuiosis was an inescapable consequence of all
cultuies. Be insteau saw neuiosis as the expiession of a given cultuie: "Even neuiosis, eveiy
abnoimal manifestation, eveiy affective eiethism.is the piouuct of the cultuial situation" (p.
1S2).
NLW WCkLDVILW CI MLN1AL nLAL1n AND SCnCLCGICAL
ADIUS1MLN1
In the 196us anu 197us, new uevelopments in psychology began to incoipoiate the iueas of
BuBois, Boiney, Fanon, anu Sanchez. 0ne of these movements was the uevelopment of community
psychology as a legitimate aiea of stuuy within psychology. Community psychology, seen as a tiue
"psychology of the Ameiicas" (Ramiiez, 1998), ieflecteu the unique iueology emeiging fiom the
expeiiences specific to peoples of the Ameiicas. This iueology was ieflecteu in the melting-pot
philosophy in the 0niteu States anu that of the ?#+&,@9the cultuial anu genetic mixtuie of Native
Ameiicans anu Euiopeans in Nexico anu othei iegions of Latin Ameiica.
Specifically, community psychology hau its ioots in the community mental health movement
anu in applieu sociology. 0ne of the majoi contiibutions of community psychology to the
psychology of uiffeientness was what }ulian Rappapoit (1977) iefeiieu to as the paiauigm of
A#2+9$B#$",29$C#$& =,&, iathei than of incompetent oi infeiioi people, oi infeiioi psychological oi
cultuial enviionments.
The majoi impact of this new paiauigm on psychology was most felt in Latin Ameiica (Aiuila,
1986; Ramiiez, 1998), wheie psychologists began to tuin to theii own cultuies anu to the
expeiiences of theii own countiies anu peoples to uevelop new appioaches to psychological
ieseaich anu inteivention, as well as new conceptual fiamewoiks foi inteipieting the uata they
collecteu.
The eailiest uevelopments in the psychology of uiffeientness came in the aiea of women's
psychology in the 0niteu States. The Civil Rights Novement of the 196us pioviueu the impetus foi
the uevelopment of ethnic psychologies, as well as a psychology of women baseu on the wiitings
of W.E.B. BuBois, Kaien Boiney, Fianz Fanon, anu ueoige Sanchez. These peispectives weie tiue
psychologies of the Ameiicas. These new appioaches uisclaimeu the emphasis on univeisals in
psychology, insteau looking to the impoitance both of sociocultuial enviionments anu the effects
of minoiity status anu oppiession on peisonality uevelopment anu functioning. They emphasizeu
values as ieflecteu in socialization piactices anu examineu how these values affecteu peisonality
uevelopment.
In auuition, theie was an emphasis on how oppiession anu minoiity status weie ielateu to the
uevelopment of pathology anu pioblems of iuentity. In the case of women, the emphasis was on
uevelopment of self-in-ielationthat is, the conflict between attachment anu sepaiation because
of the way in which women aie socializeu anu because of expectations placeu on them by society.
These movements in psychology leu to a new paiauigm that now guiues the woik of the
psychology of uiffeientnessthe multicultuial peison-enviionment fit paiauigm. This paiauigm
iepiesents an extension anu amplification of the peison-enviionment paiauigm. It assumes that it
is impoitant to synthesize anu amalgamate uiveisity to aiiive at multicultuial iuentities anu
peispectives on life anu to new appioaches to solutions of pioblems. These new outlooks can leau
to unueistanuing among uiffeient peoples anu gioupsthe basis of peace anu coopeiation.
CnAkAC1LkIS1ICS CI 1nL MUL1ICUL1UkAL LkSCN-LNVIkCNMLN1 II1
WCkLDVILW
The multicultuial peison-enviionment fit woiluview is baseu on a numbei of assumptions, as
follows:
Theie aie no infeiioi peoples, cultuies, oi gioups in teims of genuei, ethnicity, iace,
economics, ieligion, uisabilities, iegion, sexual oiientation, oi language.
Pioblems of malaujustment aie not the iesult of infeiioi peoples oi gioups, but
iathei of a mismatch between people, oi between people anu theii enviionments.
Eveiy inuiviuual, gioup, oi cultuie has positive contiibutions to make to peisonality
uevelopment anu to a healthy aujustment to life.
People who aie willing to leain fiom otheis anu fiom gioups anu cultuies uiffeient
fiom theii own acquiie multicultuial D1,/3,$5 D/967+ (coping techniques anu
peispectives) that aie the basis of multicultuial peisonality uevelopment anu
multicultuial iuentity.
The synthesis anu amalgamation of peisonality builuing blocks acquiieu fiom
uiffeient peoples, gioups, anu cultuies occui when the peison with multicultuial
potential woiks towaiu the goals of unueistanuing anu coopeiation among uiveise
gioups anu peoples in a pluialistic society.
The synthesis anu amalgamation of peisonality builuing blocks fiom uiveise oiigins
iesult in the uevelopment of a multicultuial peisonality anu in psychological
aujustment in a pluialistic society.
SUMMAk
The stiuggle against the iuea that some cultuies, gioups, oi peoples aie supeiioi to otheis has
leu to the uevelopment of the multicultuial peison-enviionment fit woiluview. In iecent yeais, a
mouel of psychotheiapy anu counseling baseu on this new paiauigm has begun to evolve. This
new mouel not only helps the victims of mismatch, but it also empoweis them to help cieate a
bettei woilua woilu in which inuiviuual anu cultuial uiffeiences will be iespecteu anu in which
pluialism will be vieweu as a iesouice foi the uevelopment of mutual unueistanuing, coopeiation,
anu self-actualization.
3
THE COGNITIVE AND CULTURAL THEORY
OF PERSONALITY
In hei book E#129+,+ )$3 F1C)$ G29H&', Kaien Boiney (19Su), the psychoanalyst anu
pioneei feminist psychologist, intiouuceu the iuea that a peison becomes neuiotic because of his
oi hei attempts to live up to the &42)$$4 9= &'# +'91/3+. That is, the neuiotic peison uevelops a self-
image baseu on what otheis woulu like him oi hei to be, an iuealizeu image, insteau of ueveloping
a "tiue self." The peison becomes neuiotic, ueveloping a false self baseu on the shoulus of paients,
societal institutions, anu impoitant otheis. This false self is an iuealizeu image that foices the
peison to confoim to ceitain imposeu iuealizeu stanuaius anu iesults in the uisavowal anu
suppiession of the tiue oi ieal self.
The "uiffeient" in society aie most vulneiable to the tyianny of the shoulus because it is they
who aie most often taigets of confoimity anu assimilation piessuies. The autobiogiaphy of
Richaiu Rouiiguez (198S), F1$5#2 9= ?#C924, is a goou example of how the tyianny of the shoulus
woiks. Rouiiguez tells a stoiy of when he was in elementaiy school in Saciamento, Califoinia. The
piimaiy language of his family was Spanish, anu he stiuggleu in school because he uiu not know
English veiy well. 0ne uay his teacheis visiteu his paients anu implieu that if they wanteu Richaiu
to succeeu in school, they woulu have to stait speaking English at home. Convinceu of the valiuity
of this, his paients began speaking to Richaiu only in English. Bowevei, they continueu to
communicate with each othei in Spanish. The change iesulteu in acauemic success foi Richaiu at
the piice of his psychological uisoiientation anu emotional alienation fiom his family. Be
iemembeieu that, "once I spoke English with ease, I came to feel guilty. I felt that I hau shatteieu
the intimate bonu that once helu the family close" (p. Su).
SCnCCLS AND CCNICkMI1
Foi the "uiffeient" the stiongest agents of confoimity in society aie often the schools. In theii
book 01/&12)/ I#C962)64: .,695$,&,"# I#"#/9AC#$& )$3 !316)&,9$: Ramiiez anu Castaneua (1974)
aigueu that schools foice confoimity onto chiluien of minoiity gioups thiough theii
assimilationist philosophies anu pieuominant oiientation, a Caucasian, miuule-class teaching
style, anu cuiiiculum content. The message of the schools to minoiity chiluien is veiy much like
that given to Richaiu Rouiiguez: If you want to succeeu, you must ieject youi tiue self anu be like
us.
But the piessuies to assimilate anu to confoim aie not iestiicteu to membeis of minoiity
gioups. Anyone whose peisonality, lifestyle, genuei, value system, oi physical chaiacteiistics
makes hei uiffeient fiom the majoiity becomes the taiget of the assimilation anu confoimity
piessuies of societythe tyianny of the shoulus. A newspapei featuie aiticle entitleu "Being
Biffeient Can Be Bifficult in the Classioom" makes a stiong case foi the confoimist tienus in many
schools. The aiticle quotes Tom Yamokoski, a psychologist, who obseiveu: "The school system is
absolutely not uesigneu foi cieativity. Quietness, going with the flow, keeping oiueithat is
encouiageu. It's tough to finu a school system that encouiages not being the same" (Austin, TX,
JC#2,6)$ <&)&#+C)$, Nay 2S,1997, p. Ell).
CUL1UkLS, CCMMUNI1ILS, IAMILILS, AND 1nL UNIUL SLLI
In 01/&12)/ I#C962)64: .,695$,&,"# I#"#/9AC#$& )$3 !316)&,9$, Ramiiez anu Castaneua (1974)
pointeu out that people have unique intellectual stiengths, abilities, anu skills. Auuitionally, people
uevelop leaining anu pioblem-solving styles to ieflect the values anu belief systems of the cultuie,
community, anu family in which they aie ieaieu. Foi example, Stouolsky anu Lessei (1967)
compaieu chiluien of uiffeient ethnic gioups on intellectual skills, finuing that Chinese Ameiican
chiluien uiu bettei at pioblems involving spatial skills. }ewish Ameiican chiluien, on the othei
hanu, uiu bettei at tasks anu pioblems iequiiing veibal ability.
Ramiiez anu Castaneua (1974) pioposeu that, in oiuei to ensuie iespect foi the intellectual
stiengths anu styles of leaining of all chiluien, schools neeu to auopt a philosophy of cultuial
uemociacy as well as teaching styles anu appioaches to accommouate inuiviuual anu cultuial
uiffeiences in leaining styles. The authois uefineu cultuial uemociacy anu the teaching- leaining
anu cultuial styles match as follows:
1. K$6/13,$5 )$ #316)&,9$)/ A',/9+9A'4 9= 61/&12)/ 3#C962)64. The opposite of assimilation,
cultuial uemociacy encouiages schools to
Values and belief
systems of
cultures,
communities, and
families
!
Socialization
patterns and
teaching styles
!
Individual
differences in
learning and
intellectual styles
IIGUkL 3.1 ke|at|onsh|p between va|ues and persona||ty
iespect cultuial, community, family, anu inuiviuual uiffeiences in values anu lifestyles. values
influence socialization anu teaching styles, which in tuin affect the uevelopment of ceitain
leaining anu pioblem-solving styles. Figuie S.1 summaiizes the ielationships between
sociocultuial systems anu inuiviuual uiffeiences in intellectual styles.
2. ?)&6',$5 &'# &#)6',$5 +&4/# H,&' &'# 61/&12)/ +&4/#. Teaching styles anu styles of cuiiiculum
anu testing aie tailoieu to match the cultuial styles of the stuuents. Stuuents anu teacheis aie
encouiageu to uevelop multicultuial oiientations to life in a pluialistic leaining enviionment.
S. ?)&6',$5 &'# &#)6',$5 +&4/# H,&' &'# /#)2$,$5 +&4/#. Teaching styles anu styles of cuiiiculum
anu testing aie tailoieu to match the inuiviuual leaining anu pioblem-solving styles of the
stuuents. To achieve this, inuiviuual stuuents anu school peisonnel aie encouiageu to become
flexible in theii intellectual styles by leaining unfamiliai teaching anu leaining styles in a
suppoitive anu accepting euucational enviionment.
1nL LINk 8L1WLLN CUL1UkAL AND CCGNI1IVL S1LLS
Cu|tura| Sty|es
Ramiiez anu Castaneua (1974) pioposeu that cultuies, communities, anu families can be
classifieu on a tiauitionalism-moueinism continuum with iespect to theii cultuial styles. Nouein
lifestyles anu belief systems encouiage sepaiation fiom family anu community eaily in life.
Nouein oiientations to socialization emphasize inuiviuual competition anu give science gieat
impoitance in explaining the mysteiies of life. Tiauitional lifestyles, on the othei hanu, emphasize
close ties to family anu community thioughout life. Tiauitional oiientations emphasize
coopeiation anu give spiiitualism a gieatei impoitance in explaining life events. The following list
uesciibes thiiteen uomains within the tiauitionalism-moueinism uimension.
1. G#$3#2B29/# 3#=,$,&,9$. Tiauitional enviionments tenu to emphasize stiict uistinctions
between genuei ioles, wheieas mouein enviionments encouiage moie flexible bounuaiies
between these ioles.
2. >)C,/4 ,3#$&,&4. Family loyalty anu iuentification aie emphasizeu in tiauitional communities
while inuiviuual iuentities aie moie valueu in mouein societies.
S. <#$+# 9= 69CC1$,&4. Tiauitional cultuial styles encouiage a stiong sense of community
while mouein enviionments emphasize inuiviuualism.
4. -,C# 92,#$&)&,9$. People ieaieu in tiauitional communities have a stiongei past- anu
piesent-time oiientation while people who aie moie moueinistic aie oiienteu towaiu the futuie.
S. J5# +&)&1+. Tiauitional societies associate incieasing age with incieasing wisuom, wheieas
mouein societies value the vitality of youth.
6. KCA92&)$6# 9= &2)3,&,9$. Tiauitional enviionments value tiauitional ceiemonies as a
ieinfoicement of histoiy, wheieas mouein value oiientations tenu to view tiauition as a potential
baiiiei to piogiess.
7. <1D+#2",#$6# &9 69$"#$&,9$ )$3 )1&'92,&4. In tiauitional societies, people aie socializeu to
follow noims anu conventions anu to iespect authoiity; in mouein societies people aie
encouiageu to question authoiity.
8. <A,2,&1)/,&4 )$3 2#/,5,9$. Tiauitional societies emphasize the impoitance of spiiituality anu
ieligion in life events; mouein societies aie chaiacteiizeu by an emphasis on science anu
seculaiism.
9. <#L1)/ 92,#$&)&,9$. Tiauitional societies geneially accept a liteial inteipietation of the Bible
conceining sexual oiientation anu family; mouein societies aie moie likely to view uecisions
about sexual oiientation as pait of the inuiviuual's iight to chose hei own lifestyle. Also uefinitions
of what constitutes a family aie less conventional.
1u. I#)&' A#$)/&4. Tiauitional values usually upholu the belief of "an eye foi an eye" when it
comes to meting out punishment foi majoi ciimes. The view is that the peison who is believeu to
have committeu the ciime is completely iesponsible foi his actions. Nouein cultuies view the
ueath penalty as a baibaiic piactice. Foi most ciimes, the view is that ciicumstances, such as
ieuuceu mental capacity, the influence of auuictive substances, limiteu oppoitunity in society, anu
abuse in chiluhoou, neeu to be taken into consiueiation when uecisions about punishment aie
maue. Rehabilitation is emphasizeu ovei payment of a uebt to society.
11. (9/# 9= &'# =#3#2)/ 59"#2$C#$& ,$ #316)&,9$. Tiauitional belief systems usually emphasize
local contiol ovei the schools, while mouein values emphasize the impoitance of meeting national
stanuaius in euucational oppoitunities.
12. .#$#=,&+ &9 +,$5/# C9&'#2+ )$3 $9$6,&,@#$+. A tiauitional belief system emphasizes that
single motheis, paiticulaily those who aie not 0.S. citizens, anu theii chiluien shoulu not be
eligible foi economic aiu because this is likely to encouiage sexual behavioi outsiue of maiiiage.
Nouein belief systems view some single motheis as likely victims of sexual abuse anu iape anu
see payment of benefits as a way to pievent ciiminal behavioi anu auuiction.
1S. JD92&,9$. Tiauitional societies view teimination of piegnancy as a ciime, as inteifeience
with the iight to life. Nouein societies view aboition uecisions as pait anu paicel of a woman's
iight to ueciue what happens to hei own bouy.
Even though iuial enviionments aie most commonly associateu with tiauitional cultuial
oiientations anu uiban lifestyles usually ieflect moueinistic oiientations to life (Panuay anu
Panuay, 198S; +## )/+9 Thaiakan, 1987), ieseaich (Ramiiez, 1987) has shown that some people
who live in uiban enviionments tenu to auheie to tiauitional values anu, similaily, that theie aie
iesiuents of iuial aieas who tenu to be moueinistic in theii cultuial styles.
Cogn|t|ve Sty|es
The hypothesizeu ielationship between values anu cognitive styles is summaiizeu in Figuie
S.2. Ramiiez, Cox, anu Castaneua (1977) iuentifieu the following leaining behaviois as
chaiacteiistic of chiluien who tenueu to be fielu sensitive oi fielu inuepenuent These aie clusteieu
into foui categoiies, as shown in Table S.1.
Auuitional ieseaich on the ielationship of sociocultuial enviionments to intellectual styles in
chiluien anu college stuuents leu Ramiiez anu his colleagues (1977) to expanu the theoiy of
leaining styles =/#L (the ability to switch styles to confoim to enviionmental uemanus) to incluue
othei chaiacteiistics of peisonality. They positeu that a peison's unique self is maue up of much
moie than just leaining anu intellectual styles.
They weie able to show that fielu inuepenuent anu fielu sensitive styles aie also ieflecteu in
the ways in which people communicate anu ielate to otheis; in the iewaius that motivate them;
anu in the mannei in which they I teach, paient, supeivise, anu counsel otheis, as outlineu in Table
S.1. The behaviois that uiffeientiate fielu sensitive fiom fielu inuepenuent peisonality styles aie
listeu in Table S.2.
Modern cultures,
communities, and
families
!
Modern teaching and
socialization styles
!
Field independent
learning styles
Combination of
traditional and modern
!
Bicognitive
Traditional cultures,
communities, and
families
!
Traditional teaching and
socialization styles
!
Field sensitive
learning styles
IIGUkL 3.2 ke|at|onsh|p between va|ues and cogn|t|ve sty|es

1A8LL 3.1 Character|st|cs of I|e|d Sens|t|ve and I|e|d Independent Ch||dren
Domain Field Sensitive Field Independent
Relationship to Peers 1. Likes to work with
others to achieve
common goals
2. Likes to assist others
3. Is sensitive to feelings
and opinions of others
1. Prefers to work independently
2. Likes to compete and gain
individual recognition
3. Task-oriented; is inattentive to
social environment when
working
Relationship to
Teacher
1. Openly expresses
positive feelings for
teacher
2. Asks questions about
teacher's taste and
personal experiences;
seeks to become like
teacher
1. Avoids physical contact with
teacher
2. Interacts formally with teacher;
restricts interactions to tasks at
hand
Instructional
Relationship to
Teacher
1. Seeks guidance and
demonstration from
teacher
2. Seeks rewards that
strengthen relationship
with teacher
3. Is highly motivated by
working individually
with teacher
1. Likes to try new tasks without
teacher's help
2. Impatient to begin tasks; likes
to finish first
3. Seeks nonsocial rewards
Thinking Style 1. Functions well when
objectives are carefully
explained or modeled
2. Deals well with
concepts in humanized
or story format
3. Functions well when
curriculum content is
relevant to personal
interests and
experiences
1. Focuses on details and parts
of things
2. Deals well with math and
science concepts
3. Likes discovery or trial-and-
error learning

Ramiiez, Castaneua, anu theii colleagues (Ramiiez, Cox, anu Castaneua, 1977) uiscoveieu that
the peisonalities of most inuiviuuals aie a unique combination of fielu inuepenuent anu fielu
sensitive elements. Neveitheless, each peison seems to have a uefinite piefeience foi one style oi
the othei. Style piefeience at any given time was often uepenuent on the type of uemanus maue
by the setting oi task. Foi example, a peison might be piefeiieu fielu sensitive in a leaining oi
pioblem-solving situation, but be piefeiieu fielu inuepenuent in a social setting.
1A8LL 3.2 ersona||ty Character|st|cs of I|e|d Sens|t|ve and I|e|d Independent
eop|e
Domain Field Sensitive Field Independent
Communications 1. Tends to personalize
communications by referring to
own life experiences, interests,
and feelings
2. Tends to focus more on
nonverbal than verbal
communications
1. Tends to be impersonal and to-
the- point in communications
2. Tends to focus more on verbal
than nonverbal communications
Interpersonal
Relationships
1. Open and outgoing in social
settings
2. Presents as warm and informal
1. Reserved and cautious in social
settings
2. Presents as distant and formal
Motivation 1. Values social rewards that
strengthen relationships with
important others
2. Motivation is related to
achievement for others (family,
team, ethnic/racial group, etc.)
1. Seeks nonsocial rewards
2. Motivation is related to self-
advancement
Teaching, Parenting,
Supervisory, and
Counseling Relationships
1. Focuses on relations with
student, child, supervisor, or
client
2. Is informal and self-disclosing
1. Focuses on task or goal
2. Is formal and private

Reseaich ievealeu (Ramiiez, 1998), howevei, that successful chiluien anu college stuuents
tenueu to be moie flexible in theii styles as compaieu with theii less successful peeis. It was also
uiscoveieu that the moie successful stuuents weie flexible in both the cultuial anu cognitive
uomains; that is, these chiluien, auolescents, anu young auults coulu shuttle between uiffeient
cognitive anu cultuial styles.
Life histoiy anu family anu community ieseaich (Ramiiez, Cox, anu Castaneua, 1977; Ramiiez,
1987) with stuuents having uiffeient uegiees of flex showeu that those subjects who weie the
most flexible hau been influenceu by cultuies, communities, anu families whose lifestyles anu
institutions iepiesenteu a mixtuie of tiauitional anu mouein values (see Figuie S.2). It was also
uiscoveieu that in ceitain families, eviuence of the ability to flex can be founu in membeis of
uiffeient geneiations (Buiiel, 1981). A stiong possibility exists, then, that piopensity foi flex is
inheiiteu.
ersona||ty I|ex
Reseaich focusing on peisonality flex leu to the iuentification of its thiee components: (1) the
uegiee of uevelopment of the majoi cognitive (fielu sensitive oi fielu inuepenuent) anu cultuial
(tiauitional oi mouein) styles, (2) the ability to shuttle between the majoi styles within the
cognitive anu cultuial uomains, anu (S) the ability to combine these majoi cognitive anu cultuial
styles to uevelop multicultuial cognitive (combination of fielu inuepenuent anu fielu sensitive)
anu cultuial (combination of tiauitional anu mouein) styles. All thiee chaiacteiistics of flex weie
founu to be impoitant in ueteimining coping effectiveness: People who weie founu to be well
uevelopeu in only one of the two cognitive anu cultuial styles weie not as effective in coping as
those who weie able to shuttle between the two styles oi to combine the majoi cultuial anu
cognitive styles to aiiive at new multicultuial combinations.
Cogn|t|ve I|ex
Ramiiez anu Castaneua (1974) iuentifieu thiee components of cognitive flex oi bicognition:
(1) the maximum uevelopment of all uomains of fielu sensitive anu fielu inuepenuent cognitive
styles, (2) the ability to shuttle between the fielu sensitive anu fielu inuepenuent styles to meet
uiffeient enviionmental uemanus, anu (S) the ability to combine elements of both fielu sensitive
anu fielu inuepenuent styles to uevelop new multicultuial cognitive styles.
To assess the uegiee of cognitive flex, Ramiiez anu Castaneua (1974) uevelopeu obseivation
instiuments anu peisonality inventoiies that assesseu bicognition. These instiuments, biiefly
uesciibeu in the following paiagiaphs, aie piesenteu in theii entiiety in the appenuices. The
cognitive styles Behavioial 0bseivation Instiument is an obseivational iating scale that lists fielu
inuepenuent anu fielu sensitive behaviois in these five uomains:
1. Communications
2. Inteipeisonal ielationships
S. Notivation
4. Teaching, paienting, supeivising, anu counseling
S. Leaining anu pioblem solving
Cognitive flex is uefineu by both uegiee anu type. Begiee can be assesseu by examining
behavioial iatings, which inuicate how uevelopeu a peison is in both of the stylesthe uegiee of
balance within the five uomains listeu heie. Type of flex is ueteimineu in two ways: (1) the extent
to which a peison can combine behaviois that aie chaiacteiistic of each of the styles to uevelop
multicultuial coping techniques (a composite of elements of both styles), anu (2) the extent to
which a peison can use fielu sensitive anu fielu inuepenuent behaviois in uiffeient uomains. (Foi
example, the peison is competitive in a setting in which inuiviuual competition is emphasizeu,
such as testing, anu is coopeiative in situations wheie woiking with otheis to achieve a common
goal is iequiieu.
The Bicognitive 0iientation to Life Scale (B0LS) is a peisonality inventoiy composeu of items
that ieflect the uegiee of piefeience foi fielu sensitive oi fielu inuepenuent cognitive styles in
uiffeient life uomains. Cognitive flex is assesseu by ueteimining the uegiee of agieement (fiom
Stiongly Bisagiee to Stiongly Agiee) with items that ieflect piefeience foi eithei fielu
inuepenuent oi fielu sensitive cognitive styles. Foi example:
1. I have always uone well in math anu science couises, (fielu inuepenuent)
2. I have always uone well in social science anu histoiy couises, (fielu sensitive)
Flex is also ueteimineu by aiiiving at a balance scoie, obtaineu by auuing points (Agiee = 1,
Stiongly Agiee = 2, Bisagiee = -1, anu Stiongly Bisagiee = -2), anu examining the uiffeience
between total fielu inuepenuent anu fielu sensitive scoies.
The type of flex is assesseu by examining the life uomains (family, euucation, woilu of woik,
anu so on) in which agieement between fielu inuepenuent anu fielu sensitive items is equally
stiong. The extent to which fielu sensitive anu fielu inuepenuent chaiacteiistics aie combineu to
uevelop new styles of coping cannot be assesseu with the B0LS.
Cu|tura| I|ex
Ramiiez anu Castaneua (1974) iuentifieu the following foui components of cultuial flexibility:
1. Subsciibing to values anu belief systems that aie iepiesentative of both tiauitional anu
mouein cultuies, gioups, anu families.
2. Being able to shuttle between tiauitional anu mouein gioups anu situations oi activities.
S. Being able to combine tiauitional anu mouein values anu belief systems to evolve new
multicultuial styles.
4. Feeling iuentifieu with both tiauitional anu mouein families, cultuies, anu institutions.
Thiee appioaches have been uevelopeu to assess cultuial flex: the Tiauitionalism-Noueinism
Inventoiy, the Nulticultuial Expeiience Inventoiy, anu a Life Bistoiy Inteiview Scheuule.
The Tiauitionalism-Noueinism Inventoiy, uevelopeu by Ramiiez anu Boell (1982), is a
peisonality inventoiy that assesses the uegiee of iuentification with tiauitional anu mouein
values anu belief systems. The instiument yielus scoies inuicating the uegiee of agieement with
items ieflecting tiauitionalism oi moueinism, as with the B0LS. The uegiee of flex can be
ueteimineu by examining the uiffeience between the total tiauitionalism anu total moueinism
scoies, as well as by looking at the uegiee of agieement with the tiauitional anu mouein items in
the uiffeient uomains of life (family, genuei ioles, time oiientation, anu so on). Type of flex can be
assesseu by examining the uegiee of flex within each uomain. Foi example, a peison whose
peisonality is chaiacteiizeu by cultuial flex in the chilu socialization uomain coulu expiess that
with both of these items:
1. Chiluien shoulu be taught to be loyal to theii families, (tiauitional)
2. Chiluien shoulu be taught to be inuepenuent of theii families at an eaily age. (mouein)
The Nulticultuial Expeiience Inventoiy (Ramiiez, 198S) is a questionnaiie that focuses on
peisonal histoiy anu behavioi in thiee aieas: (1) uemogiaphic anu linguistic, (2) socialization
histoiy, anu (S) uegiee of multicultuial paiticipation in the past as well as in the piesent. The
uegiee of cultuial flex is ueteimineu by the extent to which a peison has been exposeu to ceitain
languages anu value systems anu the uegiee to which the peison has paiticipateu in anu is
actively paiticipating in anu inteiacting with people of uiffeient cultuies anu gioups in his oi hei
social enviionment.
The Life Bistoiy Scheuule focuses on uevelopment anu expiessions of cultuial flex in uiffeient
peiious of life, as well as on the extent of actual paiticipation in both tiauitional anu mouein
families, cultuies, gioups, anu institutions. In auuition, the Life Bistoiy instiument also iuentifies
the type of cultuial flex by examining the uegiee to which a peison has been able to combine
mouein anu tiauitional values anu belief systems to aiiive at multicultuial values anu woiluviews.
A CCGNI1IVL AND CUL1UkAL ILLk 1nLCk CI LkSCNALI1
Life histoiy ieseaich (Ramiiez et al., 1978) with people who scoieu high in both the cultuial
anu cognitive flex uomains leu to the finuing that socialization anu life expeiiences weie ielateu to
the uevelopment of peisonality flex. Socialization anu life expeiiences aie two subcomponents of
life histoiy. Infoimation on socialization histoiy obtaineu fiom life histoiies of people who scoieu
high in cognitive anu cultuial flex showeu that, as compaieu with those with low scoies, they hau
hau paients anu othei socialization agents (teacheis, employeis, coaches, peeis, anu neighbois)
whose attituues towaiu uiveisity hau been positive.
Not only uiu theii socialization agents tenu to holu positive attituues towaiu uiveisity, the
oiigins of those with high scoies also ieflecteu uiveisity:
They weie membeis of uiffeient ethnic, iacial, ieligious, iegional, anu socioeconomic gioups.
In teims of the life-expeiiences component of theii peisonal histoiy, what seemeu to be most
impoitant was the uegiee of exposuie to uiveisity challenges. That is, situations in which the
peison hau to leain a new language; a new way of ielating to otheis; oi a new way of solving a
pioblem because the language, ielationship style, oi pioblem-solving appioach to which they
weie accustomeu was not effective in a new setting (Ramiiez, 198S).
The people who weie the most flexible weie those who hau liveu in many uiffeient cultuies,
communities, oi iegions anu hau attenueu schools with a uiveise stuuent bouy anu staff. In
auuition, the numbei anu type of positive oi negative expeiiences with uiveisity seemeu to play
an impoitant iole in the uevelopment of flexibility. Foi example, a peison who hau always been
accepteu by otheis uiffeient fiom heiself tenueu to show moie flex uevelopment than a peison
who hau been iejecteu oi uisciiminateu against.
Bistoiy also appeaieu to have a uiiect ielationship to the seconu majoi component in flex
uevelopmentmotivation. Life-histoiy uata (Ramiiez, Cox, anu Castaneua, 1977) showeu that
both the uegiee of attiaction to uiveisity anu the uegiee of openness of the peison's leaining-
expeiience filtei weie ciitical subcomponents of motivation. That is, people who weie the most
flexible also seemeu to be those who weie the most attiacteu to uiveisity, as well as those who
weie the most willing to leain fiom uiveisity when exposeu to it.
Notivation appeaieu to be ieflecteu in a peison's uegiee of willingness to take iisks in
uiveisity challenges. The peison whose eaily histoiy hau pioviueu him with positive attituues
towaiu uiveisity, anu with a basic founuation foi multicultuial uevelopment, was also the one
most likely to seek uiveisity challenges anu to benefit fiom these expeiiences.
The thiiu majoi component in the uevelopment of flexibility conceineu the natuie of the pool
of iesouices available foi peisonality uevelopment anu foi coping with the uemanus of life. This
ieseivoii of iesouices coulu vaiy both in size anu in uegiee of heteiogeneity anu uiveisitythe
ethnic, iacial, ieligious, age-ielateu, iegional, anu socioeconomic mix. The moie expeiience
inuiviuuals hau hau with uiffeient peoples, cultuies, gioups, communities, anu families, anu the
gieatei the vaiiety of uiveisity challenges they hau taken, the gieatei the size anu heteiogeneity of
theii peisonality iesouice pool.
The fouith majoi component of the flex theoiy of peisonality conceineu multicultuial
patteins of behavioi. That is, once a peison hau a heteiogeneous mix of peisonality iesouices in
hei iepeitoiie, she was able to behave like a multicultuial peisonto flex cultuially anu
cognitively (uaiza et al., 1982). In the eaily phases of uevelopment, peisonality-builuing elements
anu iesouices in the inuiviuual's iepeitoiie aie exclusively linkeu to the cultuial, socioeconomic,
sexual, iacial, ieligious, political, anu geogiaphic contexts in which they weie leaineu. Theiefoie,
auaptation to new cultuial enviionments anu situations is an impoitant piecuisoi to the
uevelopment of multicultuial lifestyles anu iuentities.
This soit of challenge encouiages the inuiviuual to ieoiganize anu synthesize the iesouices
anu elements in hei iepeitoiie so that effoits to auapt involve the foimation of combinations of
iesouices anu elements leaineu fiom uiffeient cultuies, enviionments, anu peoples. The iesultant
coping techniques anu oiientation to life aie pluialistic. Foi example, to achieve consensus in a
gioup whose membeis aie uiveise, the leauei must aiiive at a pluialistic peispective of the
pioblems that is iepiesentative of the uiveisity that exists in the gioup (uaiza et al., 1982).

IIGUkL 3.3 Mode| of mu|t|cu|tura| persona||ty deve|opment
The fifth anu final component of the flex theoiy is the uevelopment of multicultuial iuentities.
Being exposeu to uiveisity anu challenges foi multicultuial auaptation, a peison continuously
mouifies both hei self-pictuie anu philosophy of life. Eventually, the peison makes a uefinite
commitment to giowth by continuing to seek such challenges (Aulei, 1974; Ramiiez, 1998). It is at
this point that people begin to uevelop a multicultuial iuentity. That is, they expiess a stiong,
lifelong commitment to the well-being of all peoples, cultuies, anu gioups (Ramiiez, 198S). Figuie
S.S summaiizes this piocess.
SUMMAk
The ciitical concepts of the cultuial anu cognitive flex theoiy of peisonality aie tiauitional anu
mouein cultuial styles anu fielu sensitive, fielu inuepenuent, anu bicognitive styles of cognition.
These concepts aie useful in unueistanuing multicultuial peisonality uevelopment anu
functioning.
4
CULTURAL AND COGNITIVE MATCH AND
MISMATCH IN PSYCHOLOGICAL
ADJUSTMENT
The flex theoiy of peisonality looks to the levels of match anu mismatch between inuiviuuals
anu theii enviionments to explain pioblems of malaujustment. In the flex theoiy of peisonality,
match anu mismatch aie assesseu in two uomains: cognitive anu cultuial.
Both of these uomains have seveial subuomains, oi aieas. It is possible foi a peison to be well
matcheu in ceitain subuomains while mismatcheu in otheis. A peison can, foi example, be well
matcheu to peeis in communication anu inteipeisonal ielationship styles but, at the same time, be
mismatcheu in leaining anu pioblem-solving styles. A couple can be well matcheu in peisonal
ielations styles, yet mismatcheu with iespect to communication styles. Similaily, membeis of a
family can be matcheu in motivational styles, but mismatcheu in theii teaching anu leaining styles.
In fact, some membeis of the same family can be matcheu with iespect to cultuial anuoi
cognitive styles, yet mismatcheu to othei membeis, iesulting in alliances that aie manifesteu in
family conflicts anu in the lack of effective communication. Fiequently, one paient anu one oi
moie of the chiluien who aie well matcheu uevelop alliances against the othei paient anu
mismatcheu chiluien (see Chaptei 12).
Examining some of the case histoiies intiouuceu in Chaptei 1 in moie uetail will help to
uemonstiate how the flex theoiy of peisonality can be useu to assess the uegiee of psychological
aujustment in uegiees of match anu mismatch in the cognitive anu cultuial uomains of a peison's
life.
CASL nIS1CkILS
The specific focus of this chaptei is on tiying to unueistanu the pioblems of aujustment that
uevelopeu foi Imelua, Baiolu, Raul, Taia, anu Alex. The following infoimation was obtaineu fiom
life histoiy inteiviews uone with the inuiviuual clients. (The life histoiy appioach is uiscusseu in
uetail in Chaptei 7.) Although the piincipal focus of this book is on cultuial anu cognitive factois of
malaujustment, geneial clinical consiueiations foi each case aie incluueu to show that these weie
also of vital impoitance in the assessment of the clients.
Ime|da
<&>A:*-(0%. Imelua was boin anu ieaieu in a iuial community locateu in the 0.S.-Nexico
boiuei iegion of Texas. She was an only chilu. Bei fathei, an accountant, anu hei mothei, a
homemakei, uivoiceu when she was two yeais olu. Following the uivoice, Imelua's mothei moveu
to a city in the noithein pait of Texas. Imelua anu hei fathei moveu in with his paients.
When Imelua was twelve yeais olu, hei fathei iemaiiieu anu the thiee of them moveu to a
house locateu next uooi to Imelua's gianupaients. Imelua was shuttleu between the two
iesiuences. Two yeais latei, when she was fouiteen, Imelua's half sistei Clauuia was boin. As hei
half sistei giew, Imelua began having conflicts with hei stepmothei. Imelua claimeu that Clauuia
was spoileu anu that the chilu woulu uo things to aggiavate hei. Whenevei she calleu the chilu's
tiansgiessions to the attention of hei stepmothei, Imelua anu she woulu aigue. Imelua's
peiception was that hei fathei woulu siue with his wife against hei. uiauually, Imelua became
incieasingly alienateu fiom hei paients anu staiteu to spenu moie anu moie time at hei
gianupaients' home.
Imelua's giaues plungeu aftei hei fathei iemaiiieu. Bei teacheis iepoiteu that she acteu out
in class. Bei only solace was spoits anu hei ielationship with Robeit, hei boyfiienu. Bei inteiests
in spoits, howevei, causeu conflicts with hei gianupaients anu most of hei peeis who felt that hei
activities weie not piopei foi a giil. Bei ielationship with hei boyfiienu hau staiteu when she was
fifteen. Bei boyfiienu's paients uiu not appiove of the ielationship because of Imelua's inteiest in
spoits anu because she came fiom a bioken home.
Imelua anu Robeit got along well because they both felt alienateu fiom theii teacheis anu
theii paients. Bowevei, aftei much piessuie fiom his paients, Robeit succumbeu to theii wishes
anu ieluctantly bioke off the ielationship with Imelua. This piecipitateu Imelua's attempt on hei
life.
Imelua was socializeu in a veiy tiauitional Nexican Ameiican community. Aftei the uivoice of
hei paients, she was socializeu piimaiily by hei gianupaients, who stiongly iuentifieu with
tiauitional Bispanic cultuie. This cultuie encouiages sepaiation of genuei ioles anu stiict
obeuience to paients anu othei authoiity figuies. This type of cultuial anu familial setting tenus to
encouiage the uevelopment of a piefeiieu fielu sensitive cognitive style in female chiluien.
Imelua's fathei's chosen piofessionaccountingiequiies analytical thinking anu gieat
attention to uetail. This inuicates that his piefeiieu cognitive style is piobably fielu inuepenuent,
oi bicognitive with a piefeience foi fielu inuepenuence. In the elementaiy giaues, Imelua's
teacheis hau useu fielu sensitive teaching styles anu hau encouiageu coopeiation anu a sense of
community. When she began junioi high school, howevei, Imelua encounteieu a ueciueu shift in
teaching style towaiu fielu inuepenuence. This style hau a pionounceu emphasis on inuiviuual
competition anu on analytical thinking.
Imelua's ielationships with hei fathei, stepmothei, anu teacheis weie fiaught with conflict.
Bei ielationship with hei natuial mothei seemeu to be bettei than that with hei fathei anu
stepmothei, but the two iaiely visiteu oi telephoneu each othei. As Imelua became moie involveu
in spoits, hei ielationship with hei gianupaients began to ueteiioiate. Bei only suppoitive
ielationship was with Robeit, who, like Imelua, seemeu to be piefeiieu fielu sensitive in cognitive
style. Robeit was also suppoitive of Imelua's inteiest in spoits. Imelua often saiu, "Eveiyone but
Robeit seems to be against me. They'ie always ciiticizing me anu tiying to foice me to live like
they uo. Why uon't they accept me as I am insteau of tiying to change me."
=1"B;-".. Imelua exhibiteu alienation fiom paients, teacheis, anu gianupaients. She
investeu most of hei time anu eneigy in hei ielationship with hei boyfiienu at the expense of peei
ielationships.
C#0#*&$ 8$606>&$ 8-0.6%#*&;6-0.. Imelua shoulu be evaluateu foi appiopiiateness of
antiuepiessant meuication. It shoulu also be consiueieu that hei attempt on hei life places hei at
iisk foi futuie suiciual behavioi.
Analysis of Cultural Style Mismatch
Imelda was modernistic in terms of gender
roles as related to sports and in challenging
the authority of teachers. She was traditional
with respect to cultural loyalty and religion.
Imelda's parents and grandparents and
Robert's parents were traditional with respect
to gender roles. Imelda's teachers were
traditional with respect to expecting
subservience to authority.
Analysis of Cognitive Style Mismatch
Imelda was preferred field sensitive style. Her grandparents were more field sensitive
and less bicognitive than Imelda was.
Her father's and teachers' styles were
preferred field independent.


naro|d
<&>A:*-(0%. Baiolu was boin anu ieaieu in an uppei miuule-class, subuiban community in
the San Fiancisco Bay Aiea. Fiank, a biothei who was two yeais oluei than Baiolu, uieu when
Baiolu was sixteen. Baiolu's fathei was an engineei anu an executive with a majoi computei
electionics fiim in the Silicon valley. Baiolu's mothei taught elementaiy school.
Thioughout chiluhoou anu eaily auolescence, Baiolu uevelopeu stiong inteiests in ait anu
music. Be was closei to his mothei uuiing these yeais, anu she encouiageu his inteiests, pioviuing
solace fiom the constant fiustiation Baiolu felt because his fathei seemeu to piefei his oluei
biothei.
Baiolu's fathei anu Fiank both hau stiong inteiests in spoits, fishing, builuing mouel
aiiplanes, anu woiking with auuio anu television equipment. Baiolu hau uone his best to impiess
his fathei with his achievements in photogiaphy, painting, anu music; his fathei uiu not seem to
appieciate these things.
When Fiank uieu in an automobile acciuent, Baiolu ieneweu his effoits to win his fathei's
love anu appioval by tiying to fill the gap Fiank hau left. Baiolu abanuoneu his olu inteiests,
becoming moie involveu in spoits anu woiking haiuei at uoing well in math anu science. Baiolu's
shift in inteiests uiu biing him closei to his fathei, but he nevei succeeueu in ueveloping the close
ielationship he longeu foi. To compensate foi this, he voweu to piove to his fathei that he coulu be
successful in business, something his fathei hau always wanteu foi Fiank.
When Baiolu went to college, he majoieu in engineeiing anu computei science. When he was
at the univeisity, he met }an, whom he latei maiiieu. }an hau been ieaieu in a miu-sizeu southein
city. Bei laige family hau close ties. }an's majoi in college was ait histoiy. Thiough hei, Baiolu
coulu maintain a vicaiious inteiest in ait anu music. While in college Baiolu also met the two
fiienus who woulu latei become his paitneis. The thiee of them woikeu at the same computei
anu electionics fiim as Baiolu's fathei uiu foi foui yeais befoie they ueciueu to establish a
softwaie company of theii own.
Because the staitup of the new company was so uemanuing of Baiolu's time anu eneigy, he
maue an infoimal agieement with }an: If she woulu agiee to give up hei caieei tempoiaiily anu uo
most of the paienting of theii two chiluien, he woulu assume most of the family iesponsibilities
once the company was on soliu footing. }an coulu then ietuin to hei caieei with Baiolu's full
suppoit. When Baiolu sought theiapy, foui yeais hau passeu since he hau maue his pact with }an,
anu by then the company was successful, with two bianch offices in Southein Califoinia.
=->6&$6?&;6-0 &0% D6E# F,B#*6#0>#.. Baiolu was socializeu in a moueinistic community, but
his home incluueu both tiauitional anu mouein values. Baiolu's fathei was tiauitional in teims of
iigiuly uefineu genuei ioles, yet Baiolu's mothei hau a caieei, albeit one that was genuei
appiopiiate in teims of tiauitional cultuial values.
Baiolu's fathei hau a piefeiieu fielu inuepenuent cognitive style, as ieflecteu by his inteiests
in electionics anu engineeiing. Bis mothei, a music majoi in college anu an elementaiy school
music anu ait teachei, hau a piefeiieu fielu sensitive cognitive style. Thus, Baiolu was exposeu to
both cognitive styles anu to both majoi cultuial value systems.
Bis eaily inteiests in ait anu music attesteu to his piefeience foi fielu sensitivity. It was not
until his biothei's ueath that he tuineu to fielu inuepenuent puisuits. Bis piefeience foi fielu
sensitivity anu tiauitional values weie again manifesteu in choosing }an foi his wife. It was also
foitunate foi Baiolu that he coulu expiess anu uevelop some of his inteiests in fielu sensitive
aieas in his woik thiough the uevelopment of computei giaphics piogiams anu thiough his
leaueiship of the miu-level manageis anu woikeis.
G&;;#*0 -E +%H(.;"#0;. Baiolu's ielationship with his fathei hau iemaineu stiaineu. Baiolu
felt that his many effoits to win his fathei's love anu appioval hau enueu in failuie. A majoi iift
uevelopeu in theii ielationship when Baiolu anu his paitneis establisheu theii company. Baiolu
thought his fathei woulu lenu him money foi the company anu was uevastateu when, at the last
minute, his fathei changeu his minu. Although Baiolu maintaineu contact with his mothei, he cut
off all communication with his fathei.
0vei the yeais, Baiolu anu }an lost the intimacy they hau enjoyeu in theii eaily yeais of
maiiiage. The long houis anu many weekenus that Baiolu uevoteu to the company, as well as the
extensive tiaveling he hau to uo as pait of his woik, maue him feel like he was an outsiuei at
home. As Baiolu saiu, "It got to the point that I hau nothing to say to }an oi the kius. When I came
home fiom woik, I woulu just fix a uiink anu sit in fiont of the Tv until it was time foi suppei.
Aftei suppei, I woulu go back to woik anu come in aftei they hau all gone to beu."
Be iaiely uiu anything with his chiluien. At the time he came to theiapy, }an tolu him that if
the situation uiu not change soon anu that if he uiu not live up to his siue of the baigain, she woulu
uivoice him. This shock biought Baiolu to the iealization that his behavioi with his own chiluien
anu wife was not unlike that of his fathei when Baiolu was younghe, too, was acting inuiffeient
towaiu his family.
Baiolu's business paitneis weie becoming unhappy with Baiolu's inteiest in moving the
company in the uiiection of computei giaphics. They weie also noticing signs of buinout in
Baioluthe chaiisma anu leaueiship so impoitant to employee loyalty anu moiale weie
uisappeaiing as Baiolu ietieateu moie anu moie into his own woilu.
=1"B;-".. Baiolu felt lonely, uisoiienteu, anu misunueistoou. Be was shockeu by the
ultimatum fiom }an anu by the iealization that he hau been acting just like his fathei towaiu his
family. Baiolu was conceineu with the fact that he hau lost inteiest in technical softwaie
piogiams, the mainstay of the company's business ovei the yeais. Be uiu not unueistanu why the
only things to excite him now weie uevelopments in computei giaphics.
Be also was conceineu because he felt moie anu moie alienateu fiom his paitneis, who weie
not suppoitive of his inteiests. As a iesult, it was uifficult foi him to be enthusiastic about the
futuie of the company. Thus, Baiolu was not investing as much time as he hau in maintaining the
sense of community within the company. As he saiu at his fiist theiapy session, "Ny woilu is
falling apait, anu I uon't know wheie to go fiom heie."
Analysis of Cultural Style Mismatch
Harolds preferred cultural orientation was
modernistic-urban, but he did acquire some
traditional values from his parents, particularly
in the gender role and interpersonal domains..
Jans cultural orientation was semi-urban,
traditional.
Harold's partners had all been reared in cities
on the East Coast of the United States, so
they were more modern-urban in their
orientations than was Harold.
Analysis of Cognitive Style Mismatch
Harold's preferred cognitive style had been
field sensitive in childhood and early
adolescence, as demonstrated by his
interests in art and music. In late adolescence
and early adulthood, he had rejected this style
and switched to the field independent style
Harold's father's preferred field independent
cognitive style, particularly in the interpersonal
domain, mismatched Harold's although Harold
did try to match his father in the areas of work
and career.
(through computer science and engineering)
to please his father and to fill the void left by
Frank's death. At home with Jan and the
children, Harold was behaving as though he
were preferred field independent, modeling
his father's behavior. At work he had made
use of his suppressed field sensitive style to
provide leadership and a sense of community
in maintaining a high level of employee
satisfaction in the company. His interests in
computer graphics were beginning to show
that he was "field sensitive in field
independent clothing." Actually Harold had the
potential to be a balanced bicognitive. At the
time he came to therapy, he was in a state of
mismatch in different aspects of his life: He
needed to be field sensitive in his behavior at
home and to recognize his resurgent field
sensitive interests in the domain of work and
career.
Jan's preferred style was probably field
sensitive, and in recent years as Harold
moved more in the direction of field
independence, her style became increasingly
mismatched to his.
Harold's partners' preferred styles were
probably field independent, and he became
increasingly mismatched to them as his field
sensitive interests resurfaced.

kau|
<&>A:*-(0%. Raul, a multiiacial (Afiican Ameiican, Latino, anu Native Ameiican) man, was
boin anu ieaieu in a meuium-sizeu city in the southwestein 0niteu States. The city was
pieuominantly white with pionounceu segiegation when Raul was giowing up. Even though theie
was a minoiity of Latinos, Afiican Ameiicans, Native Ameiicans, anu Asian Ameiicans in the
community, theie weie veiy few multiiacial people.
Raul was the oluest of five chiluien in an intact but uysfunctional family. Be iecalleu that his
fathei was a heavy uiinkei anu hau multiple extiamaiital affaiis uuiing Raul's chiluhoou anu
auolescence. The family liveu in goveinment-subsiuizeu housing; Raul was iejecteu by his peeis
because of his multiiacial appeaiance. Be was often tolu, "You aie not one of us." Be often hau to
fight to gain iespect anu acceptance. Eventually, thiough his piowess in fighting, he gaineu
iecognition as a leauei.
In eaily auolescence Raul's life changeu uiamatically when his fathei's absence fiom home
anu gambling losses contiibuteu to seiious financial pioblems foi the family. Bis mothei helu
uown two jobs, so Raul was foiceu into the iole of authoiity figuie foi his youngei siblings. Be felt
iesentful because he was not able to spenu time with his peeis in the neighboihoou anu in school
extiacuiiiculai activities when his inteiest in ait was just ueveloping. Bis iesentment contiibuteu
to his becoming a stiict uisciplinaiian; he was often uemanuing anu haish in the tieatment of his
siblings.
When Raul began to uate in his miuule anu high school yeais he encounteieu iejection fiom
white women. Although the schools he attenueu weie integiateu, both paients anu school
authoiities uiscouiageu cioss-iacial uating. Anothei majoi blow to Raul's self-esteem centeieu
aiounu his pooi acauemic peifoimance. Be was uiagnoseu as having leaining uisabilities anu
placeu in special euucation classes. By this time his fathei hau uevelopeu health pioblems anu hau
stoppeu gambling anu uiscontinueu his extiamaiital affaiis. With the incieaseu stability of the
family, his paients felt that Raul woulu uo bettei acauemically if he weie to live tempoiaiily with
ielatives who iesiueu in a iuial community locateu in the 0.S.-Nexico boiuei iegion.
Raul iemembeieu this time with mixeu emotionshis giaues impioveu anu his aitistic
inteiests weie much influenceu by Nexican, Native Ameiican, anu Nestizo ait. At the same time,
he expeiienceu iejection fiom ielatives anu Latino peeis who chiueu him foi his inability to speak
Spanish fluently anu foi "acting like an Anglo."
Shoitly aftei he giauuateu fiom high school anu ietuineu to his family, he was uiafteu anu
sent to vietnam. In the militaiy, he founu acceptance fiom vietnamese women anu theii families
anu he exploieu Asian anu Afiican ait styles. Bowevei, Raul's combat expeiiences leu to seiious
posttiaumatic stiess uisoiuei symptoms. When Raul was uischaigeu fiom the seivice, he ietuineu
to his hometown anu went to woik foi a piint shop. Be set up a stuuio at his home anu continueu
to woik on his ait. 0n a limiteu basis, he began to show anu sell some of his woikRaul was only
willing to show it to his cowoikeis, family membeis, anu best fiienus.
The geneial atmospheie conceining iacialethnic ielations in his home community
ieawakeneu the feelings of iejection he hau expeiienceu as a chilu anu an auolescent. Even though
he uateu Afiican Ameiican, Native Ameiican, Asian, anu Latino women, he was most attiacteu to
Caucasian women with blonu haii anu blue eyes. When he came to theiapy, Raul iepoiteu that all
of his ielationships with Caucasian women hau faileu. Be felt uiscouiageu, confuseu,
misunueistoou, anu useu by the women he hau uevelopeu intimate ielationships with.
Analysis of Cultural Style Mismatch
Raul was bicultural (Native American and
Latino traditional values and Caucasian
modern values). He was predominantly
traditional with respect to spirituality, sense of
community, and family identification while
preferring modern in gender-role definition
and subservience to convention and authority.
The traditional value system he identified with
originated in the Native American culture of
his father's family (he was close to his
paternal grandparents), who took Raul to
powwows and family gatherings. His
traditional values also had their origin in the
Latino belief systems, particularly in the area
of the religion of his parents and his maternal
external family. His extended family on his
mother's side also introduced Raul to the rural
traditional values of African-Latino culture
(their origins were in the state of Veracruz in
Mexico). Raul's modern values had originated
in his contacts with Caucasian male peers
Rauls mother was mismatched to Raul in the
area of human relational and communication
styles.
Raul's father was bicognitive. He mismatched
Raul in the area of learning style.
Raul's Caucasian girlfriends were mismatched
to him on communication and interpersonal
relationship styles (the principal reason for the
failure of his relationships).
His siblings were mismatched to him because
of his preferred field sensitive style (he was
directive with them).

during adolescence, Caucasian coworkers
and friends in the military as well as from
urban African American, Filipino, Asian,
Latino, and multiracial peers he met in the
military.

=1"B;-".. Raul's self-esteem was low. Be blameu himself foi the failuie of his ielationships.
Be felt misunueistoou anu was having to contenu with feelings of iejection anu lack of acceptance
that hau theii oiigin in his chiluhoou anu auolescence. Be was also suffeiing fiom symptoms of
posttiaumatic stiess uisoiuei ielateu to his combat expeiiences in vietnam. Fuithei, he was
confuseu about his multiiacial-multicultuial iuentity, paiticulaily because he was back in his
hometown wheie multicultuial anu multiiacial ielations aie not encouiageu.
C#0#*&$ 8$606>&$ 8-0.6%#*&;6-0.. Raul shoulu be evaluateu foi appiopiiateness of
meuication foi amelioiation of uepiessive anu posttiaumatic stiess uisoiuei symptoms. Be also
neeus to be evaluateu foi his auuictive tenuencies anu encouiageu to ietuin to Alcoholics
Anonymous (in which he has paiticipateu in the past). The theiapist also neeus to evaluate his iisk
foi suiciue.
1ara
<&>A:*-(0%. Taia, a twenty-six-yeai-olu Afiican Ameiican woman, was boin anu ieaieu in a
semi-uiban miuule-sizeu community in a state in the southwestein 0niteu States. The community
was pieuominantly white anu Latino with Afiican Ameiicans anu Filipino Ameiicans in the
minoiity. Taia is the youngest of thiee chiluienshe has two biotheis. Bei mothei is a hospital
auministiatoi anu hei fathei is a faimei who owns his own faim.
Taia's mothei was often absent fiom the family home when Taia was young because of the
uemanus of vaiying woik shifts anu because of hei piomotions, fiist to supeivisoi of nuises anu
then to hospital auministiatoi.
In elementaiy anu miuule school anu foi the fiist thiee yeais of high school, Taia was self-
conscious because of hei physical appeaianceshe was much tallei than most of hei peeis anu
was slight of builu. She iemembeieu that in those uays hei physique gave hei a gangly anu "stiing
bean" appeaiance. She also iecalleu that she was uncooiuinateu when she tiieu to play spoits oi
paiticipate in gymnastics oi uance.
At home Taia uiu hei best to fit in with hei biotheis anu hei fathei when hei mothei was at
woik. She iemembeieu wanting to be incluueu, even if it meant uoing what hei fathei iefeiieu to
as "men's woik." She also iemembeieu spenuing a lot of time alone making up imaginaiy fiienus
anu taking caie of pets anu faim animals.
In the last yeai of high school, Taia's physical appeaiance changeu uiamatically, anu she was
consiueieu by the boys at school to be attiactive. She also became moie cooiuinateu anu was
successful as a basketball playei. In theiapy, howevei, she still felt negatively about heiself. She
saiu, "I still felt that I was awkwaiu anu unattiactive."
She left home to attenu a community college, which was locateu about two hunuieu miles
fiom hei hometown. Foi the fiist time she founu heiself in a sizable Afiican Ameiican community.
She began to uate anu became piegnant uuiing the seconu semestei of hei fieshman yeai. Taia
was suipiiseu anu ashameu about hei piegnancy. She uiu not feel close to the biological fathei of
hei chilu anu hei acauemic peifoimance suffeieu. She eventually left college in the miuule of the
seconu semestei of hei fiist yeai anu ietuineu to hei paients' home. Bei paients felt that, because
of Taia's piegnancy anu leaving college, they hau lost face in the tiauitional community wheie
they liveu anu in which they weie well iespecteu. Taia iemembeieu tension in hei family uuiing
hei final months of piegnancy, but this finally easeu when hei chilu, Tamisha, was boin. Two yeais
aftei the biith, Taia moveu about thiee hunuieu miles fiom hei hometown to a city wheie she
continueu hei college euucation anu founu pait-time employment. She ieceiveu some economic
suppoit fiom hei paients.
Within a few months of hei aiiival in the new community, Taia establisheu a ielationship
with a boyfiienu who ielateu well to Tamisha anu who assumeu the iole of fathei to the chilu.
Taia, howevei, hau mixeu feelings about the ielationship. She uesciibeu this man as contiolling,
jealous, anu intiusive of hei piivacy. She iecalleu that he woulu hiue a voice-activateu tape
iecoiuei in the apaitment to monitoi who hau visiteu oi phoneu when he was not theie. Be woulu
go thiough hei peisonal papeis when Taia was away fiom the apaitment. At times he woulu show
up unannounceu at hei woikplace oi at hei college. Eventually she bioke up with him, anu he
moveu out of theii apaitment. Neveitheless, he continueu to call hei anu haiass hei in othei
wayshe woulu uiive by hei apaitment anu show up unannounceu at hei chilu's uay-caie centei
to tiy to uige Tamisha to convince Taia to take him back.
A few months aftei the bieakup with hei boyfiienu, Taia began to uate an Afiican Ameiican
man who hau immigiateu fiom the Bahamas. Be was a college giauuate anu owneu his own
business. Taia uevelopeu intense feelings foi him, but he kept giving hei signals that he was not
inteiesteu in a committeu ielationship. Taia's mothei hau met hei new boyfiienu anu likeu him so
much that she kept piessuiing Taia to maiiy anu settle uown foi the goou of Tamisha. Taia was
veiy toin anu confuseu. She was still being haiasseu by hei foimei boyfiienu anu the behavioi of
hei new boyfiienu ieawakeneu the feelings of iejection she hau expeiienceu as a chilu anu an
auolescent. Bei acauemic peifoimance began to suffei again anu she lost hei job; she was
completely uepenuent on hei paients economically.
=1"B;-".. Taia was confuseu anu angiy that she hau to be economically uepenuent on hei
paients: "Ny mothei tiies to iun my life." She was fiustiateu by the mixeu signals she was getting
fiom hei new boyfiienu anu was conceineu about the haiassment fiom the olu one. She felt
piessuieu to be a goou mothei to hei uaughtei, to be successful in college, anu to finu a new job.
C#0#*&$ 8$606>&$ 8-0.6%#*&;6-0.. Taia shoulu be assesseu foi the neeu foi meuication. She
also neeus to leain stiess-ieuuction techniques in oiuei to manage stiess moie effectively.
Analysis of Cultural Style Mismatch
Tara developed as a bicultural (African
American traditional and bicultural values and
Caucasian modern values) although her
traditional and modern styles remained
separate (almost like two separate
personalities) much the same as those of her
mother.
Tara's father had traditional values,
particularly in the area of gender-role
definition.
Tara was mismatched to her mother in the
area of time orientation and subservience to
authority. Tara felt that her mother did not give
her the quality time she needed and that she
was trying to tell her how to live her life.
The mismatch with her professors was largely
in the areas of her preference for professors
who could take an interest in her personally
she felt she lacked a sense of community in
the first college she attended. Mismatch with
peers was with respect to her traditional
values when it came to identification with the
family.
Having been reared in urban settings, most of
her peers emphasized separation from the
family.
Tara mismatched her former boyfriend with
respect to her modernistic orientation toward
gender-role definition; he did not approve of
her friendships with male and female
coworkers and of her active role in community
sports.
She was mismatched to her parents and
siblings on the subservience to convention
and authority domain; she felt comfortable
being a single parent, while they insisted that
she should marry so her child could have a
father.
Analysis of Cognitive Style Mismatch
Tara's cognitive style was mixed. She was
preferred field sensitive in the motivational
domain (she preferred social rewards), but
she was dominant field independent in
learning/problem-solving style (she enjoyed
finding new ways to do things and to solve
problems in her work).
Tara's predominant learning style was field
sensitive.
Tara's father was predominantly field
sensitive. Tara felt partly mismatched to him
on communication style.
Tara's mother was very field independent in
the area of human relations style, so they
were mismatched. Tara was mismatched to
her mother with respect to motivational style
(her mother kept pressuring her to be more
concerned with financial success). She was
mismatched to her boyfriends because of the
strong field sensitive teaching-parenting-
supervisory-counseling style they used with
Tamisha.
Tara felt mismatched to the teaching style of
most of the professors at her previous college,
leading to her sense of frustration. She felt her
present college was a better match to her
preferred learning style.

A|ex
<&>A:*-(0%. Alex is a twenty-one-yeai-olu college stuuent of vietnamese uescent who was
boin in vietnam anu immigiateu with his family to the 0niteu States at the enu of the wai. Bis
family eventually settleu in a laige city in the southwestein 0niteu States. Buiing the fiist six yeais
of his life, Alex was ieaieu piimaiily by his gianupaients who liveu in the family home. Alex's
paients hau been laigely absent fiom the home uuiing the family's yeais in vietnamhis mothei
was a businessownei anu his fathei was an officei in the South vietnamese militaiy. Alex
iemembeieu the time in vietnam as a veiy happy peiiou in his lifehe attenueu a Catholic piivate
school anu his classmates weie vietnamese anu chiluien of Ameiican embassy peisonnel.
Coming to the 0niteu States iesulteu in a complete change in lifestyle anu a seveie cultuie
shock foi Alex. Bis paients, gianupaients, anu siblings moveu into a small house. Be hau a veiy
uifficult time leaining English when he fiist attenueu school in the 0niteu States. Be founu that the
few woius of English he hau leaineu in vietnam weie not auequate to piopeily communicate with
his teacheis anu peeis in the public school he attenueu. Be stiuggleu acauemically anu was placeu
in a "slow gioup" foi a yeai.
Be also felt that most of his Anglo peeis weie piejuuiceu against vietnamese anu useu iacial
sluis. Be also founu the teaching styles of his new teacheis veiy uiffeient fiom that of the Fiench
Catholic nuns in the school he hau attenueu in vietnam. It shockeu Alex to see the emotional
uecline of his gianupaients. Bis mothei was not able to finu woik immeuiately, so she stayeu at
home anu became a homemakei foi the fiist time. She assumeu a uominant iole because Alex's
gianumothei appeaieu to be uepiesseu anu confuseu in the new cultuie. Bis gianufathei stayeu in
his ioom most of the time.
While at miuule school anu high school Alex began to uevelop a bicultuial oiientation to life.
Bis English language skills hau impioveu consiueiably, anu he continueu to speak vietnamese at
home anu in the pieuominately vietnamese neighboihoou wheie he liveu. Bowevei, it was at this
time that he began to feel uiffeient foi othei ieasonshe felt sexually attiacteu to males iathei
than to females. This was confusing to him, anu he uiu not have anyone to uiscuss it with.
uoing to a laige state univeisity was a tuining point in Alex's lifehe was finally able to
unueistanu anu accept his sexual oiientation. Be befiienueu otheis who weie Asian anu gay.
Togethei they foimeu a suppoit gioup to focus on family issues. Bowevei, he uevelopeu feelings
of uiffeientness in anothei aieahis majoi in college. Alex's paients hau encouiageu him to
become a physician since he was veiy young, so he came to the univeisity as a piemeu majoi. Be
iemembeieu feeling confuseu uuiing his fiist two semesteis of collegehe felt positive about
being homosexual foi the fiist time, but he felt veiy mismatcheu iegaiuing the majoi he hau
chosen.
Analysis of Cultural Style Mismatch
Alex had been very traditional prior to his
family's immigration to the United States,
because of the early influence of his
grandparents and of the Catholic school he
had attended. Like Tara, his two cultural
styles remained separate. After coming to the
United States, his mother, who was
multicultural, became more influential in his
life, so he developed an identity with modern
values. In middle school and in high school,
he developed close friendships with
Caucasian, African American, and Latino
peers who were also more modern. By the
time he went to the university, Alex was
multicultural, but remained preferred
traditional in his values orientation.

Alex was mismatched to his grandparents and
parents on subservience to convention and
authority and on sexual orientation.
As Alex became more modern, he became
more mismatched to his grandparents, who
remained very traditional.
Alex was mismatched with his heterosexual
Asian peers on acceptance of homosexuality.
He was mismatched to the professors of his
premed courses and to the other premed
students because of his tendency to be more
cooperative than individually competitive.
He was mismatched to most of his gay peers,
particularly those who were not Asian, Latino,
Native American, or African American
because of his strong feelings of family
identity and loyalty.
Analysis of Cognitive Style Mismatch
Alex's behavior reflected a mixed cognitive
style; he was dominant field independent in
communication style and preferred field
sensitive in learning/problem-solving style. He
reported that he never felt comfortable in the
required natural science and math courses he
took when he was a premed student. He felt
his learning/problem-solving style was better
matched to the requirements of social science
courses and the social work courses that he
was taking.

Both of Alex's parents were bicognitive,
preferred field independent. His father had an
engineering degree and his mother a degree
in accounting.
Alex's preferred field independent
communication style was mismatched to the
strong field sensitive style of his peers in the
Vietnamese American Student Association.
His preference for a field sensitive learning/
problem-solving style was mismatched to the
orientation of most of the premed courses he
had taken and also to the teaching style of the
professors in the statistics- research design
course he was having problems with.


Be stiuggleu in all the iequiieu piemeu science couises, anu he coulu not ielate well to most of
the othei piemeu stuuents. Buiing this time he took an elective couise in social woik anu felt as if
he hau founu his tiue calling. Be uiu volunteei woik at a facility neai campus that offeieu
counseling anu suppoit seivices to college stuuents who weie gay. Be ueciueu to change his majoi
but uiu so without consulting his paients. Bis sexual oiientation anu his acauemic inteiests weie
seciets to his family.
=1"B;-".. Alex felt guilty about withholuing infoimation fiom his paients. Be suffeieu fiom
insomnia anu fiom an appioach-avoiuance conflict iegaiuing visits to his family. Be was
uncomfoitable about "living a uouble life."
C#0#*&$ 8$606>&$ 8-0.6%#*&;6-0.. Alex shoulu be evaluateu foi symptoms of aujustment
uisoiuei, mixeu type, anu consiueiation shoulu be given to possible neeu foi meuication.
SUMMAk
The flex theoiy of peisonality helps to iuentify those aieas of mismatch in the cultuial anu
cognitive uomains of life that aie ielateu to baiiieis in the uevelopment of multicultuial
peisonality styles. The analysis of the aieas of mismatch suggests goals foi psychotheiapy.
Cultuial anu cognitive styles mismatch analyses foi Imelua, Baiolu, Raul, Taia, anu Alex help to
pinpoint the oiigins of the feelings of uiffeientness anu of the symptoms of the mismatch
synuiome. Fuitheimoie, the concepts of the flex theoiy of peisonality help to iuentify those aieas
of mismatch in the cultuial anu cognitive uomains of life that inteifeie with the uevelopment of
multicultuial peisonality piocesses anu lifestyles. The theiapeutic appioach of choice foi
aujustment pioblems associateu with mismatch is multicultuial psychotheiapy.
The focus of multicultuial psychotheiapy is on the uevelopment of peisonality flex anu
multicultuial oiientations to life. In auuition, clients gain an awaieness of how they have
expeiienceu mismatch shock anu suffeieu fiom the feelings of uiffeientness. Clients aie
empoweieu to change the enviionment, helping to cieate a multicultuial society, sensitive to
uiveisity anu oiienteu towaiu peace anu coopeiation.
The flex theoiy of peisonality was applieu to infoimation obtaineu thiough the life histoiies of
Imelua, Baiolu, Taia, Raul, anu Alex in oiuei to unueistanu how the mismatch synuiome
uevelopeu in these clients. The life histoiies also helpeu to iuentify geneial clinical consiueiations
as well as some of the goals to be auuiesseu in multicultuial theiapy.
5
THE MULTICULTURAL MODEL OF
PSYCHOTHERAPY AND COUNSELING
An Overview
In the pievious chaptei, the piincipal concepts of the cognitive anu cultuial flex theoiy of
peisonality weie applieu to show how Taia, Raul, Alex, Imelua, anu Baiolu weie mismatcheu with
people anu institutions in theii enviionments anu how mismatch was associateu with feelings of
uiffeientness, alienation, anu uespaii. This chaptei intiouuces an appioach to psychotheiapy anu
counseling which evolveu fiom the expeiience of tieating clients who, like those in the case
stuuies, weie suffeiing fiom feeling uiffeient anu fiom mismatch shock.
The multicultuial mouel of psychotheiapy anu counseling uiffeis fiom othei tieatment
appioaches in the following ways:
It views eveiy client as having the potential foi multicultuial uevelopment. It
encouiages the theiapist to iespect the client's oiigins as ieflecteu in unique cultuial
anu cognitive styles, because these aie the founuation foi multicultuial uevelopment
anu foi the uevelopment of maximum potential in the peisonality.
It views the theiapist as also having piefeiieu cognitive anu cultuial styles. It
encouiages the theiapist to become awaie of his unique cultuial anu cognitive styles
anu to leain how to flex in oiuei to best match the unique styles of clients.
The theiapist makes use of the oppoitunities foi multicultuial giowth offeieu by the
client's immeuiate enviionment anu by encouiaging the client to accept that uiveisity.
The helping piofessional also encouiages the client to iecognize anu use auvantages
foi multicultuial uevelopment piesent in the uiveise society in which the client lives.
Clients aie encouiageu to become multicultuial euucatois, peei counselois, anu
ambassauois. They aie also encouiageu to become active change agents, not only to
enhance theii own multicultuial uevelopment, but also to help uevelop a society of
social justice, peace, anu coopeiation that will be iesponsive anu sensitive to the
inuiviuual uiffeiences of all its citizens.
1ASkS CI 1nL MUL1ICUL1UkAL 1nLkAIS1
Specifically, the multicultuial theiapist oi counseloi has seven majoi tasks uuiing theiapy, as
uesciibeu in the following sections.
Match|ng C||ents |n an Atmosphere of Acceptance
The theiapist pioviues a nonjuugmental, positive, accepting atmospheie uevoiu of confoimity
oi assimilation piessuies. In this climate, clients feel fiee to expiess theii uniqueness in the foim
of theii piefeiieu cognitive anu cultuial styles. This accomplishes seveial objectives:
It helps clients oveicome feelings of uiffeientness anu of mismatch shock, which
negatively affect theii aujustment anu pievents openness to multicultuial
uevelopment.
It allows clients to abanuon the false self anu to expiess the unique self, thus allowing
the theiapist to know how best to match the piefeiieu styles of the client. This helps
the client to feel valiuateu anu accepteu.
The theiapist continues to match the client to fuithei eliminate the effects of the mismatch
synuiome anu to continue to gain the client's tiust. The most impoitant initial aiea of match is
communication style because it is impoitant foi the client to feel totally unueistoou by the
theiapist. Continueu match pioceuuies gain the tiust of the client by ieuucing alienation.
Natching also helps in the assessment of clients' piefeiieu styles as the false self ieceues anu the
unique self emeiges. Auuitionally, matching by the theiapist helps to iemove those baiiieis to
leaining fiom uiveisity that have kept clients fiom achieving theii multicultuial potential.
Mak|ng a Iorma| Assessment of referred Sty|es
As a cioss-check on the assessment uone thiough obseivations, the theiapist auministeis
thiee peisonality inventoiies that assess the client's piefeiieu cognitive anu cultuial styles. These
inventoiies accomplish thiee goals:
1. To inuicate how well behavioial obseivations match the client's self iepoit of piefeiieu
styles;
2. To pioviue mateiials foi uiscussion of impoitant theiapeutic issues; anu
S. To encouiage client paiticipation in goal setting anu in gaining a fiisthanu unueistanuing
of the unique self ieflecteu in theii piefeiieu styles.
Conduct|ng a L|fe n|story Interv|ew
The life histoiy inteiview with the client (uiscusseu in uetail in Chaptei 7) iuentifies a time oi
times in the client's life when the piessuie to confoim oi assimilate causeu a suppiession of a
piefeiieu style. The life histoiy helps to iuentify those people anu institutions to which the client
has felt most matcheu anu mismatcheu. It also helps to isolate baiiieis to multicultuial
uevelopment such as Imelua's stiong negative feelings towaiu mainstieam Euiopean Ameiicans
anu Taia's alienation fiom hei paients. In auuition, the life histoiy inteiview helps to iuentify
peisonality builuing blocks that can be useu in multicultuial uevelopment. An example is Raul's
leaining about othei cultuies by stuuying theii aitistic foims anu styles anu using these in his
aitwoik. Finally, the life histoiy inteiview helps to suivey the iesouices anu potential
oppoitunities piesent in the client's enviionment that coulu facilitate multicultuial uevelopment.
Mak|ng a Se|f-Assessment
In multicultuial theiapy it is necessaiy foi the theiapist to evaluate his own piefeiieu styles
to ueteimine aieas of match anu mismatch with the client, allowing the theiapist to flex in oiuei to
bettei match the client. This self-assessment is impoitant to ueteimine whethei the theiapist has
a sufficient iange of flex to pioviue an auequate match to the client's piefeiieu styles. It also helps
the theiapist iuentify peisonal biases, piejuuices, anu piefeiences. In this way, it can be
asceitaineu whethei theie aie any steieotypes oi negative attituues that might inteifeie with
establishment of iappoit. Finally, self-assessment pioviues the theiapist with an oppoitunity to
iuentify those aieas of cognitive anu cultuial styles in which he will neeu auuitional multicultuial
uevelopment.
Introduc|ng Cogn|t|ve and Cu|tura| I|ex and the Mu|t|cu|tura| Mode|
The clients' active paiticipation in theiapy is an essential component of this mouel. Foi this
ieason, the theiapist intiouuces clients to the majoi concepts of both the flex theoiy of peisonality
anu the multicultuial mouel of psychotheiapy. The clients' knowleuge anu awaieness of these
concepts enables them to monitoi piogiess. Clients also become moie investeu in the success of
theiapy uuiing the piocess of setting peisonal goals. In the laigei scheme, clients' involvement
empoweis them to become agents of change. Intiouucing mismatch to the client's piefeiieu
cultuial anu cognitive styles is the beginning of the uevelopment of cultuial anu cognitive flex.
This intiouuction is uone in the context of match. Clients aie encouiageu to paiticipate in social
situations anu ielationships that can fostei the uevelopment of new cultuial anu cognitive styles.
Nismatch is piacticeu in the safe atmospheie of theiapy thiough the wiiting of sciipts anu
iole-playing. This piactice seives to uevelop cognitive anu cultuial flex as well as to encouiage
clients to leain how to empathize with people whose cultuial anu cognitive styles uiffei fiom theii
own. Thiough the use of homewoik assignments clients expeiiment with sciipts in the woilu
outsiue the theiapy ioom anu evaluate inuiviuual piogiess in these effoits. This phase continues
the uevelopment of cognitive anu cultuial flex as well as the uevelopment of the clients' piefeiieu
styles. Fuithei, clients uevelop self-confiuence in inteiacting with people anu situations that
iequiie the use of uiffeient styles.
To assess the piogiess of clients as they pioceeu thiough the theiapy, the theiapist makes
ongoing obseivations of the client, noting piogiess on the Piefeiieu Cultuial anu Cognitive Styles
0bseivation Checklists (Appenuices E anu F). These iatings aie compaieu to the ones maue by the
theiapist in the initial stages of theiapy to note the uegiee of change.
This ongoing compaiison helps the theiapist ueteimine the uegiee of piogiess on the goals
establisheu foi theiapy anu helps clients to see how much piogiess they aie making as theiapy
pioceeus. The compaiison also enables the theiapist anu client to uevelop new goals oi to mouify
existing ones.
Assess|ng rogress |n I|ex Deve|opment
0nce the mismatch phase of theiapy is well unuei way, the theiapist assesses client piogiess
in the uiffeient uomains of cultuial anu cognitive styles. The uata obtaineu fiom ieauministiation
of the papei-anu-pencil inventoiies anu fiom the obseivation instiuments aie compaieu to those
obtaineu in the initial stage of theiapy. These compaiisons help to ueteimine whethei it will be
necessaiy to make changes in the theiapeutic plan. Feeuback to the client ensuies continueu
involvement anu commitment to the goals of multicultuial theiapy anu counseling.
Lncourag|ng C||ents to 8ecome Change Agents
Clients leain how to encouiage changes in the enviionment to ensuie the best match to theii
piefeiieu styles fiom otheis anu fiom those institutions anu agencies that most affect theii uaily
lives. Clients also leain how to become multicultuial euucatois anu peei counselois foi those who
aie suffeiing fiom feeling uiffeient anu fiom mismatch shock. At the same time, they leain how to
become multicultuial ambassauois, facilitating the uevelopment of a multicultuial society.
Tiansfoiming clients into change agents empoweis them to gain contiol ovei theii uestinies.
Also, clients become moie committeu to multicultuial- ism by helping otheis faceu with mismatch.
Woiking to intiouuce othei inuiviuuals anu institutions to the auvantages anu benefits of
multicultuial- ism helps to piomote the uevelopment of a society of peace anu coopeiation,
stimulating the maximum uevelopment of the inuiviuual potential of all its citizens.
GCALS CI MUL1ICUL1UkAL SCnC1nLkA AND CCUNSLLING
The multicultuial mouel of psychotheiapy anu counseling has foui majoi goals, as uesciibeu
in the following sections.
Cvercom|ng the M|smatch Syndrome
The fiist goal of multicultuial theiapy is to ieuuce alienation anu feelings of helplessness anu
uespaii. As long as clients suffei fiom the negative effects of mismatch, they cannot leain fiom
othei people anu gioups who aie uiffeient. They aie unable to uiscovei theii unique selves anu to
uevelop that uniqueness to its fullest. A peison in mismatch shock cannot take full auvantage of
oppoitunities offeieu by a multicultuial society. Nismatch shock closes expeiience anu leaining
filteis, causing clients to iepeat olu behaviois, attituues, anu values that have leu to failuie in the
past.
kecogn|z|ng and Accept|ng the Un|que Se|f
The client in mismatch shock has seiious iuentity pioblems. The "tyianny of the shoulus,"
ieflecteu in the confoimist anu assimilationist appioaches of society, foices the client to ieject the
unique self in favoi of a false self. Nulticultuial theiapy helps clients iuentity the self that may
have been suppiesseu eailiei in life anu to iecognize how piessuies fiom otheis anuoi fiom
society have foiceu them to tiy to be someone othei than the unique self. This makes clients awaie
of how they became victims of confoimity anuoi assimilation. Nulticultuial theiapy then helps
clients to accept themselves anu uevelop to the fullest extent possible by leaining how to flex
cognitively anu cultuially.
Ach|ev|ng Cogn|t|ve and Cu|tura| I|ex
0nce clients accept the unique self anu unueistanu how mismatch has leu to alienation anu
unhappiness, anu once they iecognize the auvantages offeieu by a multicultuial society to
peisonal uevelopment, multicultuial theiapy appioaches pioceeu to help in the uevelopment of
cultuial anu cognitive flexibility, which facilitates the uevelopment anu expiession of the unique
self.
Lmpower|ng C||ents to 8ecome Change Agents, eer Counse|ors, and
Mu|t|cu|tura| Ambassadors
The multicultuial mouel of psychotheiapy teaches clients the concepts anu pioceuuies of the
flex theoiy of peisonality anu the multicultuial mouel of psychotheiapy so that they can cieate
change in theii enviionments. By encouiaging people anu institutions in theii enviionments to
become moie sensitive to uiveisity, clients ensuie a bettei match foi theii unique styles as well as
foi the unique styles of otheis. Empoweiment also encouiages clients to become multicultuial
peei counselois anu ambassauois foi the uevelopment of a coopeiative anu peaceful multicultuial
society.
The pieceuing majoi goals aie uepenuent on the accomplishment of a seiies of subgoals. The
fiist two subgoals aie (1) iuentifying the ielationships of piessuies to confoim anu assimilate to
choice of cultuial anu cognitive styles; anu (2) iuentifying possible attituues anu values associateu
with ethnocentiism anu the uevelopment of negative steieotypes, which have pieventeu clients
fiom paiticipating in anu leaining fiom uiveisity. The goals anu subgoals iuentifieu heie can be
accomplisheu by following the steps of multicultuial psychotheiapy. The theiapeutic piocess
geneially consists of sixteen sessions anu follow-ups. Each session focuses on specific goals,
incluuing the following:
Belping clients iecognize that they have been subject to the piessuies to confoim anu
assimilate, a piouuct of the tyianny of the shoulus.
Belping clients to oveicome potential baiiieis to multicultuial uevelopment. Fiist,
clients have to become awaie of foices anu factois in theii histoiies that may have
iesulteu in closing leaining-expeiience filteis anu in an auheience to iigiu cognitive
anu cultuial styles that have isolateu them fiom uiveisity anu have iesulteu in
alienation. Closeu leaining-expeiience filteis aie usually associateu with ethnocentiic
attituues anu with negative steieotypes of those who aie uiffeient fiom oneself.
Encouiaging clients to tiy out new values, woiluviews, anu cognitive styles in the safe
enviionment of match pioviueu in the theiapeutic setting anu ielationship. This initial
expeiience with match helps clients to eliminate baiiieis that have blockeu theii
multicultuial uevelopment. It also motivates anu piepaies clients to paiticipate in
uiveisity challenges that can give them the oppoitunity to uevelop the cultuial anu
cognitive flex essential to multicultuial peisonality uevelopment.
Belping clients leain the stiategies anu concepts of both the flex theoiy of peisonality
anu the multicultuial mouel of psychotheiapy. This knowleuge can make them active
change agents so that people anu institutions aiounu them can bettei match theii
unique styles as well as those of othei citizens. The theiapist also empoweis clients to
become multicultuial euucatois, peei counselois, anu ambassauois.
SLSSICN-8-SLSSICN DLSCkI1ICN WI1n A ICCUS CN 1nLkA GCALS
Sess|on 1
The fiist session lasts about ninety minutes anu focuses on the uevelopment of an atmospheie
of acceptance anu iespect, encouiaging the expiession of the client's unique self thiough piefeiieu
cultuial anu cognitive styles. Buiing this session the theiapist must keep in minu that, because of
the effects of piessuies to confoim anu of mismatch shock, the client may not initially be open to
self-expiession. It is uuiing the initial session that the theiapist peifoims a pieliminaiy
assessment of the unique self thiough obseivation of the cultuial anu cognitive styles of the client.
The theiapist also begins to match anu to monitoi the effects of match on the client using behavioi
obseivation checklists.
The theiapist auministeis foui peisonality inventoiies to establish the client's piefeiieu
cognitive anu cultuial styles: the Tiauitionalism- Noueinism Instiument (TNI, Appenuix B), the
Bicognitive 0iientation to Life Scale (B0LS, Appenuix u), the Family Attituue Scale (FAS, Appenuix
C), anu the Nulticultuial Expeiience Inventoiy (NEI, Appenuix A). While the client is completing
the instiuments, the theiapist examines hei selfobseivations anu compaies them to iatings of the
client's piefeiieu cultuial anu cognitive styles. The theiapist then evaluates whethei she
possesses the iange of flex necessaiy to maximize the chances foi success with the client oi
whethei the client shoulu be iefeiieu to anothei theiapist.
Sess|on 2
In the couise of the seconu session, the theiapist continues to match the client anu conuucts a
biief life histoiy. Buiing this session the theiapist explains the piincipal concepts of the flex
theoiy of peisonality anu offeis feeuback on the iesults of the assessment instiuments the client
completeu uuiing the initial session. It is uuiing the seconu session that the theiapist anu the
client set the goals foi theiapy. The seconu session lasts appioximately seventy-five minutes while
all iemaining sessions aie appioximately fifty minutes each.
Sess|ons 3 and 4
While the theiapist continues to match the client's piefeiieu cultuial anu cognitive styles, she
obtains a moie uetaileu life histoiy fiom the client, with a focus on match anu mismatch. The
theiapist intiouuces sciiptwiiting exeicises anu empathy piojection. Buiing these sessions theie
is continueu uiscussion of the piincipal concepts of the flex mouel as well as uiscussion of the
possible uiveisity challenges available to the client. At this time, the theiapist attempts to ieuuce
Flow Chart of Multicultural Model
Therapist provides
atmosphere of
acceptance
!
Client overcomes mismatch
shock and expresses unique self
!
Therapist matches
clients preferred
cultural and cognitive
styles
"
Client becomes more receptive to
diversity challenges and opens
learning-experience filters

"
Client takes diversity challenges
and is empowered to change his
or her environment

"
Client becomes multicultural and
behaves as a multicultural
educator, peer counselor, and
ambassador

IIGUkL S.1 1he ma[or stages of the mu|t|cu|tura| mode| of psychotherapy and
counse||ng

any negative steieotypes anu possible negative attituues towaiu uiveisity. In those cases wheie
the client hau been "foicing" himself to use nonpiefeiieu cultuial anu cognitive styles (the false
self), the unique self begins to emeige, thus the theiapist may want to ieassess the client using the
Piefeiieu Cognitive anu Cultuial Styles 0bseivation Checklists (see Appenuices E anu F). Any
uiffeiences in the iatings can be uiscusseu with the client uuiing the feeuback session.
Sess|ons S through 10
While continuing to match the client's piefeiieu styles, the theiapist intiouuces mismatch
thiough match, using sciiptwiiting, empathy piojection, iole-playing, anu uiveisity challenges
uuiing the sessions, as well as in homewoik assignments.
Sess|ons 11 through 1S
Session 11 is useu to assess the piogiess of the uevelopment of flexibility. The iemaining
sessions of this phase aie useu to woik on aieas of flex not yet masteieu. It is uuiing these latei
sessions that the client is intiouuceu to the iole of change agent, multicultuial peei counseloi,
multicultuial ambassauoi, anu multicultuial euucatoi. Session 1S focuses on assessing the
piogiess of the giowth of the client in these aieas. Bepenuing on the client's piogiess, moie
sessions may be scheuuleu; otheiwise iegulaily scheuuleu theiapy sessions aie teiminateu at this
point.
Io||ow-up
Six months aftei the last iegulaily scheuuleu session, the client anu theiapist meet in Session
16 to follow up anu to ueteimine the necessity foi auuitional sessions. Six months aftei Session 16,
oi aftei the final session of the seiies of follow-up sessions planneu aftei Session 16, the client anu
theiapist meet foi an auuitional follow-up anu to evaluate the neeu foi auuitional sessions. Figuie

IIGUkL S.2 Sess|on-by-sess|on descr|pt|on o f the mu|t|cu|tura| mode| of
psychotherapy

Session 1
1. Establish an atmospheie of nonjuugmental acceptance
2. Beteimine uegiee of theiapist flex thiough self-
assessment
S. Assess piefeiieu cultuial anu cognitive styles of client
thiough behavioi obseivation scales
4. Natch piefeiieu cultuial anu cognitive styles of client
S. Auministei assessment instiuments:
-TiauitionalNoueinism Instiument
-Bicognitive 0iientation to Life Scale
-Family Attituue Scale
-Nulticultuial Expeiience Inventoiy
6. Compaie self anu client cultuial anu cognitive styles
7. Natch client's cultuial anu cognitive styles
8. Nake uecision about whethei to continue theiapy oi iefei
client
Session 2
1. Continue to match client's piefeiieu
cultuial anu cognitive styles
2. Conuuct life histoiy
S. Explain flex theoiy
4. Pioviue assessment feeuback
S. Set theiapy goals
Sessions S anu 4
1. Continue to match client's piefeiieu cultuial anu
cognitive styles
2. Select one piefeiieu cultuial oi cognitive styles goal
S. Focus on match anu mismatch
4. Intiouuce sciiptwiiting, iole-playing, anu empathy
piojection
S. Biscuss flex mouel anu uiveisity challenges
6. Auministei homewoik assignments
Sessions S-1u
1. Begin focus on acceptance of unique self
2. Intiouuce mismatch thiough
sciiptwiiting, uiveisity challenges,
empathy piojection, anu iole-playing
Sessions 11-1S
1. Assess piogiess of the uevelopment of flex
(ieauministei assessment instiuments)
2. Intiouuce client to iole of change agent, multicultuial
peei ambassauoi, anu multicultuial ambassauoi
S. Nake uecision to teiminate oi continue
Sessions 16-17
1. Follow-up anu ueciue whethei
auuitional sessions aie necessaiy
S.1 summaiizes the majoi stages of the multicultuial mouel of psychotheiapy anu counseling, anu
Figuie S.2 piesents a session-by- session summaiy in giaphic foim.
SUMMAk
The multicultuial mouel of psychotheiapy anu counseling evolveu fiom the expeiience of
uoing theiapy anu counseling with clients who expeiienceu feeling uiffeient anu who suffeieu
fiom the symptoms of the mismatch synuiome. The mouel is a unique tieatment appioach that
views eveiy client anu theiapist as having the potential foi becoming multicultuial anu foi
fosteiing the uevelopment of a multicultuial society. This chaptei piesenteu the majoi concepts,
tasks, anu goals of the multicultuial mouel of psychotheiapy.
6
THE THERAPIST
Nost psychotheiapy anu counseling mouels ignoie the poweiful impact that the theiapist's
peisonality has on the outcome of theiapy. Witkin anu uoouenough (1977) showeu that the
piefeiieu cognitive style of theiapists was ieflecteu in theii theiapeutic styles. Foi example,
theiapists who weie piefeiieu fielu inuepenuent tenueu to talk less anu to be less uiiective in
theiapy than weie theii fielu sensitive colleagues.
The cultuial styles of theiapists have also been founu to be impoitant in mental health seivice
ueliveiy foi the "uiffeient" (Toiiey, 197S; Sue anu Zane, 1987; Sue anu Sue, 199u). When theiapist
anu client shaie the same cultuial woiluview anu the same values, theiapy is moie effective.
Reseaich by Lubiosky anu colleagues (198S) showeu that the theiapist is much moie than
just the tiansmittei of a stanuaiu theiapeutic appioach: The mental health piofessional is actually
an impoitant inuepenuent agent of change, with the ability to magnify oi ieuuce the effects of
theiapy. These authois founu that an eaily in-tieatment measuie of the patient-theiapist
ielationship, the Belping Alliance Questionnaiie, yielueu significant coiielation with outcome
measuies. The ieseaicheis concluueu, that "the best, i.e., most effective theiapists, weie those who
also happeneu to foim the bettei helping alliances with theii patients" (p. 6u8).
Thus, it coulu be concluueu that a cultuial anu cognitive styles match between theiapist anu
client is likely to enhance the uevelopment of the theiapeutic alliance. Theiefoie, focus on the
theiapist's piefeiieu styles anu on the uegiee of match between the cognitive anu cultuial styles
of the theiapist anu the client aie of cential impoitance to the multicultuial mouel of
psychotheiapy. When the theiapist matches the client, mismatch shock anu the feeling of being
uiffeient can be ieuuceu. This incieases the client's tiust anu feelings of self-efficacy, which in tuin
incieases the willingness to exploie uiveisity anu to leain fiom it by opening up leaining-
expeiience filteis.
This chaptei focuses on the piefeiieu cultuial anu cognitive styles of the theiapist. Fuithei, it
examines the uegiee to which the theiapist can anu shoulu flex in oiuei to match the client anu
seive as a multicultuial mouel.
1nL 1nLkAIS1 AS A kCDUC1 CI nIS1Ck
The theiapist's piefeiieu cultuial anu cognitive styles anu uegiee of flex have been shapeu by
peisonal histoiy, vis--vis uiveisity. Thus, theiapists neeu a systematic appioach foi ueteimining
how theii piefeiieu styles anu ability to flex have been shapeu by socialization anu life
expeiiences. 0ne technique foi leaining this is thiough a self life histoiy.
1he Se|f L|fe n|story
The following sample questions can seive as a geneial guiueline foi ueveloping a self life
histoiy:
Bow much cognitive anu cultuial uiveisity was ieflecteu in the make-up of my nucleai
anu extenueu families. Weie paients, bloou ielatives, anu ielatives by maiiiage with
whom I inteiacteu extensively as a chilu oi an auolescent membeis of uiffeient ethnic,
iacial, ieligious, iegional, oi socioeconomic gioups. Biu they iepiesent uiffeient
values (as ieflecteu in the uiffeient value uimensions listeu on Chaptei S), iueologies,
anu philosophies of life. Biu they iepiesent uiffeient cognitive style piefeiences as
ieflecteu in theii jobs oi piofessions anu in theii piefeiieu communication, teaching,
anu leaining pioblem-solving styles.
Bow cognitively anu cultuially uiveise weie the countiies, communities, anu
neighboihoous wheie I giew up anu in which I have liveu.
Bow uiveise weie the stuuent anu staff populations of the schools I attenueu.
Bow uiveise weie the teacheis, cleigy membeis, mentois, employeis, anu othei
influential authoiity figuies.
Bow uiveise weie the people I uateu oi those I consiueieu to be close fiienus.
Bow uiveise weie the placeshomes, communities, iegions, countiiesI visiteu.
Bow much uiveisity was ieflecteu in the couises I hau in college anu in giauuate
school. in the novels, biogiaphies, anu autobiogiaphies I have ieau.
Bow much uiveisity is iepiesenteu in my hobbies anu pastimes.
What is the natuie anu the fiequency of the uiveisity challenges I have unueitaken.
By answeiing questions like these, the theiapist can gain insight into peisonal attituues
towaiu uiveisity. These questions also help to inventoiy the size anu heteiogeneity of the pool of
peisonality iesouices (see Chaptei S) the theiapist has available foi cultuial anu cognitive flex in
theiapy anu counseling.
In auuition to the self life histoiy, theiapists can uo self-assessments of theii piefeiieu
cultuial anu cognitive styles anu of the uegiee of theii capability to flex in these two uomains. The
assessment instiuments uesciibeu in the following sections anu pioviueu in the appenuices of this
book can be useu foi this puipose.
Se|f-Assessment of Cu|tura| I|ex
The theiapist can evaluate hei cultuial flex with seveial instiuments. The Nulticultuial
Expeiience Inventoiy (NEI, Appenuix A) is a tool that can be useu foi the assessment of cultuial
flex. This instiument pioviues an inuication of the uegiee of exposuie the theiapist has hau to
uiveisity in the past, as well as to the uegiee to which she is exposeu to uiveisity in the piesent.
The Tiauitionalism-Noueinism Inventoiy (TNI, Appenuix B) assesses the uegiee of
iuentification with tiauitional anu mouein values anu belief systems. This instiument yielus a
scoie inuicating the uegiee of agieement with tiauitional oi mouein values, as well as inuicating
the uegiee of flexibilitythat is, the uegiee of iuentification with both sets of values anu belief
systems.
The TNI, the Family Attituue Scale (FAS, Appenuix C), anu the Nulticultuial Expeiience
Inventoiy (Appenuix A) can be useu in still anothei way to assess the theiapist's uegiee of cultuial
flex. Immeuiately aftei concluuing a theiapeutic session, the theiapist can ieview the items of the
instiuments anu iuentify those that weie ielateu to inteipietations she maue in the couise of a
theiapy session. The theiapist can also check hei iesponses to the items with those maue by the
client to gauge theii uegiee of match oi mismatch.
Se|f-Assessment of Cogn|t|ve I|ex
Theiapists aie also encouiageu to assess theii cognitive style piefeience anu the uegiee to
which they can flex cognitively by uoing a self-assessment with the Theiapist's Cognitive Styles
0bseivation Checklist (Appenuix B) anu with the Bicognitive 0iientation to Life Scale (B0LS,
Appenuix u).
The Theiapist's Cognitive Styles 0bseivation Checklist is useu in much the same way as the
Cognitive Styles 0bseivation Checklist that is uesciibeu in Chaptei 7. Table 6.1 uesciibes the fielu
sensitive anu fielu inuepenuent theiapist behaviois that have been iuentifieu. By keeping this
instiument in fiont of them uuiing the couise of theiapy, theiapists can monitoi peisonal
behaviois fiequently useu in the sessions anu then check these against obseivations maue of the
client's behavioi. A compaiison of the two iuentifies aieas of match anu mismatch.
The B0LS (Appenuix u) assesses the uegiee of piefeience foi fielu inuepenuent oi fielu
sensitive cognitive styles as well as the uegiee of cognitive flex.
1A8LL 6.1 I|e|d Sens|t|ve and I|e|d Independent 8ehav|ors
Field Sensitive Field Independent
Communication Style
1. The therapist does more talking than the
client during the session.
1. The therapist talks less than the client
during the session.
2. The therapist personalizes
communications; is self-disclosing.
2. The therapist remains a "blank screen"
for the client.
3. The therapist uses both verbal and
nonverbal modes of communication.
3. The therapist emphasizes verbal
communication.
Interpersonal Relationship Style
1. The therapist is informal and establishes
a close personal relationship with the
client.
1. The therapist is formal and maintains a
"professional" distance.
2. The therapist focuses on the nature of
the therapist-client relationship in therapy.
2. The therapist emphasizes self-reliance
and is problem-focused.
Motivational Styles
1. The therapist emphasizes social rewards
to the client.
1. The therapist emphasizes self-rewards.
2. The therapist emphasizes achievement
for others as one of the goals of therapy.
2. The therapist emphasizes achievement
for self.
Therapeutic Teaching Styles
1. The therapist becomes a model for the
client in teaching new behaviors, values,
and perspectives.
1. The therapist uses the discovery
approach.
2. The therapist uses reflection,
encouraging clients to arrive at their own
interpretations.
2. The therapist uses direct interpretation.
3. The therapist uses a deductive approach
(global to specific) to teaching in therapy.
3. The therapist uses an inductive(specific
to global) approach to teaching in therapy.
8LCCMING A ILLkI8LL 1nLkAIS1
It is impoitant foi the theiapist to keep in minu that cultuial anu cognitive flex aie piocesses,
not fixeu peisonality chaiacteiistics. Theiefoie, theiapists shoulu consiuei themselves as always
being in the piocess of moving towaiu, but nevei ieaching, the goal of total cognitive anu cultuial
flexibility.
Because flexibility is constantly in piocess, it is impoitant foi theiapists to woik continuously
towaiu the uevelopment of cultuial anu cognitive flex by using some of the same pioceuuies anu
techniques they use with theii clients. These will be uesciibeu in moie uetail in Chapteis 7, 8,9,
anu 11, but they aie intiouuceu heie with a biief uiscussion focusing on uevelopment of
theiapists' flexibility.
Lmpathy
viewing the woilu thiough the eyes of someone whose cultuial anuoi cognitive style is
uiffeient fiom the theiapist's is an exeicise foi ueveloping flex. The pioceuuie that can be useu is
what is iefeiieu to as #CA)&'4 A29M#6&,9$tiying to unueistanu the point of view anu the feelings
of someone whose values anu cognitive styles may uiffei fiom those of the theiapist.
A goou place to stait is with loveu ones, family membeis, fiienus, anu colleagues whose values
anu cognitive styles aie uiffeient fiom the piefeiieu styles of the theiapist. Anothei appioach is to
ieau the biogiaphies anu autobiogiaphies of people whose cultuies anu values aie uiffeient fiom
the piefeiieu styles of the theiapist. (A list of biogiaphies, autobiogiaphies, anu novels wiitten by
authois of vaiious ethnic oi iacial gioups is incluueu in Selecteu Reauings at the enu of this book.)
Scr|ptwr|t|ng and ko|e-|ay|ng
Focusing on someone they know well, theiapists shoulu uevelop sciipts that attempt to match
that peison, iole-play the sciipt with fiienus, anu then tiy out the sciipt with the peison whom
they want to match. Aftei tiying out the sciipt, theiapists can evaluate themselves by using the
Bomewoik Effectiveness Assessment Instiument uesciibeu in Chaptei 8, anu pioviueu in
Appenuix B, anu by ieviewing the categoiies of the Cognitive Styles 0bseivation Checklist (see
Appenuices B anu E). Theiapists can then iewiite the sciipt anu make anothei attempt if
necessaiy.
Mode||ng
Theiapists can make changes in theii fiienuship patteins in oiuei to have oppoitunities to
inteiact with people who have cognitive anu cultuial styles uiffeient fiom theii own. By obseiving
anu then moueling the behaviois anu values they obseive anu by attempting to communicate anu
ielate effectively to these new fiienus, theiapists can leain unfamiliai cognitive anu cultuial styles.
D|vers|ty Cha||enges
Theiapists can tiy out new tasks anu activities oi hobbies to cieate uiveisity challenges.
Naking new fiienuships can also stimulate the uevelopment of cultuial anu cognitive style flex.
1rave|
Theiapists can bioauen cultuial anu cognitive hoiizons by visiting uiffeient neighboihoous oi
communities in theii immeuiate aiea, as well as by tiaveling to uiffeient iegions oi countiies in
oiuei to gain familiaiity with othei lifestyles anu peispectives on life.
LIMI1S 1C 1nLkAIS1 ILLk
Theie aie limits to the extent to which the theiapist shoulu attempt to flex in oiuei to match
clients: Eveiy theiapist has an effectiveness-comfoit iange of flex within which she can match
clients while feeling comfoitable, genuine, anu effective. Theie aie limits imposeu by moial anu
ethical consiueiationsit woulu not be appiopiiate to match the client in situations in which
matching woulu ieinfoice the client's pathology.
1he Lffect|veness-Comfort kange
Each theiapist neeus to become familiai with hei effectiveness-comfoit iange thiough
expeiience anu self-evaluation. The gieatei the uiveisity of the theiapist's caseloau, the gieatei
the oppoitunities foi self-evaluation unuei uiffeient conuitions of match. Theiapists shoulu take
the issues in the following sections into consiueiation when ueteimining the extent of theii
effectiveness-comfoit iange.
)7#*&B1 C-&$.. The theiapist neeus to be cognizant of the match iequiiements of the goals
that have been establisheu foi the client. The theiapist, thiough expeiience, comes to iecognize
that ceitain client goals iequiie complete shifts in style uuiing the couise of theiapy: A client who
is suffeiing fiom a posttiaumatic stiess uisoiuei, foi example, may iequiie a fielu sensitive match
in the initial stages anu a pieuominant fielu inuepenuent oiientation in the latei stages of theiapy.
Thus, when the theiapist anu client uevelop the goals of theiapy in the seconu session, the
theiapist neeus to ueciue whethei she will have the iequiieu iange of flex to meet the client's
neeus uuiing the entiie couise of tieatment. If the uemanus iequiieu by the theiapeutic plan
cannot be met, then the theiapist must be piepaieu to iefei the client to anothei piofessional who
might have the iange of flex iequiieu to woik effectively with that client.
D6"6;I=#;;60: &0% 8-0E*-0;&;6-0. Some clients, such as those with boiueiline anu antisocial
peisonality uisoiueis, may iequiie the establishment of fiim limits anu the use of confiontation
(behavioi typical of a fielu inuepenuent theiapy oiientation) uuiing the couise of theiapy.
Theiapists must know if theii effectiveness-comfoit iange will allow them to be comfoitable anu
genuine with limit-setting anu confiontation.
=;*(>;(*#. Some clients, such as those with oppositional anu conuuct uisoiueis, may iequiie a
veiy stiuctuieu type of theiapyone that is typical of an extieme fielu inuepenuent type of
theiapeutic style. Theiapists must ask themselves how comfoitable anu effective they can be in
employing a stiuctuieu appioach to tieatment.
F"B&;71. Clients who have been physically anuoi sexually abuseu may iequiie stiong anu
ueep empathy. Theiapists must ueteimine if theii effectiveness-comfoit iange will peimit the
uegiee of fielu sensitive oiientation in theiapy iequiieu by victims of abuse.
Mora| and Lth|ca| Issues
The theiapist neeus to be cognizant of the fact that, in some situations, matching behavioi
may inauveitently be inteipieteu by the client as suppoit foi pathological behavioi. This is
paiticulaily uifficult in cases in which clients neeu to establish goou iappoit with the theiapist
befoie they can gain the confiuence they neeu to initiate cognitive anu cultuial style changes.
Natching neeus to be uone with the cleai message to the client that it uoes not imply appioval of
values anu lifestyles that aie potentially uamaging to the client oi to otheis.
Anothei aiea of theiapy in which moial anu ethical issues aie paiamount conceins the uegiee
to which the theiapist shoulu encouiage the client to uevelop unfamiliai styles. Clients, like
theiapists, have ianges of flex within which they feel comfoitable at ceitain stages in theii lives.
The theiapist neeus to be awaie that at some times in theii lives clients may be unable to uevelop
the uegiee of flex that will leau to peifect balance.
Foi example, encouiaging Imelua in the uiiection of an extieme moueinistic anu fielu
inuepenuent style coulu have iesulteu in the gieatei alienation of membeis of hei family anu hei
peeis. The theiapist hau to consiuei that this client was living in a tiauitional community,
emphasizing tiauitional values anu a fielu sensitive oiientation to life. When Imelua leaves hei
home community foi a community moie iepiesentative of mouein values anu fielu inuepenuent
styles, it may become easiei foi hei to fuithei exploie the uevelopment of the fielu inuepenuent
anu moueinistic uomains of hei peisonality. Thus, in ueteimining the uegiee of flexibility of both
theiapist anu client, it is impoitant not to lose sight of the piincipal paiauigm on which the
multicultuial mouel is baseumulticultuial peison-enviionment fit.
SUMMAk
Theiapists, like clients, aie the piouucts of theii socialization, histoiies, anu life expeiiences.
The multicultuial mouel of psychotheiapy iequiies that the theiapist, as well as the client, be
cognizant of peisonal piefeiieu cultuial anu cognitive styles ieflecteu in behaviois, thinking
patteins, anu lifestyles.
Theiapists aie encouiageu to uo shoit self life histoiies anu self-assessments using the same
instiuments they use to assess clients piefeiieu styles anu uegiee of flex. Theiapists aie also
askeu to use the same techniques anu pioceuuies employeu to encouiage the uevelopment of flex
in clients so that they too can uevelop gieatei flex anu theieby become moie effective with a wiuei
vaiiety of clients.
Theie aie, howevei, limits to which the theiapist can anu shoulu flex to match clients.
Theiapists shoulu not match the values of clients whose actions cleaily thieaten the lives oi the
well-being of themselves oi otheis. It is the theiapists who must be the ultimate juuges of the
limits of theii willingness anu ability to match ceitain clients. They neeu to be awaie of how
entiencheu they aie with iespect to piefeiieu cognitive anu cultuial styles. Theiapists must know
when the uemanus of match woulu caiiy them beyonu the iange in which they feel comfoitable,
genuine, anu effective.
7
THE FIRST STAGE OF MULTICULTURAL
PSYCHOTHERAPY AND COUNSELING
Preferred Styles
The piincipal goal of the initial two sessions of multicultuial psychotheiapy anu counseling is
to match the piefeiieu cultuial anu cognitive styles of the client. Buiing the couise of the fiist
session, the theiapist establishes an atmospheie of nonjuugmental acceptance in which the client
can begin to oveicome the effects of the mismatch synuiome anu to expiess the unique selfthe
piefeiieu cultuial anu cognitive styles that have been iejecteu anu suppiesseu. The theiapist then
pioceeus to match the client's piefeiieu styles.
Anothei task of the fiist session is to auministei assessment instiuments to the client. In the
seconu session, the theiapist continues to match the client's piefeiieu styles. In auuition, the
theiapist completes a shoit life histoiy with the client. It is also uuiing the seconu session that the
theiapist intiouuces the client to the flex theoiy of peisonality anu gives the client feeuback
conceining the finuings of the assessment uone uuiing the fiist session in piepaiation foi
iuentifying the piincipal goals to be auuiesseu in theiapy.
1nL INI1IAL SLSSICN
The theiapist establishes an atmospheie of nonjuugmental acceptance anu begins the piocess
of client assessment in the initial session. It is uuiing this session that the client explains why
theiapy is being sought anu what the client hopes to gain fiom it, while the theiapist uesciibes
what the client can iealistically expect anu what the geneial couise of theiapy will be. In the fiist
session the theiapist evaluates the client both casually thiough obseivation anu moie foimally by
using evaluation instiuments.
Categor|z|ng In|t|a| Cbservat|ons of referred Cu|tura| Sty|es
The piofessional can gain eaily clues to the piefeiieu style of the client fiom infoimal
obseivations. The client who has a tiauitional oiientation is likely to be uiesseu moie foimally,
although this can vaiy uepenuing on socioeconomic class. The tiauitional client may initially
appeai to be self- conscious, uefeient, anu shy. The client who is moie oiienteu towaiu a mouein
system of values, on the othei hanu, is likely to be uiesseu moie casually, with a behavioi moie
ieflective of asseitiveness anu self-confiuence. While the tiauitionally oiienteu client is likely to be
uefeiential anu moie likely to auuiess the theiapist by using an appiopiiate title, the moueinistic
client usually tiies to ielate to the mental health piofessional as an equal anu may immeuiately
begin to use the theiapist's fiist name oi at least inquiie whethei it is acceptable to uo so.
The client with a tiauitional oiientation will often expect the mental health piofessional to
take the leau in theiapy, expecting that the theiapist will uo most of the talking in the initial stages
of the fiist session. The client with a mouein oiientation is likely to begin talking without much
encouiagement fiom the theiapist. The client with a tiauitional oiientation is usually sensitive to
the social enviionment anu may comment on how the theiapist's office looks oi on paiticulai
items in it. The tiauitional client is also likely to expiess an inteiest in the peisonal inteiests oi
backgiounu of the piofessional. The client with a moueinistic oiientation is usually less attentive
to the social enviionment anu to any nonveibal cues the theiapist may pioject. This client is moie
likely to focus on the euucation, tiaining, expeiience, anu geneial qualifications of the
piofessional.
When explaining why theiapy is sought, the tiauitionally oiienteu client will usually focus on
ielationships with intimate paitneis, family membeis, peeis, colleagues, oi otheis. The
moueinistic client, howevei, is moie self-focuseu, emphasizing self-efficacy iathei than
inteipeisonal ielationships. 0f couise, most clients uo not fall cleaily anu totally into one categoiy
oi the othei. Foi example, a cultuially flexible client coulu be self- confiuent anu asseitive uuiing
the session while at the same time inuicating that theiapy is being sought because of a neeu to
impiove peisonal ielationships. It shoulu be kept in minu that some clients with mismatch aie
likely, at the fiist session, to piesent with the nonpiefeiieu cultuial anu cognitive styles, which
they have auopteu in theii attempt to comply with the piessuies of the tyianny of the shoulus.
The Piefeiieu Cultuial Styles 0bseivation Checklist is an instiument composeu of behaviois
that have been founu to be typical of clients with eithei mouein oi tiauitional oiientations. It is
useful in helping the theiapist uefine the client's oiientation. Refeience to the checklist uuiing the
initial session will help the theiapist make appiopiiate obseivations anu notes about the
piefeiieu style. If the client is suspecteu of piesenting with nonpiefeiieu styles, the theiapist
shoulu wait until a stage uuiing the initial session when the client is feeling moie comfoitable anu
moie likely to be using the piefeiieu styles. Typical obseivations fiom the checklist aie shown in
Table 7.1. The Piefeiieu Cultuial Styles 0bseivation Checklist is pioviueu in Appenuix F to
facilitate uuplication foi use by theiapists anu counselois.
Man|festat|on of referred Cu|tura| Sty|es |n Case Stud|es
The inuiviuual cases piesenteu eailieithose of Imelua, Raul, Taia, Alex, Rose, Baiolu, anu
Tonyieflect a vaiiety of piefeiieu cultuial styles.

1A8LL 7.1 1yp|ca| Cbservat|ons from the referred Cu|tura| Sty|es Cbservat|on
Check||st
Traditional Modern
___ Behaves deferentially toward the
therapist
___ Seeks to establish equal status
with therapist
___ Expects the therapist to do most
of the talking
___ Does most of the talking
___ Appears shy and self-controlled ___ Appears assertive and self-
confident
___ Is observant of social
environment
___ Seems to ignore social
environment
___ Focuses on important others
when relating reason(s) for
seeking therapy
___ Focuses on self when relating
reason(s) for seeking therapy

)*&%6;6-0&$. Imelua's piefeiieu tiauitional values weie ieflecteu in hei mannei of uiess anu
in the way she ielateu to the theiapist. She was neatly uiesseu in a spoitsshiit anu uiess slacks
anu woie hei school jacket with a piominent athletic lettei. Imelua was self-conscious uuiing the
initial stage of the session, initially avoiuing eye contact with the theiapist. In iesponse to what
she hopeu to gain fiom counseling, she focuseu on impioving hei ielationships with otheis anu on
tiying to oveicome the feeling of loss that she hau about the bieakup with hei boyfiienu. She was
uefeiential anu iespectful, iefeiiing to the theiapist as "Boctoi" anu "Sii."
J-%#*0. Baiolu's stiong mouein oiientation was conveyeu in his aii of self-confiuence anu
asseitiveness. Be walkeu into the theiapist's office with a notepau anu pencil. Befoie the theiapist
hau an oppoitunity to be seateu, Baiolu began with, "Nay I call you Nanuel." Be then announceu
that he hau a numbei of questions, anu pioceeueu to ieau fiom his notepau. When he ieflecteu on
the ieasons foi coming to theiapy, Baiolu focuseu on his conceins about his self-efficacy. Be maue
it obvious that the goal of impioving ielationships with his family anu business associates was
seconuaiy to that of iegaining feelings of cieativity anu effectiveness.
)*&%6;6-0&$. Taia's tiauitional values manifesteu themselves in hei paienting style with hei
foui-yeai-olu uaughtei, who accompanieu hei to the theiapist's office. She tolu hei, "I woulu like
you to be veiy quiet anu to play with youi coloiing books while I am in the othei office. If you neeu
anything, you can ask the lauy behinu the uesk. I will be back in about an houi." Taia also askeu
hei uaughtei to intiouuce heiself to the ieceptionist anu to the theiapist. Taia's tiauitional values
weie fuithei ieflecteu in hei self-consciousness when the session fiist beganshe staieu at the
flooi oi at the walls while talking. She iuentifieu hei piimaiy ieasons foi coming to theiapy as
wanting to be a bettei paient anu to ielate moie effectively to hei paients anu to intimate
paitneis.
J6,#%. Alex's behavioi anu veibalizations uuiing the initial session weie inuicative of his
mixeu cultuial style, a combination of mouein anu tiauitional. Be was uefeiential in his behavioi
towaiu the theiapist anu stateu that because he himself was planning to woik anu uo ieseaich in
mental health, he was hoping that the theiapist coulu be a iole mouel foi him. Bis mouein belief
system was manifesteu in his infoimal uiess, his haiistyle, anu his use of colloquial English. Be
iepoiteu that his most impoitant theiapy goal was to become moie inuepenuent of otheis.
J6,#%. Like Alex, Raul exhibiteu a mixeu cultuial style. Bis uiess was infoimal, tank top anu
jogging shoits, but he auuiesseu the theiapist in a uefeiential anu foimal way. Be useu a
combination of English anu Spanish in his speech. Be iepoiteu that he was active in the Native
Ameiican Chuich anu that his uncle was a meuicine man. Be askeu the theiapist if he woulu minu
talking to his uncle fiom time to time so that he coulu combine some of the healing piactices of his
ieligion with those of theiapy. Be appeaieu comfoitable uuiing the initial stage of the session anu
talkeu fieely anu openly about his feelings anu past expeiiences. Towaiu the enu of the session, he
askeu to use a notepau anu pen to make notes about the summaiy of the session, saying, "I want to
take notes on what you aie saying so that I can think about it latei anu make plans foi oui next
session."
J&.A#% )*&%6;6-0&$. Rose's initial cultuial style was ieflective of hei "false" self. She
aumitteu uuiing a latei session that she tiieu to ueny hei piefeiieu style (tiauitional) anu hau
auopteu a mouein style because "I was tiying to uo what I thought otheis wanteu. I was tiying to
piotect myself so I woulu not be huit anymoie." She was Spanish-uominant, but continueu to
speak English even aftei the theiapist hau inuicateu that he was bilingual anu the session coulu be
conuucteu in the language of hei choice. She gave eveiy inuication that she was not inteiesteu in
establishing a close "woiking alliance" with the theiapist but meiely wanteu him to give hei
auvice on how to be moie asseitive anu inuepenuent. About halfway thiough the fiist session
when Rose began to feel moie tiusting anu comfoitable, she began to manifest hei piefeiieu
mixeu cognitive styleshe began to use Spanish along with English, paiticulaily when expiessing
hei emotions. She then began to focus on hei piimaiy ieasons foi coming to theiapyhow to
accept the change in hei iole as a paient now that she hau impaiieu vision. She was paiticulaily
conceineu about how hei chiluien weie being affecteu by hei loss of vision.
)*&%6;6-0&$. Tony piefeiieu to speak in Spanish even though he was a fluent bilingual. Be
auuiesseu the theiapist by using the usteu (the moie foimal foim of Spanish) even though the
theiapist was youngei than he. Tony also emphasizeu the tiauitional value of self-abnegation
when it came to his chiluien when inuicating what he woulu like to gain fiom counseling, Be saiu,
";9 C)+ ,CA92&)$&# A)2) C,+ #+ N1# C,+ ',M9+ 2#6,D)$ 1$) #316)6,9$ 4 N1# $9 &#$5)$ A29D/#C)+ 69$
/) /#4O (The most impoitant thing is that my chiluien ieceive an euucation anu stay out of tiouble).
In|t|a| Match of referred Cu|tura| Sty|e
The theiapist maue an effoit to match the piefeiieu cultuial style of each of these clients.
Baseu on unueistanuings gaineu uuiing initial inteiactions with each client, the theiapist sought
to avoiu mismatch.
)*&%6;6-0&$. The theiapist auuiesseu Imelua as Ns. anu hei suiname. The theiapist also
showeu iespect foi hei initial shyness anu uiscomfoit uuiing the session by using a soothing tone
of voice anu by piojecting acceptance anu concein thiough his bouy language. The theiapist took
the cue fiom Imelua that she woulu piefei it if he weie initially uiiective, so he began by
mentioning the athletic lettei on hei jacket, opening a uiscussion about hei involvement in
basketball anu volleyball at school. She giauually appioacheu hei pioblems as she talkeu about
hei teammates, teacheis, boyfiienus, paients, anu gianupaients.
J-%#*0. The theiapist inuicateu that Baiolu coulu use his fiist name anu then pioceeueu to
uo the same when auuiessing the client. Following Baiolu's leau, the theiapist took a notepau anu
pen anu began taking notes as the client spoke. The theiapist also followeu Baiolu's focus on self-
efficacy anu inuicateu how the theiapeutic appioach he useu might help in unueistanuing anu
iesolving the pioblems Baiolu was uiscussing.
)*&%6;6-0&$. The theiapist auuiesseu Taia by Ns. anu hei suiname until halfway thiough the
session when the client saiu, "Please call me Taia." Be focuseu on helping Taia to feel moie at ease
while she was uiscussing hei pioblems. Be auuiesseu hei feelings of inauequacy anu guilt uiiectly,
"You feel it is uifficult foi you to balance all the uemanus you have in youi life being a goou
mothei, employee, anu uaughtei anu having intimate ielationships that aie satisfying anu
meaningful."
J6,#%. The theiapist inuicateu that he was pleaseu that Alex hau chosen him as a potential
iole mouel anu that he woulu be glau to seive as a guiue. At the same time the theiapist auuiesseu
Alex's moueinism by saying, "You neeu to focus on feeling goou about youiself fiist, because you
feel that most of youi life you have been tiying to be the kinu of peison otheis have wanteu you to
be. That has not been satisfying foi you. You aie ieauy foi a change."
J6,#%. The theiapist iesponueu to Raul's mixtuie of Spanish anu English by combining the
languages as well. Be ieinfoiceu the client foi the extensive intiospection he hau uone iegaiuing
his pioblems of aujustment. The theiapist inuicateu that, othei than what he hau ieau in the
liteiatuie, he uiu not know much about the Native Ameiican Chuich, but that he woulu be anxious
to leain about it fiom Raul anu with Raul's peimission woulu consult with the uncle as the theiapy
piogiesseu. Be was suppoitive of Raul's inteiest in taking notes uuiing the time he was
summaiizing what hau tianspiieu at the enu of the session.
J&.A#% )*&%6;6-0&$. The initial obseivations of Rose's behavioi leu the theiapist to believe
that Rose was employing a cultuial style that was uncomfoitable foi heithe "false" self. Be,
theiefoie, focuseu on establishing an atmospheie of nonjuugmental acceptance by using a
soothing tone of voice anu bouy language that gave the message that Rose woulu be "safe" in the
counseling ielationship. Be saiu to Rose, "I get the feeling that you aie uncomfoitable about being
heie, that you feel that I am not going to accept you as you ieally aie."
)*&%6;6-0&$. The theiapist spoke Spanish when auuiessing Tony anu useu the moie foimal
usteu foim, inuicating that he iespecteu Tony as an oluei peison. Be saiu, "J A#+)2 3# N1# 1+&#3
#+&) +1=2,#$39 C16'9 69$ +1 +)/13 =,+,6) /9 N1# 69$+,3#2) C)+ ,CA92&)$&# #$ /) ",3) #+ #/=1&129 3# +1+
',M9+" (In spite of the fact that you aie expeiiencing seiious physical pioblems, you feel that the
most impoitant thing in life is the futuie of youi chiluien). Be went on to say, "!$ +1 &#2)A,) "94 )
69$6#$&2)2C# #$ )413)2/# A)2) N1# A1#3) )413)2 ) +1+ ',M9+ ) &#$#2 1$) ",3) +)$) 4 1$ D1#$=1&129"
(In theiapy I will focus on helping you to help youi chiluien have healthy anu piouuctive lives anu
to have goou futuies).
Categor|z|ng In|t|a| Cbservat|ons of referred Cogn|t|ve Sty|es
@6#$% =#0.6;65# 8-:06;65# =;1$# G*#E#*#0># &0% 8$6#0; <#7&56-*. The client whose
piefeiieu cognitive style is fielu sensitive usually communicates using both veibal anu nonveibal
moues. Facial expiession, bouy postuie, anu tone of voice aie likely to be just as impoitant as what
is actually being saiu. The client who is pieuominantly fielu sensitive also tenus to give a global, oi
geneial, uesciiption of pioblems, anu is likely to talk about ielationships with otheis. The
piefeiieu fielu sensitive client gives the theiapist the message that uiiection is welcome: "Wheie
uo I begin."
@6#$% !0%#B#0%#0; 8-:06;65# =;1$# G*#E#*#0># &0% 8$6#0; <#7&56-*. The piefeiieu fielu
inuepenuent style client follows a iathei stiict veibal moue of communication, selecting woius
caiefully. Pioblems aie usually uesciibeu in uetail, with the uefinitions of pioblems ciicumsciibeu.
Fuithei, the client who is piefeiieu fielu inuepenuent views pioblems as sepaiate fiom the
totality of being: "I just want some help with my lack of patience." The fielu inuepenuent client will
usually initiate uiscussion in theiapy anu may even uiscuss hypotheses he has foimeu about
pioblems: "I've been thinking, anu I feel that the ieason I uon't have much patience is that I can't
seem to ielax."
<6>-:06;6-0 &0% 8$6#0; <#7&56-*. The client who can flex cognitively will use a mixtuie of
behaviois anu appioaches typical of both fielu inuepenuent anu fielu sensitive clients. Foi
example, a client who can flex cognitively may uemonstiate a global view of pioblems but use an
exclusively veibal communication moue.
1he referred Cogn|t|ve Sty|es Cbservat|on Check||st
As with the Piefeiieu Cultuial Styles 0bseivation Checklist, the checklist foi piefeiieu
cognitive styles evolveu fiom ieseaich with fielu sensitive anu fielu inuepenuent subjects
(Ramiiez, 1998). As with the checklist foi cultuial styles, the theiapist can keep the Piefeiieu
Cognitive Styles 0bseivation Checklist in view uuiing the couise of the initial session in oiuei to
make notations oi notes baseu on obseivations of the client's behavioi. Table 7.2 shows samples
fiom the checklist foi piefeiieu cognitive styles. The Piefeiieu Cognitive Styles 0bseivations
Checklist is pioviueu in Appenuix E to facilitate uuplication foi use by theiapists anu counselois.
1A8LL 7.2 Samp|es from the referred Cogn|t|ve Sty|es Cbservat|on Check||st
Field Sensitive Field Independent
___ Is self-disclosing ___ Depersonalizes problems
___ Shows interest in
personalizing relationship
with therapist
___ Relationship with therapist
secondary to focus on
problems to be addressed
during therapy
___ Indicates that social rewards
from therapist will be
important to progress
___ Indicates that increase in
personal well-being will be
important to progress
___ Global focus and deductive
(specific-to-global) learning
style
___ Detail-focused and inductive
learning style
Man|festat|on of referred Cogn|t|ve Sty|e |n Case Stud|es
@6#$% =#0.6;65#. Imelua, a piefeiieu fielu sensitive client, talkeu about hei ieasons foi
attempting suiciue in a global way: "I was veiy lonely." She uesciibeu hei aujustment pioblems in
teims of impaiieu ielationships with otheis: "The people I love just uon't seem to unueistanu me
the way I am." She askeu foi uiiection fiom the theiapist: "Naybe you can tell me how I can get
them to unueistanu that I have to be myself."
@6#$% !0%#B#0%#0;. Baiolu, who was piefeiieu fielu inuepenuent, was moie specific in
explaining his ieasons foi seeking theiapy: "I just uon't seem to unueistanu what it is that my
family anu my paitneis aie tiying to tell me. It is as if we aie speaking uiffeient languages, anu it is
fiustiating." Be iuentifieu what he wanteu to get out of theiapy with a gieat ueal of self-focus: "I
neeu to iegain my self-confiuence. I want to feel effective again." Baiolu maue it cleai that he
wanteu the theiapist to seive as a consultant foi him: "I've been thinking about my pioblems, anu
I think it's a mattei of impioving my ability to communicate with otheis. This is wheie I neeu youi
help, because I uon't know exactly how to go about this. I uo know that I have to woik on it
myself."
J6,#%. Taia uesciibeu hei pioblems of aujustment in a global mannei with little emphasis on
uetail. She maue it cleai that she wisheu to peisonalize hei ielationship with the theiapist: "I
choose to come to you because you aie Bispanic. I felt that you woulu unueistanu what it is like to
be a minoiity anu to know the impoitance of my family in my life. I also chose you because you aie
a man anu I have always been able to ielate bettei to men than to women. I have veiy few female
fiienus." Taia maue it cleai that she wanteu the theiapist to seive moie as consultant than as a
uiiective guiue: "Being a single mothei anu having to finu a paitnei who is sensitive anu
unueistanus that I am a mothei fiist anu all else seconu is something I know you cannot help me
with, so even though I ask you foi auvice, those aie things I will have to woik out by myself."
J6,#%. Alex piesenteu with a mixeu cognitive style: Be inuicateu cleaily that the ielationship
with the caiegivei was impoitant to him, "Since you aie a mental health piofessional who is also
an ethnic minoiity, I want to be like you. I have nevei ieally founu a mentoi. I assumeu that you
weie piobably Catholic so you woulu be able to unueistanu my ieligion. It is veiy impoitant to
me." Alex's fielu inuepenuent oiientation was ieflecteu in the self-focus on his pioblems of
aujustment: "I neeu to feel bettei about myself. If I can leain to solve my own pioblems, then I can
stop lying to otheis."
J6,#%. Raul showeu a mixeu cognitive style. Be expiesseu his uesiie to peisonalize his
ielationship with the theiapist: "0ne of my fiienus, who was in one of youi classes at the
univeisity, saiu that you weie multiiacial anu hau giown up in the valley |the 0.S.-Nexico boiuei
iegion of South Texasj, so that is why I wanteu to come see you. I, too, am multiiacial anu I have
family in the valley." Bis piefeience foi a fielu inuepenuent style was manifesteu in his attention
to uetail; Raul woulu quote conveisations he helu with family membeis anu fiienus in gieat uetail
anu focuseu on how he woiueu his communications with otheis.
J&.A#%. Rose initially piesenteu with cultuial anu cognitive styles that weie nonpiefeiieu.
She useu an extieme fielu inuepenuent style when she uesciibeu hei pioblems of aujustment; she
uistanceu heiself fiom hei feelings anu maue it cleai that she only wanteu to use the theiapist as a
consultant: "I tiy not to get too close to otheis so I am having tiouble ielating to you iight now. Is
it possible that I can just ask you some questions anu only ask foi youi help when I neeu it. I can
listen to what you have to say anu then ueciue whethei I shoulu take youi auvice oi not. I wish we
coulu uo this on the telephone."
Appioximately two-thiius of the way thiough hei fiist session, Rose became moie ielaxeu anu
began to uisclose moie of heiself. She became less uefensive anu iesponueu to social iewaius
fiom the theiapist conceining uecisions she hau alieauy maue in hei life. She was then able to
expiess hei fielu sensitive cognitive style anu iecounteu the guilt she felt about hei feai of not
being a goou mothei because of hei vision impaiiment.
@6#$% =#0.6;65#. Tony's focus was on his physical symptoms anu how these inteifeieu with his
ielationships with family membeis anu fiienus, a pieuominant fielu sensitive oiientation: "?#
A9$59 C14 $#2",9+9 61)$39 $9 C# A1#39 )6923)2 3#/ $9CD2# 3# )/51,#$ ) N1,#$ C# #$61#$&29 #$ /)
&,#$3) 4 //#"9 C16'9 &,#CA9 3# 69$96#2P <,#$&9 C16') &#$+,9$ #$ #/ 61#//9 4 /1#59 C, 6)D#@)
69C,#$@) ) &#CD/92 3# /)39 ) /)39 4 $9 C# A1#39 69$&29/)2" ("I get veiy neivous when I iun into
someone I've known foi a long time. I feel a gieat ueal of tension in my neck muscles anu then my
heau staits to shake fiom siue to siue anu I cannot contiol myself.").
In|t|a| Match of referred Cogn|t|ve Sty|es
As he uiu with cultuial styles, the theiapist in these cases attempteu to match the cognitive
styles of the clients.
@6#$% =#0.6;65#. The theiapist matcheu Imelua's global appioach to conceptualizing hei
pioblems by focusing on hei feelings: "It must have been teiiible to feel so alone." Be focuseu on
hei conceins about pioblems in ielationships with otheis, inuicating that he woulu be uiiective in
theiapy anu woulu attempt to seive as a mouel foi hei.
@6#$% !0%#B#0%#0;. Baiolu's focus on specifics, inuicating a fielu inuepenuent communication
style, was matcheu by the theiapist's ieflection of the specific conceins the client hau iuentifieu as
his majoi pioblems. The theiapist also matcheu Baiolu on his self-focus with iespect to his
ieasons foi seeking theiapy: "Biffeiences in communication styles can cause us to feel ineffective
anu confuseu." The theiapist encouiageu Baiolu to continue an active iole in theiapy anu
inuicateu that he woulu woik with Baiolu in a consultant iole: "You've maue the iight choice in
seeking theiapy, because it can help you to impiove youi communication style anu to unueistanu
the communication styles of otheis."
J&.A#%. The theiapist, sensing that Rose was not initially using hei piefeiieu cognitive style,
ieflecteu the style she was using but also emphasizeu an atmospheie of nonjuugmental
acceptance uuiing the session so that Rose might eventually feel fiee to expiess hei tiue piefeiieu
styles. Be accomplisheu this by not oveiieacting to Rose's abiupt style anu hei initial
uefensiveness anu, at the same time, talking in a soothing, ielaxeu tone that communicateu
acceptance iegaiuless of what she was saying oi how she was behaving: "I can sense youi
ieluctance in coming heie. I am glau you ueciueu to come, anu I will uo all I can to make you feel
comfoitable at the sessions." As Rose began to expiess moie anu moie of hei fielu sensitive style,
the theiapist changeu his appioach to match heis anu to suppoit hei in hei use of this style.
1erm|nat|ng the In|t|a| Sess|on
Following the obseivations anu uiscussions uuiing the initial session in multicultuial
psychotheiapy anu counseling, the theiapist uses the final twenty oi thiity minutes of the fiist
session to auministei the assessment instiuments to clients to help assess theii cognitive anu
cultuial styles. These incluue the Nulticultuial Expeiience Inventoiy (Appenuix A), the
Tiauitionalism-Noueinism Inventoiy (Appenuix B), the Family Attituue Scale (Appenuix C), anu
the Bicognitive 0iientation to Life Scale (Appenuix u). While the client is completing the
instiuments, the theiapist ieviews the notes anu iatings maue on the Piefeiieu Cultuial anu
Cognitive Styles 0bseivation Checklists, compaiing these to the self-iatings (see Chaptei 6) maue
on the theiapist's Piefeiieu Cognitive anu Cultuial Styles instiument completeu uuiing the couise
of the session.
Thiough this exeicise the theiapist is able to ueteimine how effective she is likely to be in
matching the client anu makes the uecision to eithei scheuule the client foi anothei session oi to
make a iefeiial to anothei theiapist. If the piofessional is in uoubt at this point, it is possible to
wait to evaluate the uata fiom the instiuments the client completes befoie ieaching a final
uecision. The theiapist eithei scheuules the client foi anothei appointment oi agiees to call at a
latei time to give feeuback on the initial session anu to infoim the client as to whethei anothei
appointment shoulu be scheuuleu oi a iefeiial maue to anothei theiapist who might be bettei
able to match the client's styles.
In summaiy, the fiist session incluues the following six techniques anu pioceuuies:
1. Establishing of an atmospheie of nonjuugmental acceptance.
2. 0bseiving anu categoiizing client behavioi using the Piefeiieu Cultuial anu Cognitive
Styles 0bseivation Checklists.
S. Natching the client's piefeiieu cultuial anu cognitive styles.
4. Beteimining the piofessional's self-assessment of piefeiieu cultuial anu cognitive
theiapeutic styles.
S. Compaiing the theiapist's anu client's piefeiieu styles.
6. Scheuuling the client foi anothei session oi iefeiiing to anothei theiapist.
SLSSICN 2
Cont|nuat|on of Match
The matching stiategies initiateu at the fiist session aie continueu uuiing the seconu. In the
opening stages of the seconu session, the focus of theiapy is similai to that of the fiist session:
helping the client to oveicome the negative effects of the mismatch synuiome, establishing tiust
(paiticulaily if the client is piesenting with the nonpiefeiieu styles), anu continuing to pioviue a
safe atmospheie in which the client can expiess the unique self. The matching techniques anu
appioaches useu foi the seconu session with foui of the clients uiscusseu in Chaptei 1 aie
piesenteu next.
!"#$%&. The theiapist began the session with Imelua by auuiessing hei by Ns. anu hei
suiname anu by making eveiy effoit to be waim anu suppoitive. Imelua seemeu much happiei
anu moie at ease than she hau been at the initial session. To encouiage hei to feel even moie at
ease, the theiapist askeu hei about hei plans foi the spiing teim. She talkeu willingly anu
enthusiastically about hei foithcoming games with the basketball team anu iepoiteu that she was
the team captain. She talkeu about hei plans foi attenuing the state univeisity the coming fall.
The theiapist's matching behaviois with Imelua incluueu matching both hei cultuial anu
cognitive styles; foi claiity of piesentation, these will be categoiizeu accoiuing to the five uomains
of cognitive style:
1. K$&#2A#2+9$)/ 2#/)&,9$+',A +&4/#. The theiapist leaneu foiwaiu in his chaii, listening
attentively while Imelua talkeu. Be askeu questions that alloweu hei to peisonalize hei
accomplishments in spoits anu in hei classes, such as, "You saiu that you aie the captain of youi
team this yeai. The othei playeis must think a lot of you" anu "You mentioneu you hau maue an A
on youi teim papei foi English. What was it about."
2. 09CC1$,6)&,9$ +&4/#. The theiapist's facial expiessions anu tone of voice ieflecteu waimth
anu suppoit. Be maintaineu eye contact with Imelua while she was talking. The feelings Imelua
expiesseu weie ieflecteu thiough both veibal anu nonveibal moues of communication.
S. ?9&,")&,9$)/B2#H)23 +&4/#. The theiapist commenteu on the fact that Imelua lookeu happiei
anu seemeu moie ielaxeu. Be gave veibal anu behavioial signs of appioval when Imelua talkeu
about hei successes. Be also showeu veibal anu nonveibal signs of enthusiasm when Imelua saiu
that she hau felt bettei aftei the fiist theiapy session.
4. Q29D/#CB+9/",$5 +&4/#. Whenevei the oppoitunity piesenteu itself, the theiapist inuicateu
that he woulu be glau to seive as a mouel foi Imelua. Be showeu signs of being uiiective in his
style. When Imelua talkeu about hei pioblems in hei ielationship with hei paients anu teacheis,
he saiu, "I know that this is haiu foi you, but we'ie going to woik on youi pioblems togethei, as a
team. You won't feel like you aie all alone anymoie."
S. -'#2)A4B&#)6',$5BA)2#$&,$5B+1A#2",+924 +&4/#. In the lattei stages of the seconu session,
when the theiapist piesenteu the flex theoiy to Imelua anu gave hei feeuback on his assessments,
he peisonalizeu this mateiial by ielating it to Imelua's inteiests anu life expeiiences. Be useu a
global-ueuuctive methou of piesentation; that is, he piesenteu the oveiall iuea oi concept fiist,
anu then focuseu on the uetails, uesciibing how the theoiy coulu be applieu to hei life. Foi
example: "value conflicts have been iesponsible foi many of youi pioblems. You anu youi
gianupaients useu to be veiy close. When you staiteu getting involveu in spoits, an activity they
felt was not appiopiiate foi giils, they uisappioveu of you. You felt lonely, iejecteu, anu
misunueistoou."
/&*-$%. In the case of Baiolu, the theiapist's match behaviois weie oiienteu moie towaiu
fielu inuepenuence. Baiolu enteieu the office foi his seconu session caiiying a poitfolio. In it he
caiiieu a notepau on which he hau analyzeu his communication pioblems with his wife, his
chiluien, anu his paitneis. As soon as the session staiteu, he saiu, "I've been uoing some thinking
since the last session, anu I have maue notes on the communication pioblems I talkeu about last
time. I'u like to ieau these to you."
1. K$&#2A#2+9$)/ 2#/)&,9$+',A +&4/#. The theiapist gieeteu Baiolu by using his fiist name, anu he
alloweu Baiolu to begin the session by ieauing his notes. As Baiolu ieau, the theiapist maue notes
of his own anu assumeu a foimal, businesslike mannei.
2. 09CC1$,6)&,9$ +&4/#. The theiapist useu an impeisonal tone of voice, making minimal use
of nonveibal communication. Bis statements weie shoit anu to the point. Be chose his woius
caiefully.
S. ?9&,")&,9$)/B2#H)23 +&4/#. The theiapist focuseu on encouiaging self iewaius: "It must feel
goou that you aie finally beginning to ueal with youi pioblems iathei than just woiiying about
them."
4. Q29D/#CB+9/",$5 +&4/#. The theiapist functioneu as a consultant anu maue iecommenuations
anu suggestions only when Baiolu askeu foi help oi auvice.
S. -'#2)A4B&#)6',$5BA)2#$&,$5B+1A#2",+924 +&4/#. When the theiapist piesenteu the concepts of
the flex theoiy of peisonality to Baiolu, he uiu so by focusing on uetails anu by using a foimal-
analytic-inuuctive piesentation style: "Communication styles can be classifieu accoiuing to two
uimensions: mouein-tiauitional anu fielu sensitive-fielu inuepenuent."
)&*&. The theiapist began with a mix of fielu sensitive anu mouein styles. Be piojecteu
waimth anu suppoit in both his veibal anu nonveibal behaviois, but he also encouiageu Taia to
begin the session by saying, "What woulu you like to talk about touay."
1. K$&#2A#2+9$)/ 2#/)&,9$+',A +&4/#. Taia seemeu to feel moie comfoitable in hei inteiactions
with the theiapist as eviuenceu by incieaseu eye contact. She iesponueu well to his attempts to
peisonalize the ielationship as he askeu how hei uaughtei likeu school.
2. 09CC1$,6)&,9$ +&4/#. Taia was able to talk moie about hei feelings. She useu a global style
ielating hei expeiiences as a mothei to the time when she was a chilu anu how she felt about hei
paients. She also talkeu about hei ielationships with hei intimate paitneis anu how impoitant it
was to hei that they be inteiesteu in anu ielate well to hei chilu.
S. ?9&,")&,9$)/ +&4/#. Taia maue it cleai that she felt that hei piincipal goal in theiapy shoulu
be to achieve inuepenuence fiom those whom she felt hau uominateu hei choices in the past, hei
paients anu hei ex-boyfiienu. The theiapist encouiageu this: "You neeu to feel that you aie in
contiol of youi own uestiny anu that you can feel fiee to make youi own uecisions without feeling
that you have to please otheis oi that you have to confoim to the way they woulu like you to be."
4. Q29D/#CB+9/",$5 +&4/#. Taia neeueu to think globally"to see the big pictuie"iegaiuing
hei pioblems of aujustment. She neeueu to unueistanu how hei past, paiticulaily hei ielationship
to hei paients, was ielateu to hei piesent situation as a single mothei anu as a woman of coloi
who was tiying to aujust to the uemanus of college life anu hei woilu of woik in a community in
which she faceu piejuuice: "I feel that I have just been pulleu by the tiue since I was a kiu. I neeu to
unueistanu what has happeneu to me because I usually blame myself anu this makes me angiy
anu sau." The theiapist iesponueu to hei neeu foi making sense of hei life by saying, "I will help
you to tiy to unueistanu how youi past is ielateu to youi piesent feelings anu to youi tenuency to
be too haiu on youiself."
+$#,. The theiapist tiieu to make Alex feel at ease uuiing the seconu session. Alex aiiiveu
uistiaught because he hau talkeu to his paients ovei the phone the pievious evening anu he hau
hau to lie to them again. The theiapist conveyeu to Alex, in both veibal anu nonveibal behaviois,
that he empathizeu with his feelings anu that he was not going to juuge him negatively foi what he
hau uone. Alex seemeu ieassuieu by this appioach.
1. K$&#2A#2+9$)/ 2#/)&,9$+',A +&4/#. The theiapist continueu appioaching Alex in the "accepting
authoiity figuie" iole. Alex iesponueu by becoming moie ielaxeu. Be noteu that the feelings of
guilt that he hau felt at the beginning of the session began to uissipate.
2. 09CC1$,6)&,9$ +&4/#. Alex's fielu inuepenuent style was ieflecteu in his emphasis on the
uetails of what his paients hau saiu ovei the phone anu how he hau iesponueu to them. The
theiapist matcheu this style by helping Alex to unueistanu the nuances of the messages his
paients weie giving him anu how these affecteu his feelings.
S. ?9&,")&,9$)/ +&4/#. Alex continueu to emphasize his self-focus with iespect to the goals of
theiapy. Be saiu, "I neeu to know how to listen to what my paients have to say without
peisonalizing it anu feeling like the bau son. I neeu to unueistanu that I neeu to be myself without
feeling bau about it." The theiapist matcheu this by saying: "You feel that you aie in contiol of
youi feelings anu thoughts until you talk to youi paients. Then you feel like a chilu anu stait
feeling guilty. It is impoitant that you continue to view youiself as an auult who can make his own
uecisions."
4. Q29D/#CB+9/",$5 +&4/#. Alex expiesseu a ielational style much like Taia's: "I want to be able
to put all the pieces togethei in my life. I have been getting confuseu by all the conflicting
infoimation I have ieceiveu fiom the vietnamese stuuent gioup anu the gay anu lesbian suppoit
gioups I have been attenuing on campus." The theiapist matcheu this communication by saying, "I
will tiy to help you soit out all the conflicting infoimation you have been getting so that you can
make youi own uecision about how to appioach youi fiienus, paients, anu family."
1he L|fe n|story
An impoitant aspect of the seconu session of multicultuial psychotheiapy is the life histoiy.
This technique not only iuentifies the uevelopmental stages of the client's piefeiieu cultuial anu
cognitive stylesthe unique selfbut also ieveals how anu why the client suppiesseu the tiue
peisonality anu uevelopeu a false self. Specifically, the life histoiy yielus the following infoimation:
1. The client's basic founuation foi multicultuial uevelopment: the uegiee of client
motivation to expeiience uiveisity anu to leain fiom it, anu the uegiee of openness of
the client's leaining-expeiience filteis.
2. The numbei anu types of baiiieis to multicultuial uevelopment such as steieotypes
(whethei negative oi positive), ethnocentiic behaviois anu attituues, anu shyness.
S. The initial manifestations of the unique self in life anu values anu belief systems as well
as intellectual anuoi occupational inteiests that may have been suppiesseu oi iejecteu
latei on in life.
4. Those peiious oi phases in the client's life when maximum cultuial anu cognitive match
anu mismatch weie expeiienceu.
S. The effects of socializationattituues of paients towaiu uiveisity; attituues of othei
socialization agents anu of peeis towaiu uiveisity; attituues towaiu uiveisity ieflecteu
by cultuies, communities, anu ieligions in which the client was socializeu.
6. The effects of life expeiienceshow much exposuie the client hau to uiveisity ovei the
couise of life anu the natuie anu quality of those uiveisity expeiiences: the uiffeient
countiies, communities, anu neighboihoous in which the client liveu; the schools
attenueu; the positive anu negative expeiiences the client hau with uiveisity (e.g.,
conflicts, expeiiences with piejuuice, anu iejection).
The life histoiy also pioviues infoimation the theiapist can use to peisonalize the next phase
of the seconu sessionintiouucing the client to the flex theoiy of peisonalityanu to set the
goals foi multicultuial psychotheiapy. The life histoiy is an impoitant component of multicultuial
theiapy because it is the initial stage of the piocess of client empoweiment.
C(6%#$60#. E-* )&A60: ;7# D6E# /6.;-*1. The theiapist intiouuces the life histoiy by
explaining what it is anu why it will be useful: "I woulu like to uo a shoit life histoiy with you in
oiuei to bettei unueistanu how youi peisonality uevelopeu anu to ueteimine how youi
aujustment pioblems staiteu." A goou way to begin a life histoiy is to use what Alfieu Aulei
(19S1) calleu the Eailiest Chiluhoou Recollection (ERC). The theiapist uoes this by asking the
client to iecall the eailiest memoiy of chiluhoou. Aftei the iecollection of eailiest chiluhoou, the
life histoiy is continueu by focusing on the following five life peiious:
1. K$=)$64 )$3 #)2/4 6',/3'993. This peiiou woulu incluue the chiluhoou yeais piioi to
beginning school. Some specific questions can be askeu in this aiea:
Bow uiu you get along with youi paients anu siblings.
Besciibe the auults you inteiacteu with.
Besciibe the peeis you playeu with most often.
What weie youi fantasies anu uayuieams.
2. !)2/4 +6'99/ #LA#2,#$6#+ )$3 #/#C#$&)24 +6'99/ 4#)2+. This involves asking the client about
his oi hei eailiest memoiies of school anu about elementaiy school expeiiences. Questions coulu
incluue:
Bow comfoitable uiu you feel with youi fiist teachei oi teacheis (counselois, coaches,
etc.). With classmates. With the school enviionment as a whole.
What languages uiu you speak.
What classes uiu you uo best in. Which ones weie of most inteiest to you.
What awaius uiu you get.
What failuies uiu you expeiience.
What countiies, iegions, states, communities, anu neighboihoous uiu you live in uuiing
these eaily schooluays.
Who weie youi best fiienus.
What kinus of families uiu you visit with.
Who weie you paients' best fiienus.
What jobs oi caieeis weie you most inteiesteu in.
What weie youi hobbies.
When you tiaveleu with youi family, wheie uiu you go.
S. ?,33/# +6'99/ 4#)2+. Late chiluhoou anu eaily auolescent expeiiences can be piobeu with
mouifieu veisions of the questions useu to exploie eaily euucational expeiiences (item 2), as well
as by asking if the miuule school was uiffeient fiom the elementaiy school anu how.
4. F,5' +6'99/ 4#)2+. The auolescent yeais of the client's life histoiy aie investigateu thiough
the use of the questions suggesteu in item 2. When necessaiy, the questions can be maue moie
age-appiopiiate. Auuitional questions about job expeiiences anu moie in-uepth questioning about
socializing with peeis incluue:
Biu you woik uuiing high school. What kinu of job uiu you have. Besciibe youi
supeivisoi(s).
Biu you uate. Besciibe the backgiounu of the people you uateu.
S. Q9+&B',5' +6'99/ A#2,93. Focusing on the peiiou since the client left high school, the theiapist
asks about:
College(s) attenueu anu expeiiences with piofessois, couises, ieauing assignments,
peeis, anu uecisions involving caieei choices
Tiaining piogiam expeiiences, if any
Nilitaiy seivice expeiience, if appiopiiate
Naiiiage anu oi meaningful intimate ielationships
}obs oi initiation of a caieei
Tiavel anu othei inteiests
Religion
The infoimation collecteu thiough the biief life histoiy is invaluable in uoing an analysis of
match anu mismatch expeiiences anu in iuentifying shifts in cultuial anu cognitive styles uuiing
the client's lifetime.
Imelua's life histoiy, foi example, ievealeu that uuiing hei eaily yeais she expeiienceu
cultuial compatibility with hei gianupaients in teims of theii willingness to seive as a suppoit
system foi hei when hei mothei left home, when hei fathei iemaiiieu, anu when she expeiienceu
conflict with hei half-sistei anu stepmothei. Latei in hei life, howevei, mismatch uevelopeu in the
aiea of genuei ioles when she uevelopeu a stiong inteiest in spoits.
Baiolu's eaily inteiest in ait anu music weie a goou match to his mothei's piefeiieu fielu
sensitive cognitive style. She pioviueu Baiolu with the nuituiing he neeueu because of the
iejection he felt fiom his fathei anu oluei biothei. Aftei his biothei's ueath, Baiolu shifteu to a
piefeiieu fielu inuepenuent style in oiuei to please his fathei.
Taia's attempts at becoming closei to hei fathei anu hei biotheis in the absence of hei
mothei anu hei fathei's iejection of these attempts because he felt that faim woik was not
appiopiiate foi a giil weie ciitical in Taia's latei feelings that people woulu not accept hei. Bei
fiist majoi expeiience with match was the boyfiienu she hau in college whom she felt pioviueu a
goou cultuial style match foi hei, but the euphoiia of finally having founu someone who matcheu
hei leu hei to have piematuie sexual ielations without having ieceiveu auequate sex euucation.
Alex felt well matcheu to the cultuial styles of his gianupaients eaily in life. When the family
immigiateu to this countiy, his paients became moie active in his chiluieaiing anu the influence
of his gianupaients uecieaseu; Alex felt mismatcheu to his mothei's cognitive style, which was
veiy fielu inuepenuent. She hau hau to be inuiviuually competitive to suivive as a businesswoman
in the tiauitional, male-uominateu businesswoilu of South vietnam.
Introduc|ng the I|ex 1heory of ersona||ty
0nce the life histoiy is completeu, the theiapist intiouuces the client to the concept anu
piinciples of the flex theoiy of peisonality. This phase of the seconu session of multicultuial
psychotheiapy ieinfoices the client- empoweiment piocess initiateu thiough the life histoiy. It
encouiages the client to become an active paitnei in the theiapeutic piocess. This is uone by
acquainting the client with the majoi piinciples anu assumptions of the peisonality theoiy on
which multicultuial theiapy is baseu.
The theiapist begins this stage of the session by explaining that multicultuial psychotheiapy
is an appioach to peisonal counseling baseu on the flex theoiy of peisonality. The theiapist then
piesents the following six basic piinciples of flex theoiy:
1. -'# 1$,N1# +#/=. Eveiyone is unique, because eveiy peison has a unique aiiangement of
values, oi cultuial style, anu cognitive style piefeiences ieflecteu in theii peisonalities.
2. 01/&12)/ +&4/#+. Theie aie two majoi kinus of cultuial styles, each iepiesenting a uiffeient set
of values anu belief systems. The tiauitional style is typical of iuial communities, conseivative
ieligions, anu minoiity anu ueveloping cultuies. People who aie iuentifieu with tiauitional values
have a spiiitual oiientation towaiu life, emphasizing spiiitual iueas when explaining the mysteiies
of life. They aie stiongly iuentifieu with theii families anu communities of oiigin; they usually
believe in sepaiation of genuei anu age ioles; anu they usually believe in stiict appioaches to
chiluieaiing. The mouein style, on the othei hanu, is typical of uiban communities, libeial
ieligions, anu of Noith Ameiican anu Westein Euiopean cultuies. People who aie iuentifieu with a
mouein value system usually emphasize science when explaining the mysteiies of life; they have a
stiong inuiviuualistic oiientation; they tenu to ueemphasize uiffeiences in genuei anu age ioles;
anu they emphasize egalitaiianism in chiluieaiing piactices. These styles aie a continuum anu
inuiviuuals can fall anyplace along that line.
S. Q#2+9$)/,&4 +&4/#+. Theie aie thiee kinus of peisonality styles, each iepiesenting uiffeient
types of cognitive styles: The fielu inuepenuent style incluues people who tenu to be intioveiteu in
theii oiientation to life. They focus on woius when communicating with otheis, anu they aie
usually motivateu by mateiial anu monetaiy iewaius anu by peisonal achievements. In theii
thinking anu pioblem-solving styles, fielu inuepenuent people aie moie likely to be analytical anu
inuuctive, paying a gieat ueal of attention to uetail. They usually tenu to be nonuiiective in
chiluieaiing anu in teaching oi supeivising anu counseling otheis.
Fielu sensitive style people tenu to be extioveiteu in theii geneial oiientation towaiu life.
They tenu to focus moie on nonveibal than on veibal messages when they aie communicating
with otheis. They aie usually motivateu by the possibility of achieving foi otheis anu by social
iewaius. People with a piefeiieu fielu sensitive oiientation aie moie global, integiative, anu
ueuuctive in theii thinking anu pioblem-solving styles, anu they tenu to be uiiective in
chiluieaiing anu teaching oi when they supeivise anu counsel otheis.
People who aie bicognitive have the ability to shuttle between the fielu sensitive anu fielu
inuepenuent styles. Theii choice of style at any paiticulai moment is uepenuent on the uemanus
of the situation they aie in. Foi example, if the situation calls foi inuiviuual competition, they
behave in a fielu inuepenuent mannei; if the uemanu is foi coopeiation oi gioup competition, they
behave in a fielu sensitive mannei. People with a bicognitive oiientation can also use elements of
both the fielu sensitive anu fielu inuepenuent styles to uevelop new composite oi combination
styles. They can also evolve communication styles that highlight both veibal anu nonveibal
behaviois.
4. 09CA9$#$&+ 9= +&4/#+. Each cognitive anu peisonality style is maue up of five components:
09CC1$,6)&,9$ +&4/#. Bow people expiess themselves to otheis
K$&#2A#2+9$)/ 2#/)&,9$+',A +&4/#. Bow people go about establishing ielationships with
otheis anu how they ielate to otheis
?9&,")&,9$)/ +&4/#. What people consiuei iewaiuing about life
;#)2$,$5 )$3 A29D/#CB+9/",$5 +&4/#. Bow people leain new things anu how they solve
the pioblems they aie faceu with
-#)6',$5BA)2#$&,$5B+1A#2",+924B691$+#/,$5 +&4/#. Bow people impait knowleuge oi give
uiiection to otheis, how they guiue otheis, anu how they pioviue emotional suppoit
S. Q#2+9$)/,&4 3#"#/9AC#$&. Cultuial anu cognitive styles aie ielateu to peisonality
uevelopment. People who aie socializeu anu have liveu in tiauitional enviionmentsbe they
cultuies, communities, families, anu institutionsaie moie likely to be piefeiieu fielu sensitive in
cognitive style. Those who aie socializeu oi who have liveu in moueinistic enviionments aie moie
likely to be piefeiieu fielu inuepenuent in cognitive style. People who have been socializeu in both
mouein anu tiauitional enviionments anu have liveu in both mouein anu tiauitional settings aie
likely to be bicognitive in theii cognitive style.
6. R)2,)&,9$+. Cultuial anu cognitive styles can vaiy fiom being flexible anu auaptable to being
inflexible anu specific to ceitain enviionments oi situations. People with iigiu cultuial anu
cognitive styles have multicultuial peisonalities anu aie well aujusteu to a pluialistic society.
The figuies piesenteu in Appenuix I may make it easiei foi the client to follow the theiapist's
piesentation about the impoitant featuies anu concepts of the flex theoiy of peisonality.
Pioviuing the client with copies of these figuies will facilitate iefeience to them as neeueu uuiing
the couise of theiapy.
The client shoulu be encouiageu to ask questions uuiing the piesentation. The theiapist
attempts to match the piesentation style to the client's piefeiieu leaining anu pioblem-solving
style. Foi example, the theiapist can peisonalize the piesentation with fielu sensitive clients by
iefeiiing to infoimation obtaineu fiom the client's life histoiy. 0n the othei hanu, with fielu
inuepenuent clients, the theiapist can focus moie on the uetails of the chaits anu uiagiams anu on
the specific ieseaich that leu to the theoiy's uevelopment (see Chapteis 2 anu S).
@##%K&>A -0 +..#.."#0; -E G*#E#**#% =;1$#.. The theiapist initiates this phase of the
session by iefeiiing to the questionnaiies the client completeu uuiing the fiist session anu by
explaining theii puipose. The theiapist is encouiageu to use the Feeuback Summaiy Sheet (see
Appenuix j). The following is an exceipt of the assessment feeuback uone with INELBA:
At the conclusion of the last session I asked you to complete some
questionnaires. I asked you to do these to help me determine your preferred
cultural and cognitive styles. I have also been doing an assessment during our
sessions by noticing your behaviors and by noting what you said and how you
said it. Let me tell you what my assessments indicate.
Your preferred cultural style seems to be traditional, but you tend to have
modern views in the area of gender-role definition. Most indicative of your
preferred cultural style is the fact that your score on the Traditionalism-
Modernism Inventory was 38. (The version of the TMI given to Imelda was the
original pre-revised version ] You indicated strong agreement on those items that
were concerned with family identity, spiritualism, and sense of community, all
indications of a traditional orientation. Despite an overall traditional cultural
orientation, you did indicate that you are modern in the domain of gender roles
you believe that men and women should have equal rights.
The theiapist continueu by giving feeuback on the iatings he hau maue of Imelua's behaviois
in the sessions using the Piefeiieu Cultuial Styles 0bseivation Checklist, showing that hei global
cultuial style was inueeu tiauitional. In the piocess of uiscussing the behavioial iatings he maue,
the theiapist ieau exceipts fiom notes he took uuiing the couise of the theiapy sessions to give
specific examples which helpeu to claiify the iatings to the client. (See Appenuix K foi iesponses
given by Imelua to the Tiauitionalism-Noueinism Inventoiy anu foi copies of the notes that weie
maue by the theiapist as he inteiacteu with Imelua uuiing the initial session.)
@##%K&>A -0 8-:06;65# =;1$# +..#.."#0;. This feeuback is given in much the same way as it
is foi cultuial style. The following aie exceipts fiom the feeuback given to Baiolu:
Your preferred cognitive style at the present time is field independent. For
example, your score on the Bicognitive Orientation to Life Scale was 31, and you
scored in a field independent direction in all five domains. Most revealing of your
field independent orientation are the following items: 3, 7, 8, 11, 14, 15, 20, and
21. However, your responses to items 5 and 13 indicate that you also have
strong field sensitive interests. My observations of your behaviors during our
sessions also show a strong field independent orientation, but again there are
some indications that you are somewhat more balanced in the domains of
interpersonal relationships and teaching-parenting-supervisory style. On a scale
of 1 (no flexibility) to 5 (maximum flex), your cognitive style balance at the
present time appears to be 2.
(See Appenuix L foi the iesponse given by Baiolu to the B0LS anu foi copies of the notes
maue by the theiapist uuiing the fiist theiapy session with Baiolu.)
The theiapist then summaiizeu the finuings of Baiolu's evaluation:
In summary the results of the assessment of your preferred cognitive and cultural
styles show that you need to be more flexible in the following domains: cultural;
gender roles, time orientation, and child socialization, and cognitive;
communication; motivation; and thinking and problem solving.
Lstab||sh|ng the Goa|s of 1herapy
The theiapist intiouuces the final stage of the seconu session by pioposing some tentative
goals baseu on the pioblems iuentifieu by the client uuiing the fiist session anu on the finuings of
the assessment. The theiapist engages the client's help in foimulating the goals of theiapy. The
following is an exceipt fiom the case notes on INELBA:
One goal of therapy can be to help you develop your modernistic cultural style
and your field independent cognitive style in order to get your parents, teachers,
coaches, and some of your friends at school to better understand you. You could
also develop more of your field sensitive and traditional preferred style in order to
get your grandparents to understand you better. Would you like to suggest some
goals that you would like us to work on?
Imelua answeieu, "Well, I neeu to have moie fiienus. Coming to theiapy has maue me iealize
that I have been too lonely. I also neeu to know how to get my teacheis anu coaches to listen to my
iueas." As Imelua spoke, the theiapist listeu the goals with a maiking pencil on a laige pau on an
easel.
In summaiy, the seconu session incluues the following five techniques anu pioceuuies:
1. Continuing to match of the client's piefeiieu cultuial anu cognitive styles.
2. Conuucting a life histoiy.
S. Intiouucing the flex theoiy of peisonality.
4. Establishing the goals of theiapy.
S. Pioviuing feeuback on the finuings of the life histoiy, the assessment instiuments, anu
the obseivation checklists.
SUMMAk
The fiist two sessions of multicultuial psychotheiapy have as theii piincipal goal helping the
client to oveicome the symptoms of mismatch synuiome by matching his piefeiieu cultuial anu
cognitive styles. The initial match stiategies facilitate expiession of the unique self so that the
client can begin the next phase of theiapythe uevelopment of cultuial anu cognitive flex.
8
THE SECOND STAGE OF
MULTICULTURAL THERAPY AND
COUNSELING
Acceptance of the Unique Self and
Development of Cultural and Cognitive Flex
The pievious chaptei piesenteu the piincipal goals of the fiist anu seconu sessions of
multicultuial psychotheiapy anu counseling. This chaptei focuses on two majoi objectives:
encouiaging clients to accept theii unique selves anu encouiaging them to uevelop an oiientation
to life that ieflects cultuial anu cognitive flexibility. Both client anu theiapist have impoitant ioles
to play in this phase of multicultuial theiapy.
SLSSICNS 3 1nkCUGn S: LNCCUkAGING ACCL1ANCL CI 1nL UNIUL SLLI
The uegiee of uifficulty of this phase of counseling foi both the client anu the theiapist can
vaiy, uepenuing on the uegiee to which the client has suppiesseu anuoi uenieu his oi hei unique
self. Imelua, Baiolu, Taia, anu Alex aie iepiesentative cases.
Imelua hau continueu to uevelop hei piefeiieu style with iespect to a mouein oiientation in
genuei iole uespite piessuies to confoim fiom paients anu gianupaients, but feai of alienating
hei gianupaients anu hei boyfiienu's paients hau causeu hei to uownplay hei inteiest in spoits
anu hau kept hei fiom establishing close fiienuships with hei coaches anu with othei playeis on
hei teams. Imelua hau not uenieu hei unique self with iespect to the othei uomains of hei
piefeiieu cultuial anu cognitive styles.
Baiolu, on the othei hanu, hau unueigone a moie extensive suppiession of both his piefeiieu
cultuial anu cognitive styles. Aftei the ueath of his biothei, he hau abanuoneu his piefeiieu styles
in an attempt to please his fathei. Neveitheless, he uiu occasionally make use of his piefeiieu
styles in ceitain uomains of lifehis tiauitionalism anu fielu sensitivity weie ieflecteu in the fact
that he was the chaiismatic leauei of his company, establishing a sense of community foi his
employees anu in his inteiest in ueveloping an extensive giaphics softwaie piouuct line.
Taia hau foiceu heiself into a tiauitional cultuial style oiientation when she liveu with hei
boyfiienu. Be believeu in stiict sepaiation of genuei ioles, anu she founu heiself in the iole she
hau playeu when she liveu in the home of hei paients, something she ueeply iesenteu. Since she
hau bioken up with hei boyfiienu, she hau expiesseu hei mouein views iegaiuing egalitaiian
ielationships with the men she uateu, but this hau leu to conflict. She still felt she hau to confoim
to hei paient's tiauitional expectations of hei when she visiteu them oi talkeu with them on the
telephone. She hau begun to exeit hei fielu inuepenuence at woik; an oluei close fiienu hau
encouiageu Taia to mimic hei appioach to pioblem solving in the woikplace. Taia ueciueu to
iefuse hei fiienu's offei foi help by finuing hei own way to solve woik tasks.
Alex hau uevelopeu a mixeu cultuial style in changing his majoi without seeking the
peimission of his paients, but he still maintaineu his neeu foi auvice fiom family membeis by
infoiming his favoiite aunt anu uncle about his uecision. Alex hau foiceu himself to tiy to auapt to
a fielu inuepenuent oiientation with iespect to peisonal inteiests anu to his stuuy focus in college.
Bis change in majoi to sociology anu social woik alloweu him to expiess his piefeiieu fielu
sensitive style in the leainingpioblem-solving uomain.
1he ko|e of the C||ent
Clients leain to iecognize piessuies to confoim to which they have been most vulneiable.
They also leain to unueistanu how these piessuies aie ielateu to the uevelopment of the false self
anu the suppiession of the unique self. To iuentify the souices of piessuies to confoim, clients
have to uo thoiough anu caieful assessments of theii social enviionments. The souices of
piessuies to confoim can incluue people anuoi institutions with impoitant ioles in the clients'
life. In the case of Imelua, these incluue hei gianupaients, paients, boyfiienu's paients, anu
teacheis, as well as the tiauitional community in which she lives. Foi Baiolu, souices of piessuie
to confoim incluue his fathei, paitneis, colleagues, anu his company. Foi Taia the tyianny of the
shoulus hau its oiigins in the behavioi anu expectations of hei paients, hei ex-boyfiienu, anu hei
oluei cowoikei. Foi Alex it was his gianupaients (eaily in his life), his paients (aftei the family
immigiateu to the 0niteu States), his heteiosexual fiienus, anu the stiict views of the Catholic
Chuich iegaiuing homosexuality.
With the uiiection of the theiapist, clients ask themselves wheie the confoimity piessuies
oiiginate, how these piessuies aie making themselves felt, what iesponses these piessuies have
piovokeu in the past, anu how they can iecognize when they aie falling back into using the
cultuial anu cognitive styles of theii false selves in iesponse to these piessuies. Anothei
impoitant task foi clients uuiing Sessions S thiough S is leaining how to come to teims with the
uiscomfoit of being uiffeient.
1he ko|e of the 1herap|st
In this phase of multicultuial counseling, the theiapist focuses on establishing an atmospheie
to enable the client to begin exploiing anu ueveloping the unique self, which may have been
suppiesseu by piessuies to confoim. The theiapist facilitates the piocess of expiession anu
acceptance of the unique self by piojecting iespect anu acceptance of the client's piefeiieu styles.
Auuitionally the piofessional gives the client the oppoitunity to accomplish the matching goals
iuentifieu in the pievious session. These cultuial anu cognitive match goals have thiee objectives:
1. To help the client to feel comfoitable with the unique self
2. To encouiage the client to feel piiue in that uniqueness
S. To initiate the piocess of ueveloping the unique self to its maximum potential
Strateg|es for Match|ng Cu|tura| Sty|e Goa|s
Examples of the stiategies useu foi achieving match goals have been taken fiom the
counseling piogiess notes anu theiapeutic plans uevelopeu foi Imelua, Baiolu, Taia, anu Raul.
!"#$%&. The theiapist askeu Imelua to focus on the fiist of the cultuial match goals
establisheu in the pievious session: those of ueveloping hei moueinistic oiientation vis--vis
equality in genuei ioles anu ueveloping hei tiauitionalistic behaviois in such a way as to
encouiage hei gianupaients anu paients to unueistanu that hei inteiest in spoits is impoitant to
hei well-being.
The theiapist askeu Imelua to think of people in hei enviionment teacheis, coaches, fiienus
of the family, authoiity figuies, peeis, oi otheis who coulu help hei become moie moueinistic.
Aftei uiscussing a numbei of people, Imelua anu the theiapist settleu on one of hei basketball
coaches, a Latina, as the best possibility because, accoiuing to Imelua's uesciiption, this peison
seemeu to have establisheu a goou balance in hei iuentification with mouein anu tiauitional
values.
The theiapist encouiageu empathy piojection by asking Imelua to answei two questions:
What is impoitant to youi coach. What uoes she want out of life. This set the stage foi wiiting a
sciipt, baseu on the coach's piefeiieu cultuial anu cognitive styles, which Imelua coulu use when
she soliciteu help fiom hei. While Imelua uesciibeu what she knew about the coach's inteiests anu
peisonality chaiacteiistics, the theiapist anu Imelua useu the concepts fiom the flex theoiy of
peisonality to uevelop hypotheses iegaiuing the coach's piefeiieu cultuial anu cognitive styles.
The theiapist then askeu Imelua to outline the sciipt she coulu use foi appioaching the coach.
The theiapist anu Imelua uiscusseu the sciipt anu uevelopeu it to fit the coach's unique style. They
ueciueu Imelua woulu begin as follows: "Some time ago you askeu me to come to you if I neeueu
any help with my hook shot. Bo you have time to help me now." If the coach weie to agiee to help
Imelua, the sciipt to be useu when Imelua anu hei coach weie alone was as follows: "I neeu youi
auvice on something peisonal. Ny paients anu gianupaients aie opposeu to my playing on the
team. This has been botheiing me. Bo you have any auvice foi me."
The next step in this stage of theiapy is iole-playing. The theiapist assumeu the iole of the
coach while Imelua tiieu out the sciipt. Following the iole-playing exeicise, the theiapist anu
Imelua uevelopeu a homewoik assignment that incluueu a uay anu a time when Imelua woulu tiy
out the sciipt with hei coach. Following this, Imelua was to uo iatings anu take notes to evaluate
the uegiee of success she felt she hau expeiienceu in implementing the sciipt (see Appenuix }).
If necessaiy, the theiapist anu Imelua woulu mouify the sciipt anu eithei tiy again with the
same peison oi select someone else as a possible mentoi in Imelua's effoits to achieve hei cultuial
styles match goals. The theiapist waineu Imelua that she coulu encountei iejection fiom the pei-
son(s) foi whom the sciipt was intenueu. Be also cautioneu hei that unfoieseen ciicumstances
might leau to failuie of the sciipt in pait oi in whole. Imelua was instiucteu that, shoulu eithei
iejection oi failuie occui, she shoulu not blame heiself, but meiely take note of what happeneu
anu what was going on at the time. She was also askeu to phone the theiapist shoulu she neeu to
talk about feelings ielateu to iejection oi failuie of a sciipt.
As soon as they felt that the fiist goal of the cultuial match seiies hau been achieveu, Imelua
anu the theiapist pioceeueu to the othei goals they hau iuentifieu. They focuseu on thiee life
uomains: the inteipeisonal uomain; the life activities uomain; anu the infoimation, tiavel, anu
meuia uomain.
In the inteipeisonal uomain, Imelua gaineu enough confiuence thiough hei initial contact
with the one Bispanic basketball coach to make a gieatei effoit to get to know both hei Bispanic
anu non-Bispanic coaches bettei. Nost of these coaches pioveu to be goou mouels foi aiiiving at a
comfoitable mix of tiauitional anu mouein values anu belief systems.
Fiom the encouiagement she ieceiveu fiom hei coaches, Imelua maue gains in the activities
uomain; she joineu a suppoit gioup of Bispanic women in spoits in one of the local chuiches in
hei community. 0thei changes in the activities uomain incluueu having one of hei Bispanic
coaches accompany hei as she talkeu to hei gianupaients about hei commitment to spoits.
Fuithei, Imelua succeeueu in getting hei gianupaients to go to one of hei games. This impioveu
ielations between Imelua anu hei gianupaients. As they became piouu of hei achievements on
the couit, they began to view Imelua's accomplishments as an achievement foi the family.
In the infoimation, tiavel, anu meuia uomain, Imelua staiteu to ieau books anu magazine
aiticles about female athletes such as Nancy Lopez, Babe Zahaiias, anu some of the tennis playeis
fiom Spain who hau playeu at Wimbleuon. She shaieu these with hei paients anu gianupaients.
Imelua also attenueu a women's basketball clinic at a state univeisity. At the clinic she met othei
Bispanic women active in spoits who hau succeeueu in making a goou aujustment by combining
tiauitional anu mouein values.
/&*-$%. Foi Baiolu the fiist goal on the cultuial match goals list was to uevelop tiauitional
values with a view towaiu impioving his ielationship with his wife anu chiluien. In the
inteipeisonal uomain, the theiapist began by asking Baiolu to think of a sciipt that woulu
inciease his oppoitunities to inteiact with his wife. This task appealeu to Baiolu's uesiie to uo
things on his own; he immeuiately began taking notes anu ueveloping a sciipt. Be wiote, "You
mentioneu some time ago that the Ait League is having a ieception uuiing an opening at one of the
galleiies. I woulu like to go with you, if you woulun't minu." As with Imelua, the theiapist
uiscusseu the sciipt with Baiolu, iole-playeu it, anu aftei the necessaiy mouifications, askeu
Baiolu to enact it with his wife.
In the life activities uomain, the theiapist anu Baiolu examineu some possibilities foi
activities that coulu match his tiauitional cultuial style. They ueciueu Baiolu coulu use his inteiest
in photogiaphy to stiengthen his bonu with his wife anu chiluien. The family coulu go on
photogiaphy expeuitions togethei on weekenus; they woulu be able to uiive out to a scenic spot
oi histoiic sections of town anu each family membei woulu take photogiaphs. The family woulu
then talk about what they weie tiying to accomplish with composition of the pictuie, the subject
mattei, anu the lighting.
To uevelop changes in the infoimation, tiavel, anu meuia uomain, Baiolu began visiting
museums anu galleiies in neighboiing cities anu univeisities in the Bay Aiea. Be began ieauing
magazines anu books on photogiaphy anu ait, uiscoveiing a special inteiest in Leonaiuo ua vinci
anu otheis who hau combineu ait with science anu mathematics. Be anu his wife also planneu an
ait toui of Euiope foi the coming summei, something she hau wanteu to uo foi a long time.
)&*&. Taia neeueu to become moie mouein in the uomain of equality of genuei ioles in hei
intimate ielationships. In the inteipeisonal uomain the theiapist began by asking Taia to think of
a couple she knew whom she aumiieu because of the egalitaiianism in theii ielationship. She
iuentifieu a male cousin anu his spouse who hau been happily maiiieu foi twenty yeais. She
visiteu with this couple anu askeu about how they hau achieveu equality in theii ielationship. She
ieceiveu some useful auvise.
Following this, Taia paiticipateu in the sciiptwiiting activity with the theiapist. She neeueu to
uevelop a sciipt to uiscuss equality in the ielationship with the peison she was newly uating. 0ne
of the things she hau leaineu fiom hei cousin was that equality neeueu to be establisheu eaily in a
ielationship. Taia uevelopeu the following sciipt: "I neeu you to know that theie is something that
is impoitant to me in a ielationship, that it has to be fifty-fifty. We both have to feel that we have
equal say-so. What I leaineu fiom the pievious faileu ielationships is that I become unhappy when
I feel that things aie not equal."
In the activities uomain, the theiapist encouiageu Taia to join a local women's centei suppoit
gioup which focuseu on equality in intimate ielationships. In the infoimation, tiavel, anu meuia
uomain, the theiapist encouiageu Taia to ieau seveial books to help make hei ielationships moie
successful, incluuing:
NcNillan, T. (1994). *),&,$5 &9 !L')/#.
Noiwoou, R. (1991). *9C#$ *'9 ;9"# -99 ?16'
uiay, }. (1992). ?#$ J2# =29C ?)2+: *9C#$ J2# =29C R#$1+
Estes, C. P. (199S). *9C#$ *'9 (1$ H,&' &'# *9/"#+
Beck, N. B. (1989). ;9"# K+ E#"#2 !$915'
'&($. Raul neeueu to uevelop his mixeu tiauitional anu mouein values ieflective of his
multicultuialmultiiacial backgiounu anu expeiiences in his aitwoik. In oiuei to fulfill the
inteipeisonal uomain, he joineu an inteinational ait school in a neaiby city anu began to take
couises theie. Be was able to meet anu woik collaboiatively with Native Ameiican, Nexican
Ameiican, Nexican, Asian Ameiican, anu Afiican Ameiican aitists.
In the infoimation, tiavel, anu meuia uomain, Raul staiteu to take tiips to Santa Fe, New
Nexico, anu San Fiancisco, Califoinia. Buiing these visits he was able to obseive the confluence of
cultuies thiough ait. Be also ieau books about Native Ameiican, Afiican Ameiican, Asian, anu
Latino ait.
Strateg|es for Meet|ng Cogn|t|ve Sty|e Coa|s
In auuition to establishing anu meeting cultuial style goals, clients anu theiapists also stiive to
meet cognitive style goals in Sessions S thiough S. These also incluue goals in the inteipeisonal
uomain; the activities uomain; anu the infoimation, tiavel, anu meuia uomain.
!"#$%&. The theiapist anu Imelua focuseu on one of the cognitive styles match goals iuentifieu
in Session 2: the neeu to fuithei uevelop Imelua's fielu sensitive cognitive style in the
leainingpioblem-solving aiea. The fiist step was foi Imelua to examine hei enviionment anu
iuentify a peison who might seive as a mouel foi hei. Aftei some uiscussion, she anu the theiapist
iuentifieu one of Imelua's peeis, a stuuent uesciibeu by Imelua as being successful as a piefeiieu
fielu sensitive stuuent. This time Imelua was able to uevelop hei sciipt without much help fiom
the theiapist. She then iole-playeu the sciipt with the theiapist, anu togethei they maue some
minoi mouifications. As hei homewoik assignment, Imelua exploieu the iuea of appioaching hei
fiienu foi help on some of hei schoolwoik. She caiiieu out the assignment, took notes, anu
ievieweu them at the next session with the theiapist.
In the activities uomain, Imelua appioacheu the theiapist with the suggestion of woiking as a
volunteei in a piogiam to tutoi chiluien in one of the economically uepiesseu neighboihoous in
hei community. The theiapist helpeu hei to see that this coulu not only help to fuithei uevelop
hei fielu sensitive leaining style by hei obseivation of it in otheis, but it coulu help hei to uevelop
hei fielu sensitive teaching, counseling, anu supeivisoiy style as well. Be suggesteu that she be
obseivant of those chiluien whose cognitive styles may be piefeiieu fielu inuepenuent as well,
because this expeiience coulu seive as an eaily intiouuction to the next phase of multicultuial
psychotheiapy: mismatch.
Biscussion of infoimation, tiavel, anu meuia expeiiences, which might encouiage Imelua to
uevelop hei piefeiieu fielu sensitive style, leu to the iuea of hei visiting ielatives in Nexico. Theie
she was able to visit one of hei aunts, a teachei in a Nexican school, wheie fielu sensitive
leaining pioblem-solving styles aie emphasizeu. Buiing hei tiip Imelua uiscusseu teim papeis
she was woiking on with hei aunt. The aunt gave Imelua some iueas foi using a fielu sensitive
style in hei English classes. She also lent Imelua some of the texts anu woikbooks useu in
giammai anu liteiatuie classes in Nexico. Imelua anu the theiapist ievieweu these anu iuentifieu
mateiials that coulu be helpful in Imelua's uevelopment.
/&*-$%. The cognitive style goal on which Baiolu ueciueu to focus was his communication
style. Be anu the theiapist agieeu that Baiolu woulu uevelop his fielu sensitive communication
style to bettei match those of his wife anu chiluien, anu also to fuithei uevelop the piefeiieu style,
which he hau abanuoneu aftei his biothei's ueath.
Within the inteipeisonal uomain, the theiapist encouiageu Baiolu to ieview his social
enviionment anu iuentify a peison with the best fielu sensitive communication style he hau
known. Baiolu iecalleu a piofessoi at his alma matei who was highly uevelopeu in teims of fielu
sensitive communication style. When Baiolu was a stuuent, it was this piofessoi who hau
encouiageu him to take up photogiaphy as a hobby. Baiolu uevelopeu a sciipt foi appioaching the
piofessoi anu, aftei tiying the sciipt out with the theiapist, maue some minoi changes. Baiolu
then planneu foi implementing the sciipt anu foi evaluating its effectiveness.
In an effoit to match his fielu sensitive style within the activities uomain, Baiolu eniolleu in
auvanceu photogiaphy classes at one of the community colleges neai his home. In the infoimation,
tiavel, anu meuia uomain, Baiolu anu his wife went on a Euiopean toui that incluueu seminais in
ait anu photogiaphy. Both the content anu the teaching style of classes as uesciibeu in the tiavel
biochuies seemeu to be pieuominantly fielu sensitive in oiientation.
+$#,. Alex was encounteiing some uifficulty in a iequiieu statistics anu ieseaich uesign
couise he was taking; thus, his fiist cognitive style goal was to uevelop some fielu inuepenuent
leainingpioblem-solving style skills. Aftei a shoit uiscussion with the theiapist iegaiuing people
in his class with whom he ielateu well anu who coulu be goou mouels foi leaining fielu
inuepenuent skills, Alex iuentifieu }anet. Be uesciibeu hei as being bicognitive anu socially
sensitive; she hau maue an A on theii last exam. Be felt }anet woulu be ieceptive to his iequest
that they stuuy togethei. Be uevelopeu a sciipt, uiscusseu it with the theiapist, anu pioceeueu to
iole-play it. Be then caiiieu it out successfully.
In the activities uomain, the theiapist askeu Alex to mouify the content of the piactice
pioblems in his statistics book by incluuing some infoimation about people anu cultuies he hau
been familiai with. The theiapist assisteu him initially; Alex then was able to uo this on his own. In
the infoimation, tiavel anu meuia uomain, the theiapist iecommenueu two books on ieseaich
methous that weie wiitten in a bicognitive style.
Tony. Tony's fiist goal in the cognitive styles uomain conceineu his being able to uevelop a
moie fielu sensitive communication style when uealing with his auolescent chiluien. Be was
conceineu about a negative iepoit fiom school about theii behavioi. Tony iepoiteu his chiluien
weie "not listening to me anu being 6)D#@139+" (haiuheaueu oi stubboin). The theiapist askeu
him to consiuei that the appioach he hau been using hau been too uiiect anu that they might ieact
moie positively if he gave them an oppoitunity to piesent theii siue of the stoiy. The theiapist
suggesteu that Tony allow his chiluien to explain theii feelings at the time the events in question
hau occuiieu. Tony anu the theiapist wiote a sciipt togethei.
The theiapist was awaie that clients who aie tiauitional in theii value systems, as Tony is,
may feel that sciiptwiiting anu iole-playing aie too much like a game, anu they might feel insulteu
by the activity. The theiapist anticipateu this ieseivation anu explaineu that these activities aie
valuable teaching tools anu that he woulu uemonstiate fiist. Be also assuieu Tony that if he felt
uncomfoitable, they woulu uiscontinue the piactice anu tiy something else. Initially Tony was
ieluctant but once he became engageu in the task he enjoyeu it. Be useu the bioau outline of the
sciipt, wiitten paitly in English anu paitly in Spanish, the way Tony anu his chiluien
communicate.
In the activities uomain, the theiapist askeu Tony to iuentify someone in his life whom he
aumiieu anu who was fielu sensitive in communication style with auolescents. Tony iuentifieu a
69CA)32# (close fiienu) who was the goufathei of two of his chiluien anu who hau a close anu
waim ielationship with his auolescent son anu uaughtei. The theiapist askeu Tony to obseive his
69CA)32# closely when he inteiacteu with membeis of his family anu to incoipoiate some of what
he leaineu in his sciipts.
In the infoimation, tiavel, anu meuia uomain, the theiapist suggesteu that Tony watch
&#/#$9"#/)+ (Tv soap opeias in Spanish) that uemonstiateu fielu sensitive communication styles
between auults anu auolescents oi youngei auults.
Conform|ty ressures and the Adopt|on of a Ia|se Se|f
Recognizing anu oveicoming piessuies to confoim aie examineu in Sessions 4 anu S. The
following aie the thiee components to this phase of client empoweiment:
1. Becoming awaie of confoimity piessuies both with iespect to the souice anu the type of
piessuie
2. Becoming awaie of the mismatch situations most associateu with confoimity piessuies
S. Avoiuing self-ciiticism anu othei types of negative thinking that coulu iesult in falling
back into the styles of the false self
!"#$%&. Imelua anu the theiapist uiscusseu those people anu institutions that weie the
gieatest souice of piessuies to confoim. They iuentifieu hei paients, gianupaients, boyfiienu, anu
school. These peoplehei paients, gianupaients, anu boyfiienuweie the gieatest souice of
confoimity piessuies foi cultuial styles. Bei school, on the othei hanu, anu moie specifically hei
English teachei, weie the gieatest souice of this type of piessuie with iespect to cognitive styles.
The theiapist anu Imelua uiscusseu how these piessuies weie applieu to hei anu how she
expeiienceu them. The focus heie was on the negative thinking tiiggeieu by these piessuies: "I
tell myself I'm being too uiffeient, too iebellious, that I'm not obeuient, that I'm bau."
With the help of the theiapist, Imelua became awaie of mismatch situations in hei uaily life.
She came to iecognize that on the uays she was playing in a game, hei paients anu gianupaients
applieu the stiongest piessuie to have hei confoim to the tiauitional cultuial style. This usually
leu to heateu aiguments, upsetting Imelua, anu affecting hei concentiation uuiing the game. It was
at these times, she iealizeu, that she was most vulneiable to falling back into the styles of hei false
self.
/&*-$%. An analysis of the souices of piessuies to confoim foi Baiolu iuentifieu his fathei, his
paitneis, anu the piofessional societies to which he belongeu. Baiolu uiscoveieu that he
expeiienceu this piessuie as guilt: "I feel like I'm letting my paitneis uown; I feel that I cannot be
the kinu of son my fathei always wanteu, especially since my biothei passeu away. When I am
with my colleagues at piofessional meetings, I feel that I uon't ieally belong with them, with theii
inteiests anu ways of uoing thingsI feel like a misfit."
Foi Baiolu the stiongest instances of piessuies to confoim weie when he visiteu his fathei oi
they talkeu on the phone. Baiolu was especially awaie of the piessuies when they talkeu about
business oi about his new iueas foi piouuct uevelopment. They got along well when they
uiscusseu othei topics such as politics oi spoits. With his paitneis Baiolu iecognizeu that the
stiongest piessuies to confoim, especially with iespect to cognitive styles, weie exeiteu when he
maue a piesentation about his iueas foi new piouuct uevelopment oi when he uiscusseu
peisonnel pioblems with them.
In the aiea of avoiuing self-blame, self-ciiticism, anu othei foims of negative thinking, the
theiapist woikeu with both Imelua anu Baiolu to get them to iecognize theii tenuencies towaiu
these foims of thinking. These cognitive uistoitions, iuentifieu by Ellis (197u) anu by Beck (1976)
in theii woik with neuiotic anu uepiesseu clients, often tiiggei a ietuin to the cognitive style of
the false self.
)&*&. Confoimity piessuies foi Taia centeieu in the uemanus of hei paients that she get
maiiieu anu settle uown so that hei uaughtei coulu have a goou home. Confoimity piessuies weie
also coming fiom hei ex-boyfiienu by way of Tamisha. Without Taia's peimission, he was going to
Tamisha's school anu telling hei he misseu hei mothei anu hei, that he woulu like to live with
them again so that he coulu become hei ieal uauuy, anu that they coulu all be a ieal family like
those most of hei classmates hau. In theiapy Taia saiu, "I usually think that I neeu to uo what is
best foi Tamisha anu me: that I neeu to give myself time to finish my uegiee anu get settleu in my
new job anu my new home, but I begin to question myself when my paients keep lectuiing me
about making up with my ex-boyfiienu anu maiiying him, because I neeu to think about
Tamisha's futuie. I winu up feeling guilty anu questioning my uecisions."
To exeit some contiol ovei the ex-boyfiienu's confoimity piessuies, with the theiapist's
suppoit, Taia talkeu to the school peisonnel anu infoimeu them that he coulu no longei see hei
uaughtei uuiing school houis. She also confionteu hei mothei anu was veiy cleai in letting hei
know why she hau bioken up with hei ex-boyfiienu anu askeu both of hei paients to iespect hei
iight to make uecisions foi Tamisha anu heiself.
Lnhanc|ng Se|f-Lsteem
A necessaiy accompaniment to the stiategies foi empoweiment is the uevelopment of client's
self-esteem anu sense of masteiy. The theiapist not only assists clients in facilitating self-
uiscoveiy, but also helps clients iecognize that they shoulu be piouu of theii unique selves.
Fuithei, the theiapist helps clients to iecognize anu enjoy the iewaius that iesult fiom match
expeiiences. Finally, the theiapist assists clients in iealizing the positive aspects of feeling that
they aie gaining contiol ovei theii own uestiny.
=#$EI+>>#B;&0>#. Imelua expiesseu hei giowth in self-acceptance anu piiue in the feeling that
she uiu not have to be as uepenuent on otheis foi suppoit as she hau been: "I feel that I can iely on
myself moie now. I like myself moie, anu I uon't feel that I neeu otheis to appiove of me as much
anymoie."
Baiolu's giowing piiue in his unique self anu his self-acceptance weie ieflecteu in his feelings
of enthusiasm about his woik: "I feel exciteu about my woik anu my iueas again. I feel cieative foi
the fiist time in a long time."
J&.;#*1. Foi Imelua, gaining moie contiol ovei hei life anu feeling less like a victim of
ciicumstances was a iesult of knowing what to anticipate. The feeling that she coulu ueal with
situations moie effectively without getting upset anu angiy auueu to this iealization of masteiy: "I
know what's coming now, anu I feel moie piepaieu foi it. I uon't lose my tempei as much as I useu
to, because I no longei feel like I have to convince people; I just tell them how I feel anu then take
it as it is. Theie aie no longei the big conflicts I hau with my paients anu gianupaients."
Foi Baiolu, masteiy was equateu with the loss of the feeling of uisoiientation anu confusion:
"I feel at peace with myself. I feel I unueistanu myself anu otheis bettei." Nasteiy foi Taia meant
making hei own uecisions anu feeling comfoitable about them. Foi Tony it meant feeling that he
coulu still be an effective paient to his chiluien in spite of his physical uisability. Be coulu still be a
goou iole mouel to them. Foi Alex, masteiy iepiesenteu his ability to tell the tiuth to his paients
anu to feel comfoitable about foiging an iuentity as both Asian Ameiican anu gay. Rose's sense of
masteiy involveu aiiiving at the iealization that hei loss of vision woulu not inteifeie with hei
goal of continuing to be a teachei, a goou paient, anu leauing an inuepenuent lifestyle.
Summary of Sess|ons 3 through S
Sessions S,4, anu S incluueu the following nine techniques anu pioceuuies:
1. Selection of a cultuial match goal fiom the list uevelopeu uuiing the seconu session.
2. Iuentification of a mouel.
S. Piojection of empathy vis--vis the mouel.
4. Iuentification of the mouel's piefeiieu styles.
S. Bevelopment of a sciipt foi appioaching the mouel.
6. Role-playing.
7. Assignment of homewoik: enacting the sciipt.
8. Evaluation of homewoik.
9. Nouification of sciipt anu ieenactment (if necessaiy).
These pioceuuies anu techniques aie also useu foi achieving the following cognitive match
goals:
Awaieness of souices of confoimity piessuies.
Iuentification of mismatch situations associateu with confoimity piessuies.
Avoiuance of self-ciiticism anu cognitive uistoitions.
Bevelopment of feelings of self-acceptance anu masteiy.
SLSSICNS 6 1nkCUGn 10:
LNCCUkAGING CUL1UkAL AND CCGNI1IVL ILLk
In this phase of theiapy, the theiapist helps the client to uevelop unfamiliai, oi nonpiefeiieu,
cultuial anu cognitive styles in oiuei to initiate the piocess of multicultuial peisonality
uevelopment. The theiapist also encouiages the uevelopment of client masteiy anu
empoweiment.
Some clients have useu vaiious aspects of these unfamiliai oi less- piefeiieu styles in theii
effoits to confoim (i.e., in theii false selves) in the face of confoimity piessuies. Foi example,
Imelua tiieu to foice heiself to be fielu inuepenuent in hei cognitive style even though she was
piefeiieu fielu sensitive. She uiu this because she felt piessuieu to behave like most of hei
classmates. Baiolu, on the othei hanu, tiieu to auopt a moueinistic oiientation in his ielationships
with his wife anu chiluien in his effoit to be moie like his fathei. This phase of theiapy involves
the use of mismatch. Nismatch is intiouuceu to the client giauually, in the context of match, anu
only aftei the client feels comfoitable with his unique self.
As the theiapist intiouuces clients to mismatch, she continues to match client's piefeiieu
cognitive anu cultuial styles to encouiage the continueu uevelopment of the piefeiieu styles while
the unfamiliai styles aie being uevelopeu.
D|str|but|on of the Sess|ons
As uiscusseu in the match phase of theiapy, the theiapist makes a uecision about the numbei
of sessions necessaiy foi achieving the client's mismatch goals, baseu on the numbei of goals to be
achieveu anu the client's iate of piogiess. Some clients iequiie moie time, otheis less. Since
successful accomplishment of homewoik tasks is a ciucial pait of this phase of theiapy, the
numbei of sessions neeueu will uepenu on the uifficulty of achieving the goals, the motivation of
the client, anu the iapiuity with which the techniques of the multicultuial mouel can be leaineu.
!0;*-%(>60: J6."&;>7. Nismatch is intiouuceu only aftei the client has oveicome most of
the negative symptoms of the mismatch synuiome. The client shoulu feel comfoitable anu self-
confiuent. Feelings of alienation, angei, anxiety, anu uefensiveness shoulu have subsiueu befoie
mismatch is intiouuceu.
The theiapist shoulu postpone the intiouuction of mismatch piocesses until the client begins
to feel some piiue in the unique self anu some sense of masteiy ovei his oi hei own uestiny. To
avoiu ieemeigence of the symptoms of the mismatch synuiome, mismatch shoulu always be
intiouuceu giauually anu with caution.
The piocesses anu techniques of theiapy useu to achieve mismatch goals aie similai to those
useu to achieve match goals: Theie is an examination of the client's social enviionment foi the
puipose of iuentifying peisons anu institutions the client shoulu leain to match. Again, as with
match, techniques incluue empathy piojection; sciiptwiiting; iole-playing; homewoik
assignments to tiy out sciipts; assessment; anu, if necessaiy, iewoiking of the sciipts anu tiying
again.
In auuition to the step-by-step piocess summaiizeu pieviously, the pioceuuies foi
accomplishing mismatch goals intiouuce two new theiapeutic techniques: awaieness of feelings
anu awaieness of uiveisity challenges. Awaieness of feelings is an intiospective technique
iequiiing the clients to iecognize theii feelings at a given moment in time. Clients ask themselves,
"Flow am I feeling iight now. Is this the iight time foi me to attempt match." Awaieness of
feelings is impoitant when clients aie tiying to match people oi institutions with whom they have
expeiienceu conflicts.
Biveisity challenges aie similai to the emeision appioach useu foi teaching languages: The
peison is placeu in a situation wheie only the new language is spoken. In multicultuial
psychotheiapy, clients aie encouiageu to inteiact with peisons oi to auapt to sociocultuial
enviionments that can stimulate uevelopment of the new values anu peisonality chaiacteiistics
they will neeu to achieve flex. Biveisity challenges iequiie the peison to auopt new styles
piomoting the uevelopment of flex.
)*&%6;6-0&$ +%-B;60: J-%#*06.;6>. 0ne of Imelua's mismatch goals was to auopt
moueinistic values anu belief systems in uomains othei than equality in genuei ioles. Achieving
this goal woulu make it possible foi hei to uevelop a wiuei anu moie uiveise ciicle of fiienus. The
piocess followeu in achieving Imelua's fiist mismatch goal incluueu the theiapist's ieview of the
uefinitions of mouein values anu belief systems, as well as examples he hau piesenteu to hei
when he intiouuceu the flex theoiy of peisonality uuiing the seconu session (see Chaptei 7):
When we discussed values in our second session, I said that modern values are
typical of people who live in large cities. They are also typical of those who tend
to be members of liberal Protestant religions and whose lives are relatively free
of the pressures of tradition and family. People with modern values tend to be
individualistic in their orientations to life. Some examples of modern values,
which I presented at that time, included individual competition and achievement
and independence from the family. Do you think you would be okay trying values
like these?
With this question the theiapist gave Imelua the oppoitunity to expiess any ieseivations she
might have about tiying out behaviois ieflecting mouein values. These ieseivations coulu have
taken two foims: feeling uncomfoitable using nonpiefeiieu styles because these aie associateu
with piessuies to confoim oi feelings of uiscomfoit because they aie associateu with inuiviuuals
oi with institutions with which the client has hau negative expeiiences in the past. In Imelua's
case, she saiu that she hau some tiouble accepting mouein values because they weie associateu
with the piessuies to confoim she hau expeiienceu fiom hei fathei anu stepmothei. She also
iepoiteu that mouein values maue hei uncomfoitable because she associateu them with the
paients of a Caucasian boy she hau once uateu anu whom she felt hau iejecteu hei because she
was Bispanic.
At the same time, Imelua saiu, "I feel as if I'm alieauy leaining to use mouein values because I
am spenuing moie time with my coaches. uetting closei to the Anglo coaches has also helpeu me
to iealize that not all Anglos aie the same." The theiapist ieinfoiceu hei foi this insight.
The theiapist anu Imelua ievieweu hei social enviionment in oiuei to iuentify people anu
institutions that coulu help hei to achieve hei mismatch goals. They also examineu the notes fiom
hei life histoiy. The seaich leu to the iuentification of Betty, one of hei Caucasian teammates who
was inuiviuually competitive anu who seemeu financially anu emotionally inuepenuent of hei
family.
Foi Imelua, the thiiu step in ueveloping mismatch goals was empathy piojection. She anu the
theiapist uiscusseu Betty:
THERAPIST: What do you think Betty wants out of life?
IMELDA: Well, I think she wants to be the best player on the team because she
likes to have her name mentioned in assemblies when we win games. There
have been times when I have disliked her because of the way she isso
competitive and all; but she has been friendly to me. She has invited me to
parties at her house and at her friends' houses.
Awaieness of feelings is yet anothei technique the theiapist useu with Imelua to encouiage
hei to auopt moueinistic values:
THERAPIST: How do you feel right now?
IMELDA: I don't feel so good; I'm upset because my Dad and I got into a big
argument about my half-sister again last night.
THERAPIST: So this would not be a good time for you to try to match someone
like Betty. You need to try it when you're feeling better about things.
IMELDA: Yes, I see. That makes sense. Otherwise, I'm likely to botch it up, right?
Imelua anu the theiapist uiscusseu the possible sciipt Imelua coulu use to appioach hei
teammate foi help. Recognizing that Imelua was fielu sensitive in teims of leainingpioblem-
solving style, the theiapist moueleu foi hei anu woikeu coopeiatively with hei in ueveloping the
sciipt. 0sing a laige pau on an easel, the theiapist began by making suggestions anu then
encouiageu Imelua to come up with iueas. As the piocess continueu, Imelua uiu moie anu moie of
the woik on hei own.
Aftei Imelua was satisfieu with hei sciipt, she anu the theiapist iole- playeu it, making
changes suggesteu as the ioles weie testeu. Imelua ueciueu when anu wheie to actually tiy the
sciipt with Betty; she ueciueu to appioach hei uuiing the next piactice session anu ask hei if she
coulu walk home with hei since they liveu neai one anothei. Immeuiately aftei tiying out the
sciipt with Betty, Imelua evaluateu its effectiveness.
A seconu mismatch goal that Imelua anu the theiapist iuentifieu was to leain to communicate
in a fielu inuepenuent style. They felt that this style woulu be moie effective in matching the
piefeiieu style of hei English teachei, anu that a successful match might make the teachei moie
ieceptive to becoming moie flexible in hei teaching style. The piocess foi achieving this goal
incluueu the theiapist's ieviewing the uefinition anu examples of the fielu inuepenuent cognitive
style with a focus on communication styles:
THERAPIST: When we talked about cognitive styles, I said that field
independent styles were usually the preferred styles of people who are modern in
their cultural style. We talked about how preferred field independent people
communicate with others in messages that are short and to-the-point. These
people usually do not include any personal information or feelings in what they
say.
IMELDA: Yes, that describes my English teacher.
THERAPIST: Do you think it would be hard for you to communicate in a field
independent style?
IMELDA: I can do it, but I have a negative reaction to it because that's the way
my parents talk to me when they are angry with me. Besides, I don't think I have
been able to ever get along with teachers who talk that way. Lately, though, I
have noticed that some of my coaches talk that way and I do like them, so I
guess it's okay.
As Imelua iecognizeu that some of hei coaches useu the fielu inuepenuent style to
communicate, she iuentifieu one of them as the peison she coulu tiy hei sciipt with once it was
uevelopeu. The theiapist leu Imelua in empathy piojection:
THERAPIST: What do you think your English teacher wants out of life?
IMELDA: I think she wants to be voted the best teacher so that she can get the
annual teaching award.
THERAPIST: How do you think she is feeling these days?
IMELDA: She was one of three teachers nominated for the award, so I think she
feels pretty good right now.
Again, the theiapist ieminus Imelua to monitoi hei own feelings anu to choose a time to tiy
hei sciipt when she is not angiy oi upset. Imelua anu the theiapist uiscusseu a possible sciipt,
wiote one, anu iole-playeu it, making changes as they saw necessaiy. Imelua tiieu out the sciipt,
evaluateu it, anu mouifieu it. Aftei tiial anu evaluation, the theiapist anu client iewoikeu it as
necessaiy until they weie satisfieu with it.
Concuiiently with sciiptwiiting anu homewoik assignments foi achieving mismatch goals,
Imelua, with the help of the theiapist, was also iuentifying uiveisity challenges she woulu tiy:
1. She woulu go to a paity wheie she was likely to be the only Bispanic. Imelua hau tuineu
uown Betty's eailiei invitations since she hau been uncomfoitable with the thought of
being the only Bispanic in the gioup. Accepting an invitation now woulu be a goou
immeision oppoitunity foi leaining how to use moueinistic values in inteipeisonal
ielationships.
2. Imelua ueciueu to paiticipate in teachei-stuuent get-acquainteu sessions sponsoieu by
the stuuent council. This expeiience woulu give Imelua an oppoitunity to inteiact with
teacheis who weie fielu inuepenuent in communication style. It woulu also pioviue an
oppoitunity to tiy out the fielu inuepenuent communication behaviois she was leaining
thiough sciiptwiiting anu iole-playing with the theiapist.
Thioughout this phase of theiapy, the theiapist gave Imelua social iewaius as she piogiesseu.
Be gave fiequent encouiagement by saying "I'm veiy piouu of the piogiess you aie making."
Realizing Imelua's piefeiieu styles, the theiapist useu moueling as a teaching style in
ueveloping the sciipts anu in iole-playing them while Imelua watcheu, saying, foi example: "Beie
is the way I woulu uo it." Then he uemonstiateu what he woulu say anu uo when communicating
with someone who was piefeiieu fielu inuepenuent.
Summary of Sess|ons 6 through 10
In summaiy, Sessions 6 thiough 1u focuseu on the intiouuction of mismatch using the
following seven techniques anu pioceuuies:
1. Reviewing the chaiacteiistics of unfamiliai cultuial anu cognitive styles.
2. Allowing the client to expiess feelings about these values anu styles.
S. Reviewing the client's social enviionment anu life histoiy inteiview notes in oiuei to
iuentify people anu institutions that can help the client to achieve mismatch goals.
4. Piojecting empathy.
S. Being awaie of feelings.
6. Sciiptwiiting anu iole-playing.
7. Enacting anu evaluating sciipts.
SUMMAk
The seconu stage of multicultuial psychotheiapy focuses on encouiaging clients to accept
theii unique selves anu initiates the piocess of flex uevelopment. The piincipal stiategies anu
techniques employeu aie sciiptwiiting, iole-playing, anu homewoik assignments.
9
ASSESSMENT OF PROGRESS IN FLEX
DEVELOPMENT
0nce the mismatch phase of multicultuial psychotheiapy is well unueiway, the theiapist
shoulu ieassess the client in oiuei to gage the client's piogiess in the vaiious aieas anu uomains
of cultuial anu cognitive styles anu flex uevelopment. The infoimation obtaineu can be compaieu
with the uata obtaineu fiom the initial assessment. The compaiison helps the theiapist ueteimine
the neeu to make changes in the theiapeutic plan anu shoulu answei two piincipal questions: Bow
many anu which of the goals have been met. Which uomains oi aieas of cultuial anu cognitive
styles will iequiie auuitional woik. Foi most people this ieassessment can be uone in Session 11
oi 12, uepenuing on the piogiess maue by the client. Foi otheis it may be uone eailiei. The
theiapist is the best juuge of when it is best to assess piogiess.
The assessment phase of multicultuial psychotheiapy also is the time foi the theiapist to
conuuct a self-evaluation. This evaluation will focus on whethei the theiapist is matching anu
mismatching the client effectively, on whethei to give auuitional emphasis to ceitain stiategies, oi
to ceitain uomains of cultuial anu cognitive styles; anu on whethei the theiapist's cultuial anu
cognitive style piefeiences aie in any way inteifeiing with the uevelopment of client flex.
Client anu theiapist assessment is multimoual. It involves the use of peisonality anu value
inventoiies, behavioial (veibal anu nonveibal) iatings, anu the evaluation of the uegiee of
piogiess maue in homewoik assignments. This chaptei ieviews both the assessment pioceuuies
foi clients anu theiapists anu the feeuback pioceuuies useu with the client aftei the assessment
iesults have been evaluateu.
ASSLSSING CLILN1 kCGkLSS
The theiapist intiouuces the assessing piogiess phase of theiapy by emphasizing the neeu to
ieview the uegiee of change maue with iegaiu to the theiapeutic plan establisheu in Session 2 oi
S. The theiapist then ieauministeis the instiuments useu uuiing the initial session.
To evaluate cultuial style, the theiapist again uses the Family Attituue Scale (FAS), the
Tiauitionalism-Noueinism Inventoiy (TNI), the Piefeiieu Cultuial Styles 0bseivation Checklist,
anu the Nulticultuial Expeiience Inventoiy (NEI). Aftei ieauministeiing the FAS anu the
Tiauitionalism- Noueinism Inventoiy, the theiapist focuses on each of the thiee scoies: the total
tiauitionalism scoie, the total moueinism scoie, anu the tiauitionalism-moueinism balance scoie.
The new total tiauitionalism anu the total moueinism scoies aie compaieu to the scoies fiom the
initial auministiation of the instiuments.
The changes in scoies aie consiueieu in light of the client's goals with iespect to the neeu to
be moie tiauitional, oi moie mouein, in cultuial style. The tiauitionalism-moueinism balance
scoie is a ciucial inuicatoi of piogiess towaiu the uevelopment of cultuial flex, because it is
aiiiveu at by auuing the total tiauitionalism scoie anu the total moueinism scoie. The balance
scoie is also compaieu to the balance scoie obtaineu aftei the fiist auministiation of the TNI.
Ratings maue by the theiapist on the Cultuial Styles 0bseivation Checklist uuiing the session
piioi to the assessment session aie compaieu to those maue uuiing the fiist session. The
following aie the main aieas of focus:
Behaviois (veibal anu nonveibal) associateu with tiauitional values
Behaviois (veibal anu nonveibal) associateu with mouein values
The uegiee of balance between tiauitional anu mouein behaviois
Behaviois that aie ieflective of a combination of tiauitional anu mouein values
The theiapist uiiects the client to complete the Nulticultuial Expeiience Inventoiy again. The
total scoie is compaieu to that obtaineu uuiing its pievious auministiation. Compaiison of scoies
on inuiviuual items, such as being involveu in moie activities with people of othei ethnic gioups
(fiom the Contempoiaiy Nulticultuial Iuentity items), is also impoitant.
The total scoie on the NEI may be moie impoitant as an inuicatoi of piogiess foi some clients
than it is foi otheis. With iespect to foui of the case stuuies piesenteu in this book, the total scoie
was moie impoitant to Imelua, Taia, anu Raul than it was to Baiolu. Foi Baiolu, the moie
impoitant goal of multicultuialism, at least at that point in time, involveu being moie flexible in
cultuial anu cognitive styles within his own cultuial gioup, while it was less impoitant foi him to
ielate moie effectively to membeis of othei sociocultuial gioups.
To evaluate the client's piogiess in cognitive flex, iatings on the Piefeiieu Cognitive Styles
0bseivation Checklist maue uuiing Sessions 1 anu 2 aie compaieu with iatings maue uuiing the
sessions piioi to the assessment session. The theiapist evaluates specific uomains of cognitive
style such as communication anu leainingpioblem-solving. Be iates behaviois, both veibal anu
nonveibal, associateu with fielu sensitivity anu with fielu inuepenuence. 0sing the checklist, the
theiapist also examines the uegiee of balance between fielu inuepenuent anu fielu sensitive
behaviois as well as the uevelopment of behaviois ieflecting a combination of the two cognitive
styles. The theiapist also ieauministeis the Bicognitive 0iientation to Life Scale to compaie with
iesponses given to those items uuiing the initial auministiation.
In auuition to piogiess inuicateu by the Piefeiieu Cultuial anu Cognitive Styles 0bseivation
Checklists anu the uiffeient assessment instiuments, the theiapist examines the piogiess maue on
homewoik assignments anu uiveisity challenges. Still anothei inuicatoi of piogiess in
multicultuial theiapy is the uevelopment of moie positive attituues towaiu people anu gioups
whom the client consiueis to be uiffeient fiom himself. 0ne gage of success on the homewoik
assignments is the iatings anu notes maue by the client aftei completion of implementation of
sciipts.
The uegiee of piogiess maue in uiveisity challenges is also useful in assessing oveiall
piogiess. At this time, the theiapist evaluates the numbei of challenges unueitaken anu the
uegiee of success, as juugeu by the client, achieveu on each. The theiapist also ieviews piogiess
on homewoik assignments, on uiveisity challenges, anu on the client's change in attituues anu
steieotypes iegaiuing people anu gioups uiffeient fiom himself.
ILLD8ACk 1C 1nL CLILN1
Feeuback to the client shoulu be uone uuiing the session following the ieauministiation of the
assessment instiuments. Befoie shaiing the iesults of the ieevaluation with the client, the
theiapist must ensuie that a goou iappoit has been establisheu. In all cases, the positive feeuback
shoulu be given befoie any baiiieis to giowth aie uiscusseu.
With piefeiieu fielu sensitive anu tiauitional clients, such as Imelua, the theiapist is auviseu
to stait with the global pictuie anu then pioceeu to specifics, anu to use peisonal examples fiom
theiapy notes to peisonalize the feeuback as much as possible. Foi the piefeiieu fielu
inuepenuent anu mouein client, such as Baiolu, howevei, the theiapist shoulu stait with uetails
anu woik up to the global, emphasizing concepts iathei than peisonalizing communications. With
clients of mixeu style, such as Alex anu Raul, the theiapist shoulu begin with the global pictuie anu
then pioceeu to specifics. With Rose, also a mixeu client but one who is a piefeiieu fielu
inuepenuent, the initial appioach is on self-efficacy goals then it moves to the big pictuie anu
finally focuses in on goals ielating to impiovement of ielationships with otheis.
The client must be encouiageu to unueistanu the impoitance of active paiticipation in those
situations necessaiy to change the theiapeutic plan anuoi to uevelop stiategies foi goals that
have not yet been achieveu. Exceipts fiom the feeuback given to two of the case stuuy clients,
Imelua anu Baiolu, illustiate the pioceuuies anu stiategies implementeu to mouify the
theiapeutic plan anuoi to woik moie effectively on those goals on which little oi no piogiess has
been maue.
Case Stud|es
Note that the feeuback is inuiviuualizeu to match the unique peisonality style of each client; in
these examples, uesciiptions of effoits to match aie set off by italics in biackets.
!"#$%&. Imelua's piefeiieu cultuial anu cognitive styles aie tiauitional anu fielu sensitive,
iespectively. Theiefoie, the theiapist is uiiective in his appioach anu peisonalizes feeuback. Be
also emphasizes social iewaius anu impiovement of sense of community with iespect to theiapy
goals achieveu. Beie is an exceipt fiom some of the feeuback the theiapist gave INELBA:
The assessment I have done shows that you are making excellent progress in
developing modern cultural styles. You're also making good progress in
developing the field independent cognitive style. You have continued to develop
in the traditional cultural style and in the field sensitive cognitive style as well.
You seem to be getting along better with othersparents, grandparents,
teachers, coaches, and friends. I'm very proud of your progress [personalizing
and giving social rewards].
The results of the Traditionalism-Modernism Inventory (the pre-revised
version of the TMI is presented in Appendix M| show that your modernism score
is now 42 compared with 38 when you first took the inventory about ten weeks
ago. What impresses me most is your balance, or flex, score: When you first took
the Traditionalism-Modernism Inventory, your score was lopsided in the direction
of traditionalism, but this time your score indicated that you are more balanced in
your cultural styles.
On the ratings I have made in our sessions, I notice that you are tending to
use both traditional and modern behaviors; in the first few sessions, most of your
behaviors were traditional. I'm also impressed by how well you've done on your
homework assignments and on diversity challenges. I looked through the ratings
you made after your homework and diversity challenges; they indicate that you
were successful in what you did.
Your attitude toward Caucasian peers and teachers at your school has also
improved a great deal. You started out making angry and negative comments
about Caucasians in the first few sessions, but these have been replaced by
more positive statements in the last four sessions. The results of the
Multiculturalism Experience Inventory also show that you are now doing more
things with Caucasian friends and with your Caucasian coaches and teachers.
The results of the assessment show that you have made good progress in
learning how to use field independent cognitive styles. The results of the
Bicognitive Orientation to Life Scale show that your field independent score has
risen from 12 to 32. At the same time your field sensitive score and bicognitive
flex, or balance, scores have also improved.
The ratings on the Preferred Cognitive Styles Observation Checklist show
that you still need to make progress in field independent learning/problem-solving
and in teaching, counseling, and supervisory styles. The homework assignment
and diversity-challenge ratings you made show that you are still uncomfortable in
these two domains.
These are the two areas, or domains, we need to concentrate on in the next
few sessions. Here is what I would suggest: Let's do some scripts together that
will concentrate on using some of the field independent behaviors and strategies
in learning/problem-solving and in teaching, counseling, and supervisory styles.
I will play roles in which I will use field independent learning/problem-solving
or teaching, counseling, and supervisory styles, and you will match my behaviors
and strategies. I would also suggest that you do more diversity challenges in
which you have to use field independent styles for learning and teaching. Here is
a suggestion: Volunteer to help coach some of the junior varsity teams with some
of your coaches who use field independent approaches.
/&*-$%. Baiolu's piefeiieu styles aie mouein anu fielu inuepenuent, so the theiapist's style
foi giving feeuback is uata-centeieu, much like that of a scientist iepoiting ieseaich finuings. Be
even piepaieu bai giaphs on a laige tablet iesting on an easel. The theiapist encouiageu Baiolu to
paiticipate actively in the session. Impiovement in theiapy focuses on incieaseu self-efficacy anu
inuiviuual achievement. Exceipts fiom the theiapist's feeuback to Baiolu follow:
I prepared these charts [matching Harold's field independent preferred learning
style] to show the degree of progress you have made [emphasis on modernistic
style of individual achievement] between the first time you completed instruments
and those done more recently. As you can see, you have made great progress in
all of the domains of the traditional cultural styles. You made a higher
traditionalism score on the Traditionalism-Modernism Inventory, and the ratings
made on the Preferred Cultural Styles Observation Checklist show growth in all
areas, particularly in communication.
In your most recent sessions, you also have been expressing more positive
attitudes toward people who have traditional orientations. Your self-ratings on
homework and diversity-challenge assignments are quite good.
However, there is one area in which you still need progressyou still look
somewhat uncomfortable when you interact with traditionally oriented people,
and you still have a tendency to interrupt them while they are talking. You need
to work on these areas [emphasis on individual effort]. These same problems
show up in the communication domain of the cognitive styles chart.
My ratings, as well as yours on homework and diversity-challenge
assignments, show that your messages still tend to be too short and that you are
not very self- disclosing when you converse with others. Here are some of the
evaluation feedback sheets you completed after doing your homework
assignments and diversity challenges. As you can see, they show that you often
rate yourself as being too abrupt and self-conscious; you often behaved as if you
were in too much of a hurry to complete the assignment.
I have some suggestions for improvements in this area. I would like your
input on these [independent orientation of the modernistic-field independent
preferred client]. How about writing some more scripts that focus on a traditional
communication style and use traditional behaviors in communication? For some
ideas I'd recommend that you read the communication chapter in Beck's book,
Love Is Never Enough. I would also suggest role-playing in which I use field
sensitive and traditional communication behaviors and you try to match me.
A few sessions back you showed me some literature on marriage-encounter
weekend workshops for couples. Some of the exercises described in the
brochure were oriented toward the traditional cultural stylewriting letters to
spouses and open discussions of feelings in small groups. I think that this
experience would help to develop your field sensitive and traditional modes of
communication and of interacting with others.
ASSLSSING 1nL 1nLkAIS1
The assessment phase of multicultuial psychotheiapy examines the theiapist as well as the
client. Ratings of cultuial anu cognitive theiapeutic styles maue in Sessions 1 anu 2 aie compaieu
with those maue in the two sessions piioi to the assessment session. Theie aie two questions on
which assessment of the theiapist is focuseu:
1. Bow effectively is the theiapist matching anu mismatching the client.
2. Is the client's false self oi piefeiieu style negatively affecting the theiapist's ability to flex
in theiapy anu achieve the goals of the theiapeutic plan.
Foi example, while he was uoing theiapy with Imelua anu Baiolu, the theiapist uiscoveieu
that the clients' uominant styles hau a pull effect in the mismatch phase of theiapy. With Imelua,
the theiapist tenueu to stait the sessions of the mismatch phase in a mouein moue, but Imelua's
stiong tiauitional oiientation iesulteu in pulling the theiapist to match hei. With Baiolu, on the
othei hanu, the pull was in the uiiection of fielu inuepenuent theiapeutic behaviois, especially in
the uomain of communication anu inteipeisonal ielationship styles. In this case, the theiapist
staiteu the sessions of the mismatch phase in a fielu sensitive moue, but aftei a few minutes founu
himself shifting to fielu inuepenuent behavioi to match Baiolu's style. These finuings gave the
theiapist valuable insight into his own piefeiieu styles anu how he was failing to encouiage the
uevelopment of client flex.
The theiapist took the following foui steps to auuiess his conceins:
1. Consulting with a colleague to uiscuss possible countei tiansfeience issues with Imelua
anu Baiolu.
2. Remaining cognizant of those client behaviois (both veibal anu nonveibal) that eliciteu
the tiiggeiing oi pull effects, using these as waining signs in his attempt to pievent the
tenuency to be pulleu into match behaviois.
S. Calling these pioblems to the attention of the clients so that they coulu assist in the
theiapist's attempt to iesist pull by iecognizing anu uiscussing it with him when it
happeneu.
4. Beveloping sciiptwiiting exeicises anu iole-playing the sciipts using a mouifieu veision
of the empty chaii technique (Levitsky & Peiis, 197u) in fiont of a viueo cameia, playing
the ioles of both client anu theiapist, moving fiom one chaii to the othei. In this way he
tiieu out iesponse stiategies to client behaviois that hau a pull effect on theiapeutic
style. Be then watcheu the viueo tape anu iateu his theiapeutic behaviois using the two
obseivation checklists.
SUMMAk
In summaiy, the following techniques anu pioceuuies weie incluueu in the assessment
sessions: (1) making a uecision as to the session in which it is most appiopiiate to assess
piogiessfoi some clients it may be as eaily as Session S oi 6, foi otheis it may be latei; (2)
piepaiing the client foi ieauministiation of the instiuments useu in the fiist session; (S)
ieauministeiing the instiuments; (4) scoiing anu compaiing new scoies to those obtaineu
pieviously, compaiing iatings on the Piefeiieu Cognitive anu Cultuial Styles 0bseivation
Checklists, evaluating piogiess on homewoik assignments, uiveisity challenges, anu in the
uevelopment of positive attituues towaiu the "uiffeient." The assessment sessions weie followeu
by giving feeuback to the client; making changes in the theiapeutic plan, anu giving auuitional
assignments to the client, if necessaiy; self-assessing by the theiapist; anu eliminating theiapist
behaviois that inteifeie with the uevelopment of client flex.
10
THE CLIENT AS CHANGE AGENT AND
MULTICULTURAL AMBASSADOR
The piincipal goal of the fouith anu final phase of multicultuial theiapy is to complete the task of
client empoweiment. The specific objective of this stage of theiapy is to encouiage the client to
become an active paiticipant in the uevelopment of a multicultuial society.
IINAL nASL CI 1nLkA
This final phase of theiapy auuiesses an issue of majoi concein to the "uiffeient"the feai
that psychotheiapy will be useu as a tool to encouiage client confoimity anu assimilation to the
values anu lifestyles of the powei stiuctuie. The Afiican Naitiniquean psychiatiist Fianz Fanon
(see Bulhan, 198S) exposeu this peispective in tiauitional psychoanalytic peisonality theoiies anu
theiapies. Bulhan, in his book >2)$@ >)$9$ )$3 &'# Q+46'9/954 9= SAA2#++,9$, wiote:
How can an intervention liberate the patient from social oppression when the
"therapist-patient" relationship itself is suffused with the inequities, nonreciprocity,
elitism, and sadomasochism of the oppressive social order? Can there be
realistic grounds for changing self-defeating behaviors and a negative self-
concept in a context in which only the "doctor" initiates and the "patient"
accommodates, where one is powerful and the other powerless? (p. 272)
Ryan (1971) has also ciiticizeu the "blame the victim" oiientation of many of the tiauitional
peisonality theoiies anu psychotheiapies. The client-as-activist phase of multicultuial theiapy,
then, iepiesents a iauical uepaituie fiom tiauitional foims of psychotheiapy anu counseling.
ko|e of C||ent
Nulticultuial psychotheiapy encouiages the client to play foui ioles:
1. 0')$5# )5#$&. In this iole the client helps to cieate changes in the institutions anu
agencies that have hau a significant impact on him. Foi Imelua, the focus was on the
school she attenus; while foi Baiolu, it was on his woikplace.
2. !316)&92. In this capacity the client intiouuces people who have the powei to influence
the policies anu piactices of institutions anu agencies to the concepts of the flex theoiy
of peisonality anu to the multicultuial mouel of psychotheiapy. The objective is to
encouiage "powei holueis" to bettei unueistanu anu to attempt to iesolve pioblems of
mismatch.
S. Q##2 691$+#/92. The client pioviues emotional suppoit anu facilitates change anu
empoweiment in those of his peeis who aie victims of mismatch shock.
4. ?1/&,61/&12)/ )CD)++)392. As an ambassauoi, the client piomotes the uevelopment of
multicultuial enviionments that encouiage unueistanuing anu coopeiation among
uiffeient people anu gioups.
As the theiapist encouiages clients to leain concepts, techniques, anu pioceuuies by which
they can change the enviionment anu influence otheis, he also wains against using these as tools
to manipulate otheis. The theiapist points out that the knowleuge possesseu by the client is
potentially uamaging anu caiiies iesponsibilities. The client is encouiageu to keep the piincipal
goal of enviionmental change in minu anu to help make society sensitive to the cultuial anu
inuiviuual uiffeiences of all its citizens.
!"#$%& &. 87&0:# +:#0;. uenuei ioles aie usually sepaiateu in tiauitional societies, iesulting
in piessuies foi female athletes to confoim, because athletics aie usually seen as the exclusive
uomain of men. Imelua faceu this pioblem. Baving expeiienceu the uisappioval of paients,
gianupaients, anu othei authoiity figuies in hei tiauitional community anu having iealizeu that
othei playeis anu coaches faceu similai conflicts, Imelua became inteiesteu in uoing something
about this pioblem. She pioposeu a piogiam that the athletic anu counseling uepaitments of hei
school coulu uevelop to help women athletes with the value conflicts they expeiienceu as a
consequence of these piessuies.
Imelua's goal was to encouiage the coaches anu counselois to help female athletes
expeiiencing value conflicts in a tiauitional community to conceptualize these conflicts. In
auuition, Imelua pioposeu that coaches anu counselois uevelop plans to inteivene with paients
anu othei membeis of the athletes' families to lessen value conflicts.
The theiapist askeu Imelua to iuentify someone in hei social enviionment who might be
inteiesteu in woiking on the pioblem with hei. Imelua ueciueu on one of the Latina coaches whom
she hau gotten to know well uuiing the match homewoik assignment. Imelua iemembeieu the
coach telling hei that she hau also faceu opposition fiom paients anu gianupaients when she fiist
showeu inteiest in spoits.
The theiapist askeu Imelua to consiuei what the majoiity of those coaches anu counselois
who coulu play an impoitant iole in inteivention with women athletes in conflict wanteu out of
life. Imelua coulu speculate about hei coaches' goals, but since she only knew two of the foui
counselois, she was limiteu in hei knowleuge about theii life objectives. She saiu:
I know most of the coaches want us to concentrate and keep our minds on the
game. They always talk about how being distracted hurts our game plan. I know
all of the assistant coaches would like to become head coach in a school; some
of them would even like to be coaches in college some day. The two counselors
are great fans of the women's teams; they always come to our games. I know
one of them is working on her doctorate degree; the other one likes to read a lot
about sports sociology and psychology and stuff like that, because she helped
me out with a term paper that I did on women in sports.
Imelua thought of ways to encouiage the coaches anu counselois to woik togethei to uevelop
a piogiam of lectuies anu woikshops auuiessing value conflicts often faceu by female athletes in a
tiauitional community anu of inteivention with the athletes anu theii families. She ueciueu to
appioach the coach she hau chosen as hei ally to see if she woulu be willing to woik on this with
hei.
Imelua woulu piepaie a sciipt that she woulu use to enlist the suppoit of hei coach. The
theiapist anu Imelua uiscusseu the content of the sciipt anu the bioau outline of the piesentation
to be maue to the coaching staff anu to the heau counseloi. Because Imelua was woiking on
ueveloping hei fielu inuepenuent leainingpioblem-solving anu communication styles, Imelua
anu the theiapist ueciueu that she woulu piepaie the sciipt on hei own anu biing it to the next
theiapy session, when they woulu uiscuss anu iole-play it. Aftei the iole-playing exeicise, she
woulu mouify the sciipt as necessaiy. She followeu the uetails foi the implementation of hei
homewoik assignment, empathy piojection, anu feeling awaieness-exeicises as uiscusseu in the
chapteis beginning with Chaptei S.
0nce she gaineu the suppoit of hei coach, Imelua anu the coach uevelopeu a plan foi
appioaching the coaching staff. The heau coach, in tuin, appioacheu the heau of the counseling
uepaitment foi the final uevelopment anu implementation of the inteivention piogiam.
/&*-$% &. F%(>&;-*. A souice of gieat fiustiation foi Baiolu anu his paitneis was the
employee tuinovei pioblems at theii bianch plant in Southein Califoinia. This was one of the
ieasons Baiolu hau not felt confiuent that his company was on soliu financial footing. Aftei
gaining familiaiity with the cultuial styles component of the flex theoiy, Baiolu concluueu that the
on-site obseivations he hau maue, along with the iepoits fiom manageis at the plant, coulu be
explaineu in teims of cultuial anu cognitive styles conflicts between a pieuominantly Anglo
supeivisoiy staff anu employees who weie mainly Bispanic in oiigin.
Baiolu's goal was to help his paitneis conceptualize the tuinovei pioblem at this plant as a
iesult of cultuial anu cognitive conflicts between the manageis, the supeivisoiy staff, anu the
employees. Baiolu iuentifieu a fiienu fiom college who was a piofessoi in the business school of
an East Coast univeisity. When Baiolu askeu him foi auvice, his fiienu suggesteu a numbei of
iefeiences in the management liteiatuie auuiessing employee satisfaction pioblems ielating to
mismatch of supeivisoi anu woikei styles.
The theiapist askeu Baiolu to consiuei what his paitneis wanteu out of life. Baiolu saiu,
"Right now it's stabilizing things in the Southein Califoinia plant. We can't move on to ueciue on
new piouuct uevelopment until things settle uown theie. They aie all upset because they uon't
unueistanu what is happening ovei theie."
Baiolu suggesteu ueveloping a piesentation foi a uiiectois' meeting at which he coulu uiscuss
the issues uesciibeu in the iefeiences his fiienu hau iecommenueu. Be woulu tiy to get his
paitneis' backing to hiie a consultant who coulu assist them in iesolving the pioblem. Because
Baiolu was leaining how to use a fielu sensitive appioach to leaining anu pioblem-solving, he anu
the theiapist woikeu on the sciipt togethei. The sciipt they uevelopeu useu a fielu inuepenuent
appioach to communication anu teaching to match the piefeiieu cognitive style of Baiolu's
paitneis. The sciipt incluueu iuentifying anu uefining the pioblem anu ieviewing the liteiatuie
Baiolu hau ieau at his fiienu's suggestion. Fuithei, the sciipt calleu foi Baiolu to shaie copies of
some of the iefeiences he hau ieau.
Baiolu then piesenteu a plan foi tiaining supeivisois to be awaie of piefeiieu cultuial anu
cognitive styles in those they supeivise, anu he volunteeieu to uiiect the tiaining effoits.
Assuming the iole of euucatoi incluues the following ten techniques anu pioceuuies:
1. Iuentifying an inuiviuual oi institutional change goal.
2. Iuentifying an ally.
S. Piesenting the iuea to the ally.
4. Changing the iuea as suggesteu by the ally anu uiscusseu with the theiapist.
S. Piojecting empathy.
6. Beveloping a sciipt.
7. Role-playing the sciipt with the theiapist.
8. Enacting the sciipt.
9. Implementing anu evaluating the sciipt.
1u. Biscussing the iesults of assessment with the theiapist.
'-.# &. J($;6>($;(*&$ G##* 8-(0.#$-*. In the piocess of going thiough multicultuial
counseling, Rose became veiy conscious of the pioblems facing Latinas who have impaiieu vision.
With the encouiagement anu help of fiienus she hau met thiough an inteifaith community gioup,
she staiteu a suppoit gioup foi women who hau lost theii vision as auults. The gioup
concentiateu on the following issues:
1. F9H &'# ",+,9$B,CA),2#3 H9C)$ ,+ &2#)&#3 D4 &'# #L&#$3#3 =)C,/4. Is she, in paiticulai, an
object of pity anu oveipiotection. They entitleu this set of issues "A9D2#6,&) #+&) 6,#5)" (I feel so
soiiy foi hei because she is blinu)a phiase often useu by membeis of the tiauitional Latino
community to uesciibe an auult woman who is vision impaiieu. Rose iecalleu that hei siblings anu
paients hau become so oveipiotective of hei that they weie opposeu to hei attenuing a state
iehabilitation centei foi the vision impaiieu wheie she woulu ieceive tiaining in mobility, in
inuepenuent living skills, anu vocational skills.
2. F9H 6',/32#$ A#26#,"# ) ",+,9$B,CA),2#3 A)2#$&. Rose felt that hei chiluien iesenteu hei
inability to uo as many things with them. Now she also felt that they iesenteu the uiop in income
because she hau been unable to continue hei woik as a teachei. Some of hei chiluien iefuseu to
accept hei blinuness. They woulu say, "You coulu see if you ieally wanteu to, but you just uon't
want to take caie of us anymoie." The women also felt that some of the issues in theii changing
ielationship with theii chiluien conceineu the fact that they weie embaiiasseu to be seen in
public with a blinu mothei. In Rose's case, hei chiluien hau helpeu hei befoie she leaineu mobility
skills, only to leave hei siue anu foiget about hei when they saw someone they knew.
S. F9H +A91+#+ 6')$5#: A)2&,61/)2/4 H,&' 2#+A#6& &9 +#L1)/ 2#/)&,9$+',A+. Nany visually impaiieu
women in the gioup believeu theii husbanus weie iesentful that they weie unable to uo the many
things they hau uone aiounu the house befoie. Rose's husbanu woulu even say to hei, "T) $9 +,2"#+
A)2) $)3)" (You aie no longei useful). Rose was sensitive to the fact that while they hau enjoyeu a
goou sexual ielationship befoie she became blinu, hei husbanu avoiueu intimacy now.
In auuition to pioviuing suppoit to each othei about these issues, the membeis maue
themselves available foi uiscussions anu piesentations to community gioups. The cleigy of
uiffeient chuiches agieeu to tell theii congiegations about the suppoit gioups anu to uiscuss
some of the issues of concein to them in theii seimons anu chuich bulletins.
/&*-$% &. J($;6>($;(*&$ G##* 8-(0.#$-*. Baiolu's involvement in aiea piofessional societies
leu him to iealize that many of his colleagues weie in ciisis because they felt buineu out anu boieu
with theii jobs. These weie piofessionals in theii late twenties anu eaily thiities who, uespite the
fact that they hau achieveu success in theii piofessions, hau become incieasingly uisillusioneu
with theii woik. Nost weie expeiiencing stiess anu confusion, anu seveial of them weie
consiueiing ietuining to college to puisue caieei inteiests they hau abanuoneu eailiei in theii
lives.
This stiuck a familiai choiu in Baiolu, anu he ueciueu he wanteu to uo something about it. Bis
pieliminaiy conveisations with some of these colleagues inuicateu that most of them uiu not want
to go into psychotheiapy oi counseling, paitly because of the stigmas of seeking help anu paitly
because they felt this was something they shoulu uo on theii own.
When Baiolu uiscusseu his obseivations with the theiapist, they aiiiveu at the iuea of having
Baiolu look into the possibility of foiming a suppoit gioup of technical piofessionals suffeiing
fiom buinout. Specifically, the goal was to foim such a gioup foi piofessionals who weie
consiueiing caieei changes because of buinout oi because of a peiceiveu lack of meaning in theii
lives.
The theiapist suggesteu that Baiolu contact a local meuical school piofessoi who hau
uevelopeu such a suppoit gioup foi his colleagues. Aftei talking to the piofessoi, Baiolu iefineu
his iueas anu enlisteu the suppoit of two of his closest fiienus in one of the piofessional
oiganizations in which he was a membei. Togethei they appioacheu the goveining boaiu of the
oiganization foi sponsoiship anu financial suppoit foi theii iueas.
The next step was foi Baiolu to uevelop a sciipt foi piesenting the iuea to the officeis of the
oiganization. Since Baiolu was ueveloping a fielu sensitive leainingpioblem-solving style, the
theiapist encouiageu him to uevelop the sciipt in coopeiation with his fiienus in the oiganization.
Thiough uiscussions with his collaboiatois, Baiolu leaineu that the piefeiieu styles of the officeis
of the oiganization weie mouein with iespect to cultuie, but mixeu with iespect to cognitive
styles. Baiolu anu the theiapist ueciueu to mouify the sciipt to ieflect this knowleuge.
The theiapist alteinateu between playing an officei who was fielu inuepenuent anu one who
was fielu sensitive in oiuei to allow Baiolu to piepaie answeis to questions emanating fiom
eithei peispective. Baiolu's homewoik assignment was completeu in coopeiation with his two
fiienus. A final step was to implement anu evaluate the sciipt.
Encouiaging the client to assume the iole of multicultuial peei counseloi incluues the
following nine techniques anu pioceuuies:
1. Iuentifying the inuiviuual change goal.
2. Beveloping a pieliminaiy plan with theiapist.
S. Iuentifying iesouice people oi institutions.
4. Iuentifying allies, uiscussing the plan with them, anu making changes they suggesteu.
S. Beveloping a sciipt foi piesentation of the plan to "powei holueis."
6. Role-playing the sciipt with the theiapist.
7. Naking plans foi enacting the sciipt.
8. Enacting the sciipt anu assessing its effectiveness.
9. Biscussing the iesults of assessment with the theiapist.
+$#, &. G##* 8-(0.#$-* &0% 87&0:# +:#0;. Because one of the homewoik activities ielateu
to multicultuial theiapy, Alex began to uo volunteei woik with a community agency that offeieu
suppoit seivices foi auolescents anu young auults who aie homosexual. Alex became awaie that
few membeis of tiauitional cultuial ethniciacial gioups anu multiiacial people woulu take
auvantage of the seivices offeieu by this agency because they felt these weie not ielevant to theii
tiauitional values. With the suppoit of the uiiectoi anu associate uiiectoi of the agency, Alex was
given a small buuget to begin a hot line foi lesbians anu gays who weie membeis of tiauitional
cultuies. The contacts he maue thiough this effoit leu him to initiate suppoit gioups foi
homosexuals fiom tiauitional cultuies, auuiessing the following issues:
-'# 1$,N1# $##3+ 9= &2)3,&,9$)/ '9C9+#L1)/+ 2#/)&#3 &9 69C,$5 91&. Bomosexuality in
tiauitional cultuies is often a gieatei stigma than it is in mouein cultuies.
K++1#+ 2#/)&#3 &9 &'# =)C,/4. Nany tiauitional families feel as if they aie losing face in the
communitygetting maiiieu anu having chiluien to caiiy on family tiauitions aie so
impoitant in tiauitional families.
K++1#+ 2#/)&#3 &9 2#M#6&,9$ D4 C#CD#2+ 9= &'# &2)3,&,9$)/ 61/&12#B9=B92,5,$. These people
may tenu to see the homosexual as uisloyal to the gioup because they tenu to view the
lesbiangay movement as uominateu by whites.
)&*& &. J($;6>($;(*&$ +"K&..&%-*. As she iuentifieu allies who coulu help hei become moie
flexible, Taia thought about some of hei teammates in hei city basketball leaguesome weie
Afiican Ameiican, some Latina, anu otheis Native Ameiican anu Asian. They iealizeu that the
concept of "miunight basketball," which was being implementeu with auolescent males in pooi
ethnic neighboihoous, was not being extenueu to females. They applieu foi anu ieceiveu a giant
fiom a community uevelopment agency to begin a multicultuial basketball league. They ensuieu
that the membeis of the teams woulu be of uiffeient ethniciacial gioups, anu they combineu
cultuial celebiations such as }uneteeth (uate of implementation of the Emancipation Pioclamation
in Texas), Cinco ue Nayo, anu powwows. Thiough movies, viueos, music, anu ait, as well as
infoimational shows, they weie able to involve uiffeient geneiationsgianupaients, paients, anu
othei membeis of the extenueu familyanu the community in theii activities.
SUMMAk
The final phase of multicultuial theiapy completes the task of the client's empoweiment
begun uuiing the initial phase of counseling. In this phase of theiapy, the client has a iole in
changing institutions, in helping otheis, anu in euucating people in the concepts of peisonality flex
anu in the stiategies of multicultuial psychotheiapy. Nost impoitant, this phase intiouuces clients
to the iole of ambassauoi foi a multicultuial society of peace anu coopeiation.
11
COUPLES COUNSELING
When the multicultuial mouel of psychotheiapy is useu in couples counseling, the focus of theiapy
is on inuiviuual uiffeiences in cultuial anu cognitive stylesthe ioot souice of many conflicts anu
misunueistanuings occuiiing between paitneis. Theiapy is uiiecteu at helping the clients to
unueistanu mismatch in communication; inteipeisonal ielationships; motivation; anu
leainingpioblem-solving, teaching, paienting, supeivisoiy, anu counseling styles. Each paitnei
then leains to match the othei's piefeiieu styles anu to help one anothei uevelop the flexibility in
values anu cognitive styles that can impiove theii level of satisfaction within the ielationship.
The multicultuial mouel is also sensitive to the fact that enviionmental foices anu uemanus
play a majoi iole in the uegiee of satisfaction expeiienceu by the paitneis in a ielationship.
Bemanus of jobs oi caieeis, people, anu institutions can piouuce stiains in a ielationship that aie
often manifesteu as iigiuity in cultuial anu cognitive styles, anuoi as the tiiggeiing of
uevelopmental tienus in cognitive anu cultuial styles, which can leau to mismatch between
paitneis who weie pieviously well matcheu.
The cultuial component of the multicultuial mouel focuses on values match anu mismatch. As
such, it is useful foi woiking with ethnically oi iacially mixeu couples, oi with paitneis who may
be of the same cultuie anu iace but whose backgiounus aie uiffeient in teims of socioeconomic,
ieligious, iegional, oi family vaiiables. Specifically theie aie foui majoi goals:
1. To make paitneis awaie of match anu mismatch uomains in theii ielationship.
2. To teach paitneis how to use the flex theoiy of peisonality anu the multicultuial mouel
of psychotheiapy anu counseling to analyze conflicts associateu with mismatch.
S. To teach both paitneis to match each othei's piefeiieu styles anu to uevelop the
flexibility they will neeu to negotiate effectively with each othei.
4. To teach the paitneis to change enviionmental uemanus that aie affecting the
ielationship anu causing uishaimony.
CASL nIS1Ck
This chaptei uesciibes how the multicultuial mouel of peisonality change was useu in
conuucting couples counseling with a couple whose membeis weie fiom uiffeient ethnic gioups.
Wanua, whose case is one of those highlighteu in this book, paiticipateu in counseling with hei
husbanu, }aviei.
Wanda and Iav|er: A n|story of the ke|at|onsh|p
Wanua anu }aviei hau been maiiieu foi eight yeais when they sought counseling. They met
aftei giauuation fiom college when they weie woiking foi the same state agency. Although Wanua
hau giown up in a moie moueinistic sociocultuial enviionment, she was attiacteu to the
emotional closeness in }aviei's extenueu family anu by }aviei's stiong familial oiientation.
Foi }aviei, who hau giown up in an uiban-tiauitional Bispanic cultuial enviionment, Wanua
iepiesenteu inuepenuence anu asseitiveness with a stiong familial oiientation, chaiacteiistics he
hau always wanteu in a paitnei. The couple iemembeieu that the initial yeais of theii maiiiage
weie chaiacteiizeu by haimony anu happiness: Wanua hau left hei full-time job anu assumeu the
iole of the tiauitional mothei, taking piimaiy iesponsibility foi the home anu the couple's two
chiluien, boin in the thiiu anu fouith yeais of the maiiiage. In those eaily yeais of theii maiiiage,
Wanua hau accepteu small consulting contiacts, woiking fiom an office at home.
Things changeu uiastically foi the family in the sixth yeai of maiiiage when Wanua began
woiking full-time as a miu-level managei in a laige company. The couple's conflicts centeieu on
the fact that Wanua uiu not feel suppoiteu in hei caieei by }aviei. Both }aviei anu the chiluien felt
that Wanua was uevoting too much time to hei woik.
Wanua initially appioacheu the theiapist iequesting inuiviuual counseling. In the fiist session
with Wanua, it became obvious to the theiapist anu to Wanua that the pioblems in hei maiiiage
anu family weie ciitical to hei psychological aujustment. When Wanua anu the theiapist began to
iuentify hei theiapy goals uuiing the seconu session of inuiviuual counseling, they ueciueu that
she woulu appioach }aviei about the possibility of his paiticipating in couples counseling with hei.
The following sections uesciibe the piocess useu foi the couples-counseling sessions with }aviei
anu Wanua.
=#..6-0 L. The theiapist gieeteu }aviei anu Wanua in the waiting ioom. Wanua intiouuceu
hei husbanu to the theiapist. }aviei auuiesseu the theiapist by his title anu suiname, anu the
theiapist iesponueu by auuiessing }aviei foimally, using his suiname. Aftei }aviei anu Wanua
weie seateu, the theiapist explaineu that uuiing Wanua's inuiviuual theiapy sessions it became
cleai that couples counseling might be appiopiiate. The theiapist askeu }aviei foi his feelings oi
thoughts on the iuea.
JAVIER (response to therapist): I thought it was a good idea myself, because I've
felt for a long time that our relationship has been getting worse. I didn't know
what to do about it.
THERAPIST (to Javier): Do you have any concerns about the fact that Wanda
will be in individual therapy with me while your couples counseling is in progress?
JAVIER (to therapist): No, not as long as our marriage problems are discussed in
our sessions so that I can take part in them.
WANDA (to therapist and Javier): I think that's the major reason why we are
doing the couples counselingto discuss our problems together and to work
them out.
THERAPIST (to Javier): I would like you to know that if at any time you feel that
you would like to be in individual counseling I would be very happy to discuss this
with you.
JAVIER (to therapist): I'm fine with that.
The biief intiouuction anu explanation weie followeu by the auministiation of the Byauic
Aujustment Scale. This scale was uevelopeu by Spaniei (1976) to assess the quality of maiital anu
othei uyaus by having both membeis iate theii uegiee of agieement anu uisagieement in seveial
aieas such as hanuling family finances, householu tasks, anu uemonstiations of affection. It also
asks foi iatings of fiequency of those times the couple have stimulating exchanges of iueas anu
laugh togethei, as well as foi the uegiee of happiness about theii ielationship, fiom peifect to
extiemely unhappy.
The theiapist attempteu to establish an atmospheie of acceptance in which the clients coulu
feel fiee to iepoit the pioblems they peiceiveu in theii ielationship. As soon as Wanua anu }aviei
completeu the questionnaiies, the theiapist pioceeueu to uevelop an atmospheie of
nonjuugmental acceptance anu iappoit with them. Be gave each of them the oppoitunity to talk
about the pioblems in the maiiiage fiom theii inuiviuual peispectives. Be also laiu some giounu
iules, making it cleai that he woulu not peimit inteiiuptions oi aiguments uuiing the couise of
each peison's piesentation.
The next step of the fiist session was a shoit uiscussion of the paitneis' peispectives on the
ielationship anu of the feeuback on the iesults of the Byauic Aujustment Scale baseu on
pieliminaiy obseivations maue by compaiing the iatings maue by each of the paitneis.
While the uiscussion between the paitneis was in piogiess, the theiapist obseiveu, maue
notes, anu iateu the behaviois each membei useu when inteiacting with the othei, using the
Piefeiieu Cultuial anu Cognitive Styles 0bseivation Checklists. Be iemaineu cognizant of the fact
that, in uisoiueieu ielationships involving mismatch, the inuiviuual paitneis tenu to auopt a false
self in theii inteiactions with each othei. Thus, uuiing the fiist two sessions, the paitneis aie
likely to use theii false selves as they inteiact with each othei. Bowevei, as the clients iesponu to
the nonjuugmental, safe atmospheie of multicultuial couples counseling, they usually auopt theii
piefeiieu cultuial anu cognitive styles when they ielate to each othei.
Following the uiscussion about the inuiviuual peiceptions of pioblems in the ielationship, the
theiapist askeu }aviei to complete the B0LS anu FAS. (Wanua hau alieauy completeu these at hei
initial sessionsee Appenuices C anu u) to assess his piefeiieu cultuial anu cognitive styles. The
theiapist useu the time in which }aviei completeu these pencil-anu-papei instiuments to uo a
moie thoiough compaiison of iesponses given by the paitneis on the Byauic Aujustment Scale,
noting both aieas of agieement anu of uisagieement in theii ielationship.
Aftei }aviei completeu his questionnaiies, the theiapist intiouuceu the couple to the piincipal
concepts of the flex theoiy of peisonality anu of the multicultuial mouel of psychotheiapy. In
making the piesentation, he useu the same appioach employeu with inuiviuual clients uiscusseu
in Chaptei 7.
The theiapist useu some of the iesults of his pieliminaiy obseivations anu those fiom the
Byauic Aujustment Scale to peisonalize some of the concepts foi }aviei, whose piefeiieu cognitive
style in the leainingpioblem-solving uomainbaseu on initial obseivations of his inteiactions
with Wanua anu the theiapistappeaieu to be fielu sensitive. The theiapist also uiscusseu some
of the backgiounu ieseaich on the concepts to best match Wanua's moie fielu inuepenuent style
in the leainingpioblem-solving uomain.
Foi example, to match }aviei, the theiapist saiu, "What the two of you have uesciibeu with
iespect to the uiffeient ways in which you ielate to youi chiluien inuicates that you have uiffeient
paienting values. You, Ni. N____, tenu to be moie tiauitional, wanting youi chiluien to iespect you
anu to see you as an authoiity figuie. 0n the othei hanu, Wanua is moie moueinistic, allowing the
chiluien to make theii own uecisions anu to leain fiom expeiience iathei than fiom uiiect
teaching."
The theiapist concluueu the session by telling the clients that he woulu give them feeuback
uuiing the seconu session about the finuings of the behavioial iatings he hau maue anu on the
finuings of the instiuments they hau completeu. Be askeu each of them to think of one uomain in
the ielationship in which they woulu like theii paitnei to match them uuiing the coming week.
}aviei chose the iecieation uomain; he askeu Wanua to play a boaiu game with him anu the
chiluien aftei uinnei on two nights. }aviei agieeu to allow Wanua one houi aftei coming home
fiom woik each evening to unwinu anu to shift fiom hei woik moue to hei family moue.
The theiapist askeu each paitnei to keep iecoius of the uates, times, anu situations in which
they expeiienceu match anu mismatch. Each was given seveial copies of a iecoiu foim on which to
uesciibe the matches anu mismatches they expeiienceu. They weie askeu to complete these
without consulting each othei to see if theie woulu be uiffeiences in peiception of the expeiiences
(a sample iecoiu foim appeais in Appenuix N). In summaiy, the fiist session incluueu the
following seven techniques anu pioceuuies:
1. Initial match anu intiouuction to the goals of couples counseling.
2. Auministiation of the Byauic Aujustment Scale.
S. Establishment of an atmospheie of acceptance in which the clients coulu feel fiee to
iepoit the pioblems they peiceive in theii ielationship anu in which they woulu feel fiee
to expiess theii piefeiieu cultuial anu cognitive styles.
4. Shoit uiscussion of each paitnei's peiception of the ielationship anu of pieliminaiy
finuings of the Byauic Aujustment Scale, anu obseivation of cognitive anu cultuial styles
useu when inteiacting with the paitnei anu theiapist.
S. Auministiation of the B0LS anu FAS.
6. Intiouuction of the flex theoiy of peisonality anu of the multicultuial mouel of
psychotheiapy.
7. Closuie of the session anu assignment of homewoik foi the coming week.
=#..6-0 M. Buiing the seconu session, the theiapist continueu to builu an atmospheie in
which each paitnei coulu feel fiee to expiess conceins about the ielationship as well as one in
which each coulu assume the cultuial anu cognitive styles most ieflective of theii unique selves.
The theiapist askeu each of the clients to give him the foims on which they hau iecoiueu the
expeiiences of match anu mismatch foi the week. Be ieau these alouu, asking the clients to
comment oi to supply uetails. Buiing the examination of the match anu mismatch expeiiences
each hau peiceiveu as being most impoitant, the theiapist incluueu an explanation using the
concepts of the flex theoiy of peisonality anu of the multicultuial mouel of psychotheiapy.
In those situations in which conflict hau occuiieu, the theiapist pointeu out how attempts at
match by eithei oi both paitneis might have pieventeu conflict. Foi example, both }aviei anu
Wanua agieeu that the majoi mismatch expeiience of the week hau occuiieu when they uisagieeu
about whethei one of the chiluien shoulu be alloweu to visit a neighboihoou fiienu befoie
completing his homewoik. Wanua is piefeiieu mouein cultuial oiientation; hei piefeiieu fielu
inuepenuent oiientation in paienting style was ieflecteu in hei position that chiluien shoulu be
alloweu to uevelop theii own sense of iesponsibility. }aviei's tiauitional anu fielu sensitive
oiientation, howevei, stiesseu the neeu to be fiim anu uiiective with the chiluien. They aigueu
ovei theii uiffeient oiientations, with Wanua accusing }aviei of being too contiolling anu }aviei
accusing hei of not caiing enough about the chiluien. Application of concepts fiom the flex theoiy
anu the multicultuial mouel leu to negotiation between Wanua anu }aviei anu to a bettei
unueistanuing of how conflict coulu have been avoiueu.
Each membei of the couple iepoiteu on how well matcheu they hau felt with iespect to the
match assignments foi the week. The theiapist helpeu the clients to unueistanu how cultuial anu
cognitive match hau contiibuteu to haimony in theii inteiactions.
The theiapist iepoiteu on the finuings fiom the uiffeient instiuments the clients hau
completeu uuiing the eailiei session. Be also shaieu the following finuings of his obseivations
iegaiuing piefeiieu cultuial anu cognitive styles:
The ratings on your Dyadic Adjustment Scale indicate that you have good
agreement on many domains of your relationship: religion, family, finances,
philosophy of life, decision making, and household tasks. There are a number of
areas in which you seem to have disagreement: demonstration of affection; ways
of dealing with parents, in-laws, and friends; amount of time spent together; and
career decisions.
On the Bicognitive Orientation to Life Scale, Wanda scored as a preferred
field independent with partial development of the field sensitive style in
interpersonal relationships and communication style domains. Javier's scores
indicated a strong preference for field sensitivity in all domains, although he did
show some development of field independence in the learning/problem-solving
styles domain.
With respect to preferred cultural styles, you are well matched on religion and
time orientation but mismatched on definition of gender roles. Javier tends to be
more traditional in this area, whereas Wanda tends to be more modernistic. The
same is true for childrearing orientation.
Aftei a shoit uiscussion ielating to these finuings, the theiapist askeu the clients to focus on
the iuentification of theii goals foi couples counseling. Wanua anu }aviei agieeu on thiee:
1. 0nueistanuing how value anu cognitive style uiffeiences aie ielateu to the aieas of
gieatest uisagieement between them.
2. Attempting to achieve a bettei cognitive styles match in leainingpioblem-solving anu in
paienting styles.
S. Attempting to match cultuial styles in genuei ioles anu in chiluieaiing oiientations.
The theiapist focuseu on paienting styles anu on values ielateu to paienting. Be concentiateu
on the majoi mismatch conflict situations iepoiteu by the clients uuiing the initial stages of the
session as he iole-playeu with each of the clients, showing them how match anu negotiation coulu
have been accomplisheu. Be followeu these five steps:
1. R)/1#+ 69$=/,6& )$)/4+,+ =92 1$3#2+&)$3,$5 61/&12)/ +&4/#+ C,+C)&6'. Fiist the theiapist
inteipieteu the uiffeiences in values ieflecteu by the inciuent pieviously mentioneu: "Wanua
values inuepenuence; she feels that chiluien shoulu make theii own uecisions anu be iesponsible
foi the consequences of those uecisions. }aviei, on the othei hanu, values uiscipline anu feels that
paients shoulu be mouels foi theii chiluien."
2. J22,",$5 )& ")/1#+ $#59&,)&,9$. The theiapist leu a uiscussion of these uiffeiences in values,
asking the clients to attempt to negotiate. They both agieeu that the othei's values hau some
meiit, concluuing that theii chiluien neeueu to be inuepenuent anu that they neeueu to leain that
theii uecisions hau consequences. They also agieeu that uiscipline anu guiuance weie impoitant
as a stage pieceuing the uevelopment of inuepenuence. Wanua anu }aviei ueciueu that conflict
between them coulu have been avoiueu hau they been able to iespect each othei's values. They
ueciueu, foi example, that theii family iule is that the chiluien can eithei complete theii
homewoik befoie uinnei anu then watch an houi of television aftei uinnei oi play foi an houi
befoie uinnei anu then uo theii homewoik uuiing the time they woulu have watcheu television.
S. 095$,&,"# +&4/#+ 69$=/,6& )$)/4+,+ =92 1$3#2+&)$3,$5 C,+C)&6'. The theiapist askeu the clients
to focus on cognitive styles in communication, showing them how they coulu have matcheu each
othei moie closely in this uomain to avoiu conflict.
4. 095$,&,"# +&4/#+ $#59&,)&,9$. As an example, the theiapist pointeu out that }aviei coulu have
been moie to-the-point in his explanation to Wanua as to why he objecteu to hei uecision to allow
the chiluien to play befoie they completeu theii homewoik. Wanua, by the same token, coulu have
been moie expiessive in hei explanation foi making the uecision she hau maue.
S. !CA)&'4 A29M#6&,9$. Finally the theiapist askeu the clients to piactice empathy piojection
(see Chaptei 6) so that they coulu expeiience what it was like to be in theii paitnei's shoes.
0nuei the uiiection of the theiapist, the couple uiscusseu anothei majoi mismatch situation
that hau occuiieu uuiing the week. They useu the same pioceuuie as they hau useu with the
uiscussion of the fiist inciuence of mismatch. Taking into consiueiation the aieas of cultuial anu
cognitive styles in which the clients neeu to effect a bettei match, the theiapist leu the clients in an
examination of theii social enviionments (see Chaptei 8) so that they coulu iuentify uiveisity
challenges in which they coulu engage foi the coming week.
}aviei iecalleu that one of theii son's Little League coaches seemeu to be moueinistic anu fielu
inuepenuent in his oiientation as he woikeu with the chiluien. }aviei ueciueu to watch him while
he woikeu with the membeis of the team uuiing piactice. Wanua iemembeieu that one of }aviei's
oluei sisteis was tiauitional anu fielu sensitive in hei chiluieaiing, anu she ueciueu to visit with
hei anu closely obseive hei while she inteiacteu with hei chiluien. Buiing the coming week,
Wanua agieeu to use a fielu sensitive style while communicating with }aviei. }aviei agieeu to tiy
to use a fielu inuepenuent style. The theiapist suggesteu that they shoulu both ieau Beck's ;9"# K+
E#"#2 !$915' foi iueas about communication match.
Session 2, in summaiy, incluueu the following six techniques anu pioceuuies:
1. Continueu uevelopment of an atmospheie peimitting expiession of the tiue self.
2. Clients' iepoits of match anu mismatch expeiiences foi the past week.
S. Clients' iepoits of the uegiee of success with match assignments foi the week.
4. The theiapist's feeuback on the iesults of assessment.
S. An analysis of cultuial anu cognitive match anu iole-playing to achieve match goals.
6. Bomewoik match assignments foi the coming week.
Session S. The theiapist began the thiiu session by asking the couple to iepoit on the uegiee
of success they hau achieveu in theii match assignments foi the pievious week. This was followeu
by iepoits on each paitnei's peiceptions of the most significant mismatch inciuent of the week.
The theiapist noteu that both Wanua anu }aviei followeu the steps foi analysis anu match he
hau intiouuceu uuiing the pievious session. Be congiatulateu them on theii effoits. The theiapist
also obseiveu that both weie inteiacting in a way that showeu giowth in cultuial anu cognitive
match.
The majoi techniques intiouuceu uuiing Session S weie sciiptwiiting anu iole-playing foi
both match anu negotiation. The match sciipt was uevelopeu with the theiapist selecting one of
the aieas of conflict iuentifieu by each of the clients in theii uiscussions}aviei's belief that since
Wanua hau ietuineu to woik outsiue the home, she hau become colu anu uistant, anu Wanua's
belief that }aviei hau become too emotionally uemanuing anu was not suppoitive of hei caieei
goals.
The theiapist piesenteu a scenaiio anu askeu each membei of the couple to pieuict how the
othei woulu ieact in the following hypothetical situation:
THERAPIST: After Wanda has had her hour to unwind, Javier approaches her to
tell her he would like to discuss a conflict he has experienced with one of his
coworkers.
The theiapist gave Wanua anu }aviei each a pau anu askeu them to pieuict what the othei
woulu say anu uo in this situation. When each hau completeu the task, the theiapist askeu them to
take tuins in ieauing theii pieuictions out louu.
JAVIER: I wouldn't get much emotional support from Wanda. Instead of focusing
on my hurt feelings, she would be objective and want me to give a lot of detail
about what happened. Then she would interpret the incident as a
misunderstanding between my colleague and me.
WANDA: Javier would get very emotional and would wind up confusing me with
his description of the incident. Whenever he is angry or upset, he is not clear in
what he communicates. He has a hard time getting to the point. Basically, I
wouldn't know what he expected from me, and we would end up arguing.
THERAPIST: From a traditional cultural styles perspective, the one major thing
Javier seems to want is for Wanda to focus on his feelings. At least for the
moment, he wants her to ignore the details of the incident. From a cognitive
styles point of view, the communication, human relations, and problem-solving
style domains seem to be involved. When he is upset, Javier becomes field
sensitive in his communication style and this mismatches your (looking at
Wanda) preferred field independent style. From the perspective of human
relations style, Javier would like you to focus on his nonverbal communications
and from the learning/problem-solving styles perspective, he would like for you to
show sympathy and caring, to let him know that you support him, and that you
want to help him to find a solution. This is a field sensitive approach. A field
independent approach would be to analyze the situation in order to help him to
understand why the conflict occurred.
The theiapist then iole-playeu the sciipt (taking the iole of the opposite paitnei) with each
client. When the iole-playing was in piogiess, the paitnei whose iole the theiapist hau taken
obseiveu anu iateu the behavioi with the Piefeiieu Cognitive anu Cultuial Styles 0bseivation
Checklists.
The next step involveu uiscussing the obseivations maue by the clients, making changes, anu
iepeating the iole-playing with the changes incoipoiateu. Both clients iole-playeu the final sciipt
while the theiapist obseiveu anu iateu. Following this exeicise, the theiapist ieintiouuceu the
same inciuent anu askeu the clients to wiite a negotiation sciipta sciipt in which each one of
them was paitially but not completely matcheu in theii piefeiieu styles. Each paitnei ieau the
negotiation sciipts out louu.
WANDA: Culturally, I would be more traditional in listening and observing Javier's
expression of feeling. I should tell him right away that I support him and stand
behind him. Once he has settled down, I can use my field independent problem-
solving style to help him analyze what happened.
JAVIER: I need to calm down before telling my troubles to Wanda. I could
develop a little exercise for myself based on what I've learned from writing
scripts. I could write down what happened and organize what I want to say so
that I can use a field independent communication style when I actually
communicate with her. However, I would still make it clear that I need and want
her support.
The theiapist anu the couple uiscusseu the negotiation sciipts. Wanua anu }aviei then iole-
playeu them while the theiapist obseiveu anu evaluateu them using the obseivation instiuments.
Finally the thiee uiscusseu the iole-playing anu maue changes in the sciipts anu behaviois as
necessaiy.
The session enueu with homewoik assignments of match anu uiveisity challenges foi the
coming week.
In summaiy, Session S incluueu the following foui techniques anu pioceuuies:
1. Repoits of client's match anu mismatch expeiiences foi the past week.
2. Intiouuction of sciiptwiiting anu iole-playing activities foi match anu negotiation.
S. Wiiting a match sciipt foi one of the majoi conflicts anu iole-playing that sciipt.
4. Wiiting a negotiation sciipt anu iole-playing it.
=#..6-0. N &0% O. Buiing these sessions, the theiapist anu clients continueu with the
uevelopment anu iole-playing of match anu negotiation sciipts.
=#..6-0 PQ This session focuseu on enviionmental uemanus anu foices that cause stiain on
the ielationship. The fiist step was to iuentify these uemanus. The theiapist began the uiscussion
by ieminuing this couple about thiee aieas that appeaieu to be most affecteu by enviionmental
foices as inuicateu by theii iesponses on the Byauic Aujustment Scale: fiienus; aims, goals, anu
things believeu to be impoitant; anu ielating to paients anu in-laws.
The theiapist leu Wanua anu }aviei in a uiscussion uiiecteu at iuentifying the exact natuie of
the uemanus anu foices causing conflict. In the aiea of woik anu caieei, both paitneis expiesseu
uissatisfaction: }aviei was unhappy when Wanua's unit manageis calleu hei at home to uiscuss
pioblems in theii unit, while Wanua iesenteu }aviei's supeivisoi's attempts to piessuie him into
playing golf on weekenus.
Anothei enviionmental foice iuentifieu as affecting the couple was exeiteu by theii fiienus:
}aviei's fiienus wanteu him to meet them aftei woik on Fiiuays foi happy houi. Wanua was
angeieu by this because she felt that it cut into the time she anu }aviei coulu spenu togethei. }aviei
uiu not like to socialize with Wanua's fiienus because, at times, they maue ethnic oi iacial jokes,
which maue him uneasy.
Paients anu in-laws weie also iuentifieu as a souice of piessuies foi Wanua anu }aviei:
}aviei's paients piessuieu them to teach theii chiluien Spanish, anu Wanua felt that they weie too
uemanuing on this subject. Wanua's paients accuseu }aviei of encouiaging the chiluien to be too
uepenuent on him.
Theii chiluien's uemanus also affecteu the couple's ielationship. They complaineu to }aviei
that Wanua wasn't spenuing enough time with them anymoie while they complaineu to Wanua
that }aviei was too stiict with them.
Aftei iuentifying these enviionmental foices, the theiapist askeu the couple to negotiate on
theii solutions. They agieeu on compiomises foi a numbei of the pioblems. The negotiations
incluueu Wanua's asking hei cowoikeis not to call hei on weekenus oi aftei 9 P.N. on weekuays;
}aviei agieeu to tell his supeivisoi that he neeueu to spenu moie time with his family, so he woulu
only be available foi golf eveiy othei weekenu. Wanua agieeu to confiont hei fiienus about theii
iacial jokes, while }aviei agieeu to limit happy houi with his fiienus to eveiy othei Fiiuay.
The next step uuiing the sixth session of couples counseling involveu an analysis of cultuial
anu cognitive styles mismatch ielateu to enviionmental piessuies anu uemanus. The theiapist
askeu each paitnei to wiite the answeis to thiee questions:
1. In youi opinion how aie the uemanus anu piessuies of woik anu caieei changing the
cultuial styles of youi paitnei.
2. Bow aie these piessuies changing his oi hei cognitive styles.
S. Bow aie you ieacting to these changes.
Aftei completion, each paitnei ieau theii answeis alouu anu uiscusseu them.
WANDA: Ever since Javier took the job with the Hispanic firm he works for now, I
feel he has become more traditional in his values and more rigid in his definition
of gender roles. He has also become more field sensitive in his cognitive style in
the parenting area. He wants the children to do things exactly the way he wants;
he has become more autocratic in his manner as a father and as a husband.
JAVIER: Since Wanda got her job as manager, I feel she has lost interest in us
as a family. She has become more self-centered. Her cognitive style has become
very field independentshe lets the children make too many decisions on their
own; they are too young and not ready for that.
Beaiing the opinions of theii paitnei iegaiuing the changes iesulting fiom theii jobs anu
caieeis was enlightening foi both }aviei anu Wanua. The uiscussion facilitateu negotiation. They
agieeu that they woulu each make an attempt to be moie flexible cultuially anu cognitively. They
agieeu that theii ielationship was moie impoitant than theii caieeis; they ueciueu to be moie
conscious of how job anu caieei uemanus weie causing mismatch.
The sixth session enueu aftei match anu uiveisity challenge assignments weie maue foi the
coming week. Session 6, in summaiy, incluueu the following five techniques anu pioceuuies:
1. Iuentification of enviionmental uemanus anu foices.
2. Biscussion to uiscovei the exact natuie anu impact of enviionmental foices anu uemanus
on the ielationship.
S. Negotiation, uiscussion, anu uecisions.
4. Iuentification of specific cultuial anu cognitive uevelopmental tienus tiiggeieu by
enviionmental foices anu uemanus.
S. Negotiation uecisions.
=#..6-0. RS TS &0% U. Buiing these thiee sessions, the couple continueu to piactice techniques
anu pioceuuies intiouuceu in eailiei sessions: analysis of mismatch expeiiences of the pievious
week, uevelopment of match anu negotiation sciipts, iole-playing the sciipts, uevelopment of
stiategies foi contiolling enviionmental piessuies, anu negotiating to keep those piessuies anu
uemanus fiom leauing to extieme cultuial anu cognitive styles mismatch. Buiing Session 9, they
ietook the Byauic Aujustment Scale, anu the theiapist completeu obseivational iatings
thioughout the couise of the session.
=#..6-0 LV. Buiing Session 1u, the theiapist gave the couple feeuback on the finuings
obtaineu fiom the ieauministeieu Byauic Aujustment Scale, compaiing these to the finuings fiom
the fiist auministiation. Be iepoiteu the following to Wanua anu }aviei:
I am happy to report that your recent ratings on the Dyadic Adjustment Scale
show that there has been a substantial reduction in areas of disagreement in
your relationship. Most impressive is the fact that you now show good agreement
in several areas: demonstration of affection, philosophy of life, major decision
making, and career decisions. The ratings indicate that you are now
communicating more effectively.
Certain areas of disagreement remainfor example, the amount of time you
spend together. You still need to identify more things you can do together and
you need to make more time to be together. You both reported that you
occasionally disagree about this.
The ratings I made of your behaviors during the last session indicate that you
are matching each other better on cultural styles: You are both flexing well in
terms of traditional and modern values. Javier, however, is still showing a
preference for traditional values, while Wanda seems to have a preference for
modern values. Nevertheless, you are now much more sensitive to these
differences, and I noticed several attempts to negotiate.
I've also noticed that you are negotiating well on cognitive styles, even
though Javier is still preferred field sensitive and Wanda is still preferred field
independent. You have learned to match each other and to negotiate bicognitive
orientations in the teaching and parenting, and learning/problem-solving
domains.
This was followeu by a long uiscussion, but no majoi uniesolveu pioblems emeigeu. The
theiapist pioceeueu to wiap up counseling, making an appointment foi one month hence foi a
follow-up session. Be maue it cleai that he woulu be available foi an eailiei appointment shoulu
they feel it necessaiy.
Session 1u, in summaiy, incluueu the following two techniques anu pioceuuies:
1. Feeuback on ieauministiation instiuments.
2. Teimination anu agieeing on follow-up sessions.
=#..6-0 LL. Buiing the fiist follow-up session, Wanua anu }aviei completeu the Byauic
Aujustment Scale again. The theiapist compaieu theii iatings, noting that theie weie now no
aieas of majoi uisagieement. The theiapist askeu each of them foi theii peiceptions of the
piogiess being maue in theii ielationship. Although they uiu iepoit some majoi mismatch
situations since theii last session, they agieeu that they hau been successful in negotiating them.
The theiapist scheuuleu anothei follow-up session in six months anu enueu the session.

IIGUkL 11.1 Mu|t|cu|tura| counse||ng and therapy w|th coup|es

=#..6-0 L
1. Initial match anu intiouuction to the goals of
couples counseling
2. Auministei the BAS
S. Establish an atmospheie of acceptance in which
clients feel fiee to iepoit the pioblems they peiceive
in theii ielationship, anu in which they feel fiee to
expiess theii piefeiieu cultuial anu cognitive styles
4. Shoit uiscussion of each paitnei's peispective on
the ielationship anu of pieliminaiy finuings of BAS,
anu obseivation foi cognitive anu cultuial styles useu
in inteiaction with paitnei anu theiapist
S. Auministei the B0LS anu FAS
6. Intiouuce the flex theoiy of peisonality anu the
Nulticultuial Nouel of Psychotheiapy
7. Closuie of the session anu assign homewoik
=#..6-0 M
1. Continueu uevelopment of an atmospheie
peimitting expiession of the tiue self
2. Client's iepoits of match anu mismatch
expeiiences foi the week
S. Client's iepoit of the uegiee of success with match
assignments foi the week
4. Feeuback fiom theiapist on the iesults of the
assessment
S. An analysis of cultuial anu cognitive styles match
anu mismatch, anu iole-playing to achieve goals
6. Bomewoik match assignments foi coming week
=#..6-0 W
1. Client's iepoits of match anu
mismatch expeiiences foi the
week
2. Intiouuction of sciipt- wiiting
anu iole-playing activities foi
match anu negotiation
S. Wiiting a match sciipt foi one of
the majoi conflicts anu iole-
playing the sciipt
4. Wiiting a negotiation sciipt anu
iole-playing it
S. Assign homewoik
=#..6-0. N &0% O
1. Continue
uevelopment anu iole-
playing of match anu
negotiation sciipts
=#..6-0 P
1. Iuentification of enviionmental uemanus
anu foices
2. Biscussion to uiscovei exact natuie anu
impact of enviionmental foices anu uemanus
on the ielationship
S. Negotiation, uiscussion, anu uecisions
4. Iuentification of specific cultuial anu
cognitive uevelopmental tienus tiiggeieu by
enviionmental foices anu uemanus
S. Negotiation uecisions
=#..6-0. RIU
1. Continue to piactice
techniques anu pioceuuies
leaineu in eailiei sessions
2. Reauministei BAS (Session
9)
=#..6-0 LV
1. Feeuback on ieauministiation
of instiuments
2. Teimination anu agieement on
follow-up session
=#..6-0. LL &0% LM
1. Complete BAS
2. Compaie iatings
S. Ask about piogiess
4. Biscuss fuithei follow-ups if
necessaiy
=#..6-0 LM. The seconu follow-up pioceeueu along the same lines as the fiist. When }aviei
anu Wanua agieeu that no pioblems hau suifaceu since Session 11, the theiapist inuicateu that he
saw no neeu foi continueu sessions. Wanua anu }aviei concuiieu. The theiapist assuieu them that
he was available shoulu they neeu auuitional counseling.
A giaphic summaiy of the uiffeient sessions of multicultuial counseling with couples is
piesenteu in Figuie 11.1.
SUMMAk
When the multicultuial mouel is applieu uuiing couples counseling, the piimaiy focus is on
mismatch in values anu in cognitive stylesthe ioot souice of many conflicts in ielationships. In
auuition to teaching techniques anu pioceuuies that can leau to match anu negotiation, the
theiapist also helps the clients to iuentify exteinal, oi enviionmental, foices anu uemanus.
Enviionmental uemanus can cause uissatisfaction in the ielationship anu can tiiggei the
uevelopment of tienus in values anu cognitive styles that aie also ielateu to mismatch. The
paitneis leain to iuentify anu negotiate with iespect to the uisiupting foices.
12
FAMILY COUNSELING
Innovative appioaches to family theiapy that have been uevelopeu foi use with people who aie
cultuially uiffeient have focuseu on matching the values, woiluviews, anu unique family
stiuctuies anu ioles as well as special neeus anu peisonality vaiiables such as bicultuialism
anuoi multicultuialism. Caiolyn Atteneave (1969) was a pioneei in the uevelopment of cultuie
match appioaches. Bei woik with Native Ameiican families living in uiban settings combineu the
"Neuicine Nan" iole anu the stiategies of Netwoik Theiapy (Speck anu Atteneave, 1974).
Atteneave iefeiieu to hei appioach as ietiibalization.
Ninuchin anu his colleagues (1967) intiouuceu the stiuctuial appioach to family theiapy,
which hau been uevelopeu with innei-city pooi families, some of whom weie Afiican Ameiican
anu Latino. Aponte (1974) intiouuceu the ecostiuctuial mouel of family theiapy, which hau been
uevelopeu in his tieatment appioaches with Afiican Ameiican anu Pueito Rican families. Be was
influenceu by Aueiswalu's (1968) ecological theiapy. The ecostiuctuial appioach seeks to
empowei families by helping them to "navigate the system." That is, the goal of theiapy is to help
families inteiact with institutions anu agenciesschools, couits, chilu welfaie, anu housing
offices, as well as health anu mental health pioviueisthat impact theii lives.
The woik of both Ninuchin anu Aponte influenceu Szapocznik, Scopetta, Aianalue, anu
Kuitines (1978), who auapteu the ecostiuctuial appioach to the values anu special neeus of Cuban
Ameiican families at the Spanish Family uuiuance Clinic in the Bepaitment of Psychiatiy at the
0niveisity of Niami School of Neuicine. Bo (1987) intiouuceu an ecological systemic appioach foi
uoing theiapy with families of uiffeient ethnic gioups. The focus of Bo's stiategies emphasizeu
sensitivity towaiu tiauitional family values of uiffeient ethnic gioups anu attention to
accultuiation piocesses, which aie ielateu to bicultuial oiientations to life. Bo postulateu that his
emic appioach offeieu piomise foi enhancing the unueistanuing of ethnic families anu foi
enlaiging the inteivention iepeitoiies available to the family theiapist.
Boyu-Fianklin (1987) aigueu foi the use of a stiuctuialecostiuctuial appioach with Afiican
Ameiican families, citing the impoitance of unique family stiuctuies, ioles, anu the uegiee to
which pooi families aie impacteu by institutions outsiue themselves. She also aigueu foi the use of
Bowen's (1976) 5#$952)C+ (a family tiee to help the family map its family oiganization anu
inteigeneiational emotional issues) in uoing theiapy with Afiican Ameiican families.
Ncuill (1992) intiouuceu the concept of the cultuial stoiy in his woik with ethnic minoiity
families. The cultuial stoiy assumes that a family biings to theiapy not only a stoiy of its
iuiosynciatic pioblems, but that this stoiy also ieflects society's stoiies about genuei, life cycle,
ethnicity, class, anu iace. To use the cultuial stoiy in theiapy, theiapists neeu to be acquainteu
with the value systems anu woiluviews of vaiious cultuies. Ncuill iecommenueu the use of
uiveisity genogiams to iecoiu the family's stoiy, incluuing the stoiies of geneiation, genuei,
ethnicity, iace, class, anu migiation. A uiveisity genogiam expanus stanuaiu genogiam methous
useu in family theiapy.
In theii woik with Latino families, Ceivantes anu Ramiiez (199S) have evolveu a mouel of
family theiapy baseu on the Nestizo (multicultuial multiiacial) woiluview anu the cultuial value
of spiiitualism. Emphasizing the mestizo psychology peispective (N. Ramiiez, 198S), mestizo
spiiituality, anu the philosophy of 612)$3#2,+C9 (Nexican faith healing), they evolveu stiategies
foi family theiapy useu effectively with Latino families in Texas. In the fiist euition of this book, N.
Ramiiez (1991) intiouuceu an appioach to couples counseling baseu on a values anu cognitive
styles match anu mismatch. Bis focus on the cultuial anu peisonality styles of couples
expeiiencing conflict leu to expansion of this multicultuial peispective foi uoing psychotheiapy
with families. The iest of this chaptei uesciibes the multicultuial mouel of family theiapy.
1nL CASL CI 1nL kCSALLS
resent|ng rob|ems
The initial contact was with Anna, a mothei who hau been iefeiieu to the theiapist by hei
chuich. Anna anu hei husbanu, }esse, hau been having conflicts foi appioximately two yeais, anu it
hau gotten to the point wheie they weie thieatening to uivoice. Anna felt that theii maiital
pioblems weie having a stiong negative influence on theii two chiluien, Tati anu Nancy. Tati, an
eight-yeai-olu boy, was having acauemic pioblems; Nancy, fouiteen, wanteu to uate a stuuent in
high school; she hau taken the family cai without peimission anu hau gotten into an acciuent.
}esse hau been expeiiencing symptoms of panic uisoiuei without agoiaphobia. Be was also
expeiiencing some symptoms of somatization uisoiuei, having hau seveial false alaims thinking
that he was having symptoms of a iuptuieu ulcei. Be was iusheu to the hospital wheie meuical
tests showeu that the symptoms weie ielateu to anxiety. Anna, too, was expeiiencing symptoms of
anxiety, but she tenueu to be stoic about them. 0ne inciuent shockeu hei anu the iest of the family:
She was uiiving the chiluien to an evening school event when, without waining, she lost contiol of
the cai anu uiove fiom the paiking lot into one of the playgiounus of the school. Foitunately, no
one was huit. This inciuent scaieu Anna because she suffeieu fiom some of the symptoms of
amnesia; she coulu not iemembei losing contiol of the cai oi the kius scieaming fiom the
backseat waining hei that that she was uiiving at high speeu into the playgiounu.
Genera| C||n|ca| Cons|derat|ons
Anna neeueu to be assesseu foi a uissociative uisoiuei anu foi geneializeu anxiety uisoiuei.
She also neeueu to leain stiess-ieuuction techniques. }esse was assesseu foi panic uisoiuei
without agoiaphobia. Be also neeueu to leain stiess-ieuuction techniques anu be evaluateu foi
any neeu foi meuication. Tati was evaluateu foi leaining uisoiueis to see if he neeueu special
seivices such as placement in iesouice classes at school. Nancy was evaluateu foi oppositional
uefiant uisoiuei.
n|story of the kosa|es Iam||y
A family histoiy uone with Ni. anu Nis. Rosales uuiing the seconu session ievealeu that Anna
anu }esse weie likely to uiffei in theii piefeiieu cultuial anu cognitive styles anu that these
uiffeiences weie likely ielateu to exposuie to uiffeient socialization anu life expeiiences. Although
theii Latino cultuial backgiounu was the same, uiffeiences in theii peisonality styles ieflecteu a
uiffeience in values.
Anna hau been boin anu ieaieu in an uiban enviionment in Cential Texas, which was
pieuominantly Caucasian (about seventy peicent) with some Afiican Ameiicans anu Latinos
(appioximately twenty anu ten peicent, iespectively). The pieuominant Caucasian cultuial
influence in hei community exposeu Anna to mouein values; Caucasian values in the schools anu
in othei community institutions hau the gieatest influence on the uevelopment of hei peisonality.
Nost of Anna's close fiienus in school weie Caucasian, anu she hau also felt the influence of
Caucasian cultuie because of hei involvement in uiil Scouts. Fuithei, hei family socialization
expeiiences hau been veiy uiffeient fiom those of }esse. She hau giown up with thiee biotheis;
anu hei paients hau encouiageu hei to be as inuepenuent as hei biotheis, encouiaging the entiie
family to auopt flexible genuei ioles; Anna hau been encouiageu to be active in spoits anu was
given the same fieeuom to uate that hei biotheis hau.
The schools Anna attenueu valueu fielu inuepenuent thinking, leainingpioblem-solving
styles, anu emphasizeu fielu inuepenuent teaching styles. Anna's fathei was an engineei anu hau
been the infoimal math tutoi foi all the chiluien in the family. Be encouiageu all his chiluien to
excel in math anu science. Anna hau also been encouiageu in inuiviuual competition, both at home
anu at school. She hau paiticipateu in Inteischolastic League competitions anu hau won seveial
iibbons.
}esse's socialization anu life expeiiences hau been uiffeient fiom Anna's. Be hau giown up in
semi-uiban small South Texas city, which was pieuominantly Latino (eighty-five peicent) with
Caucasian anu Afiican Ameiicans making up the othei ten anu five peicent of the population,
iespectively. Almost all }esse's close fiienus uuiing chiluhoou, auolescence, anu young auulthoou
weie Latino; otheis hau been Afiican Ameiican anu veiy few hau been Caucasian. In fact, }esse hau
not hau Caucasian close fiienus until he was in the seivice.
}esse's family hau encouiageu tiauitional genuei ioles. Be hau only sisteis, so when theii
fathei passeu away when }esse was in high school, he auopteu seveial aspects of the fathei's iole
as piincipal bieauwinnei anu authoiity figuie in the home. }esse uioppeu out of high school anu
took a full-time job to help suppoit the family. Be obtaineu his uEB while in the seivice, but he hau
not puisueu a college euucation.
Nost of the institutions (piincipally the schools anu the chuiches) in }esse's community
encouiageu a fielu sensitive appioach to leainingpioblem-solving. Bis paiticipation in school
spoits was oiienteu towaiu iuentity with the team anu the community anu encouiageu gioup
iathei than inuiviuual competition. Bis mothei hau been inteiesteu in histoiy anu in ieauing
autobiogiaphies, so she encouiageu }esse's goou peifoimance in social sciences couises at school.
0ne of }esse's uncles, a muial paintei, encouiageu }esse to assist him with seveial muials he hau
painteu as community piojects.
Anna anu }esse met at a chuich uance helu in Anna's hometown. At the time, }esse hau been in
the seivice anu stationeu at a neaiby aimy base. Both saiu something to the effect that it hau been
love at fiist sight anu that they hau felt they weie iight foi each othei fiom the fiist moment they
met. A histoiy of the couitship, which hau been two yeais long, inuicateu theie hau been little
conflict oi uiffeiences of opinion between them. Both iecalleu that theii only aieas of
uisagieement hau been about hanuling money anu uealing with extenueu family. In the aiea of
money, Anna woulu become upset because of }esse's spenuing habits, paiticulaily his tenuency to
buy watches foi a collection he hau.
}esse hau objecteu to Anna's continueu closeness to hei biotheis anu hei seeming neeu to
please them. Biscussion of this topic leu to ievelation of a wiuei pioblemneithei's family hau
appioveu of theii ielationship anu maiiiage. Acceptance hau only occuiieu aftei they auopteu
theii chiluien. }esse's sisteis anu his mothei hau felt that Anna was too mouein anu )5)D)6')3)
(Anglicizeu) foi }esse. While Anna's siblings anu hei paients felt that }esse was too tiauitional C14
2)$6'9 (membei of a small, iuial Latino community) anu not ambitious enough because he hau
not gone to college.
Anna envieu hei biotheis who weie alieauy maiiieu, hau chiluien, anu hau theii own homes.
She hau hopeu that maiiiage woulu leau to these same things foi }esse anu hei. }esse's fiist goal
hau been to have chiluien so that he coulu pass on family histoiy anu tiauitions to them anu so
that his mothei coulu be a gianumothei befoie she passeu away.
The fiist majoi pioblem the couple encounteieu was economics. Without the iesouices to buy
a house, they weie foiceu to live with Anna's paients. This put a lot of stiain on the ielationship
anu fuitheieu Anna's biotheis opinion that }esse lackeu ambition. Anna began to shaie this
opinion. The couple's failuie to have chiluien eaily in theii maiiiage was the basis of auuitional
pioblems. Aftei numeious meuical tests anu appioaches, they weie finally tolu conclusively that it
was meuically impossible foi them to have theii own chiluien. }esse peiceiveu that it was Anna's
fault. Bis mothei anu sistei suppoiteu his tiauitional views of the woman's iolesomehow Anna
was less than a "complete" woman because she coulu not have chiluien.
Aftei much agonizing anu uiscussions with theii pastoi, Anna anu }esse ueciueu to auopt
Nancy. Both membeis of the couple agieeu that because of }esse's tiauitional views iegaiuing
genuei iole, he hau been minimally involveu in chiluieaiing anu paiental caie eaily in Nancy's life.
This iesulteu in a veiy close bonu between Anna anu Nancy with }esse being an outsiuei. A yeai
aftei this auoption, Anna was piomoteu to a supeivisoiy position with a much highei salaiy. The
couple was able to puichase theii own home anu ueciueu to auopt a seconu chilu, a boy. Since
Anna hau establisheu such a close bonu with Nancy, it was an unspoken agieement between the
couple that the next chilu woulu "belong" to }esse. Tati was auopteu anu inueeu he anu }esse
uevelopeu a stiong bonu. }esse hau been veiy involveu in Tati's eaily caie anu socialization. The
alliances weie foimeu.
1he In|t|a| Sess|ons of Mu|t|cu|tura| Counse||ng and 1herapy w|th the kosa|es
)7# !06;6&$ =#..6-0. The goals of the initial session of family theiapy aie similai to those of
the fiist session in inuiviuual theiapy: to establish an atmospheie of nonjuugmental oi unciitical
acceptance, to attempt to match the piefeiieu cultuial anu cognitive styles of the clients, anu to
make behavioial obseivations to ueteimine if the styles with which the family membeis piesent
aie theii piefeiieu oi nonpiefeiieu styles. The auuitional goal of family counseling is to obseive
inteiactions between family membeis in oiuei to assess family alliances, which may be
contiibuting to conflict.
At the fiist session with the Rosales family, the theiapist began by welcoming them anu asking
them to intiouuce themselves. The theiapist obseiveu family uynamics immeuiately, ueteimining
who talkeu fiist anu the uegiee of iuentification with tiauitional values by seeing if the clients
useu theii fiist oi both fiist anu last names. Be also hau a chance to obseive the seating patteins,
anu he ueteimineu that }esse anu Tati hau sat next to each othei while Nancy anu Anna sat siue by
siue. Be obseiveu that Anna talkeu fiist followeu by }esse, then Nancy anu finally Tati. }esse,
Nancy, anu Anna seemeu to be expiessing theii piefeiieu cultuial anu cognitive styles, but Tati
seemeu to be uncomfoitable, looking to the othei membeis of his family foi uiiection.
The theiapist askeu each family membei to think of one thing that was a stiength in the family
anu one thing that was a pioblem. Anna began: "The way I see it oui family pioblem is that we
have a lot of uisagieements, in paiticulai }esse anu me. The stiength I see is that when we uo
things togethei as a family we seem to foiget oui uiffeiences anu enjoy what we uo." }esse spoke
next, "The pioblem I see is that Anna ciiticizes Tati anu me too much. 0ui stiength is going to
chuich on Sunuays anu uoing activities thiough the chuich." Nancy's iesponse was, "Nost of the
time theie seems to be a lot of tension, but it is fun when we go visit oui cousins in the Rio uianue
valley. We seem to be a uiffeient family when we visit theie." Tati finisheu with, "Nost of the time
I feel it is my fault that Nom anu Bau fight; it makes me feel bau. The time I like too is when we
visit with oui ielatives anu have fun." Buiing this exeicise the theiapist obseiveu that, when
Nancy talkeu, she lookeu at Anna anu not at the otheis, while Tati lookeu only at }esse when he
was talking.
Noie intensive uiscussion of the pioblems anu stiengths of the family followeu. Aftei
appioximately one houi the theiapist saiu, "Befoie I ask you to fill out some foims, I woulu like foi
each of you to think of something that is faiily simple anu stiaightfoiwaiu, something that can
easily be uone by youi family in the next two weeks, that woulu make things bettei foi the entiie
family." Aftei a shoit uiscussion anu agieement on a family activity, the theiapist askeu each of
them to complete the FAS (Appenuix C), TNI (Appenuix N), B0LS (Appenuix u), anu NEI
(Appenuix A). Because of Tati's pioblems with ieauing, the theiapist askeu him if he woulu like
help with the foims. Tati agieeu, anu they went to the empty waiting ioom while the otheis
completeu theii foims inuiviuually in the theiapist's office.
While Tati was alone with the theiapist anu as he was iesponuing to the items of the
instiuments he was taking, he became moie talkative anu self- uisclosing, shaiing that he was
woiiieu that his paients might sepaiate. The theiapist listeneu empathetically anu inuicateu to
Tati that the uecision to come to family counseling was a goou sign. Tati seemeu ieassuieu.
The theiapist then met with all the family membeis again anu saiu, "I will be calling you in a
few uays to let you know if I think I am the iight theiapist foi you anu to see if you think I m iight
foi you. I woulu like you to uiscuss this as a family in the next two uays. If I uo not feel I am the
iight theiapist oi if you feel I am not iight foi you, I can iefei you to some theiapists who might be
a bettei fit. If we all agiee that we shoulu woik togethei, I woulu like to see only Ni. anu Nis.
Rosales foi the next session. Aftei that I will usually see all of you togethei. Bowevei, theie may be
times when I have to meet inuiviuually with Ni. anu Nis. Rosales again."
The initial anu all subsequent sessions weie one anu one-half to two houis in length. The
initial session, in summaiy, incluueu the following:
0bseiving family inteiactions thiough seating pattein, veibal anu nonveibal behaviois,
anu the communication patteins suggesting alliances baseu on match anu mismatch.
Baving each membei give a family stiength anu a family pioblem.
0bseiving foi piefeiieu cultuial anu cognitive styles of inuiviuual membeis using the
Piefeiieu Cultuial anu Cognitive Styles Checklists (Appenuices E anu F).
Establishing one change the family membeis woulu like to see in the family uuiing the
next two weeks.
Auministeiing the FAS, TNI, B0LS anu NEI instiuments.
=#..6-0 M. The theiapist openeu the session by asking Anna anu }esse to complete the Byauic
Aujustment Scale (BAS). Aftei they completeu this instiument, the theiapist askeu the Rosales to
ielate the histoiy of theii ielationship anu theii family as they saw it, beginning with how they
met. As they tolu the eaily histoiy of theii ielationship, the theiapist askeu how things went when
they weie uating; how they felt fiom the stait about theii fit with one anothei; when they ueciueu
to maiiy; what hopes they each hau foi the maiiiage. Be then askeu about theii histoiy of sexual
intimacy anu whethei it hau changeu fiom eaily in theii ielationship. Be finally exploieu how
theii families hau felt about the maiiiage anu eaily pioblems.
Fiom the Rosales' iesponses to these questions anu fiom theii iesponses to the BAS, the
theiapist ueteimineu that theii expectations foi maiiiage weie similai, but uiu show some
uiffeiences in what they consiueieu pioblem aieas in the ielationship, paiticulaily with finances,
uealing with ielatives, anu householu choies. The couple anu theiapist uiscusseu these.
At the conclusion of the session, the theiapist summaiizeu by saying, "You have agieeu to
spenu moie quality time togethei as a couplea uate night uuiing the week. You both agieeu to
uiscuss youi conceins about youi aujustment to the sexual ielationship moie openly." The seconu
session (paients only), in summaiy, incluueu the following:
Intiouucing the goal of sessionto leain about the ielationship anu its histoiy.
Auministeiing the BAS.
Leaining the histoiy of the ielationship anu of the family.
Pioviuing feeuback on finuings of the BAS anu the histoiy.
0ffeiing suggestions foi impioving the ielationship between paitneis.
=#..6-0 WQ The theiapist began the session by asking all the family membeis to iepoit on how
they hau peiceiveu piogiess towaiu attaining the one goal they hau jointly selecteu foi impioving
the well-being of the family. Be staiteu with Tati's anu Nancy's goals anu then moveu to those of
}esse anu Anna. All in all, the membeis felt that theie hau been significant impiovement in theii
feelings towaiu each othei anu that Anna anu }esse hau uone less aiguing uuiing the two weeks
since the last session with the entiie family.
The theiapist intiouuceu the cultuial anu cognitive flex mouel to the Rosales, using the
appioach uesciibeu in Chaptei 7. This incluueu a uiscussion of the impoitance of values anu
cognitive styles, match anu mismatch, anu how these can leau to family conflict. Be gave the family
feeuback on the finuings of the assessment instiuments they hau taken. Be began with values
inuicating how similai Tati anu }esse weie, contiasting this with the similaiities between Anna
anu Nancy. The uiscussion that followeu centeieu on selecting a cultuial styles goal that the family
woulu focus on uuiing the next session. They all ueciueu they wanteu to woik on the uefinition of
genuei ioles anu uivision of laboi in householu choies.
The theiapist askeu Anna anu Tati anu Nancy anu }esse to woik togethei as paiis in
sciiptwiiting. Nothei anu son moveu to a uiffeient pait of the ioom so that they coulu concentiate
on theii sciipts. The specific goal of the sciipts was how to encouiage }esse anu Tati to help with
the vacuuming anu the launuiy anu how to get Nancy anu Anna to help with washing the cais.
An impoitant issue suifaceu uuiing this session: }esse's ieluctance to paiticipate in iole-
playing. Be saiu he felt embaiiasseu to paiticipate in something that seemeu like a game foi an
auult (a tiauitional value) anu that he feaieu his chiluien might lose iespect foi him if he
paiticipateu (also a tiauitional value in Latino cultuie). A uiscussion with the family about the
values ielateu to }esse's ieluctance ensueu anu in the piocess he agieeu to seive as Nancy's coach
uuiing iole-playing; the othei family membeis felt it might be goou to have an outsiue obseivei in
auuition to the theiapist when they weie iole-playing. About two-thiius of the way thiough the
session, }esse became so involveu in giving uiiection to all the family membeis that essentially he
became involveu in the iole-playing himself.
The theiapist moveu back anu foith between the two paiis as consultant. Fiom suggestions
given by Tati as to how best to appioach }esse on the housecleaning choies, Anna iealizeu that she
hau usually compaieu }esse negatively to hei biotheis when she hau askeu him to help out with
the housewoik. She iealizeu that this usually leu to }esse becoming uefensive anu iesulteu in an
aigument between them. }esse, on the othei hanu, with Nancy's help, aiiiveu at the iealization
that he usually assigneu the menial tasks of cleaning the hubcaps anu the tiies to Anna anu Nancy,
nevei allowing them to uo what they ieally enjoyeuwaxing the cais. Be hau always ieseiveu this
task foi Tati anu himself, usually saying, "They aie not veiy goou at this because they uon't have
the aim anu hanu stiength it takes to uo it iight." This woulu alienate Nancy anu Anna.
!"#$"% '()"* +#$ ,-.-*-(# (/ 0+1(% (# 2(3*"4()$ 54(%"*6 78%-9:*
JESSE AND NANCY'S SCRIPT: At least one day before he planned to wash the
cars, Jesse was to say to Nancy, Anna, and Tati, "I would like for us to wash the
cars tomorrow afternoon. Who would like to help and what jobs do you want to
do?" It was agreed that if Anna, Nancy, and Tati wanted to participate in the
activity, Anna and Tati would wax one of the cars while Nancy and Jesse
concentrated on the hubcaps and tires; the roles for the pairs would be reversed
for the other car.
TATI AND ANNA'S SCRIPT: A day before she planned to do housecleaning,
Anna would say to the family, "I would like for us to clean the house tomorrow.
Can we all do it together?" She agreed not to compare Jesse unfavorably with
her brothers. Following housecleaning, they all agreed to do something that Tati
wantedfor the family to see a movie together.
The sciipts weie iole-playeu, with all membeis paiticipating, with the assistance of the
theiapist. This was followeu by a family uiscussion as to how they hau benefiteu fiom the exeicise.
/-"#X-*A +..6:0"#0;The theiapist gave a homewoik assignment. Anna anu }esse woulu
both ask the family to paiticipate in housecleaning anu cai-washing choies. The entiie family was
to uiscuss how the assignments hau gone anu to iepoit back to the theiapist at the next session.
The thiiu session, in summaiy, incluueu the following:
0btaining inuiviuual family membeis' peiceptions of uegiee of success in
accomplishing change goals iuentifieu at the enu of the initial session.
Intiouucing the cultuial anu cognitive flex mouel.
0btaining feeuback on the finuings of the assessment instiuments auministeieu uuiing
initial session.
Selecting a cultuial styles goal.
Assigning sciiptwiiting in paiis.
Wiiting sciipts.
Role-playing.
Biscussing iole-play anu, if necessaiy, making sciipt changes anu iole-playing again.
Assigning homewoik.
=#..6-0 N. The theiapist began the session by asking the family membeis about the outcome
of the homewoik assignment anu impiovements anu pioblems they hau noticeu in theii family
uuiing the past week. They maue necessaiy changes to the sciipt anu ieplayeu the ioles, focusing
on the cultuial goal. The theiapist then ievieweu the majoi concepts of the flex mouel, inuicating
that the piimaiy goal foi this session woulu be to iuentify a common cognitive styles goal anu to
again pioceeu to wiite a sciipt anu to uo iole-playing. The cognitive styles goal on which membeis
of the family agieeu was communication style.
They ueciueu to woik on this in the context of the basis of the majoiity of the aiguments
between }esse anu Annahis spenuing habits anu hei fiequent business tiips. Again, assignment
foi sciiptwiiting was maue to the paiis. They weie askeu to focus on both goals, wiiting sciipts foi
both. Again, Anna anu }esse weie suipiiseu by the insights pioviueu by theii chiluien. }esse
iealizeu that his fiustiation ovei aiguments with Anna conceining one of hei tiips leu him to stait
shopping foi an auuition to his watch collection.
}esse also came to iealize that his stateu ieasons about why he uiu not like Anna to tiavel so
much weie veiy bioau: "It's not goou foi the family foi you to be gone so much." Nancy helpeu him
to iuentify some of the specific ieasons foi his opposition to the fiequency of hei business tiips:
Be felt Anna valueu hei job anu caieei auvancement oppoitunities moie than she valueu the
family anu his jealousy about the male cowoikeis who went on the tiips with hei. 0n the othei
hanu, Anna's ciiticisms of }esse's spenuing habits weie always focuseu on too much uetail anu
usually incluueu uiie pieuictions about family finances, which maue }esse iesentful. When the
sciipts weie completeu, iole-playing was uone with uiscussion following.
TATI AND ANNA'S SCRIPT: First Anna was to be very specific about the
reasons for her trip and about which coworkers would be going on the trip. The
family discussed when Anna would call while she was gone and how long she
would be gone. When she returned and learned that Jesse bought a new watch
for his collection, she would say: "Can I see your new watch? How does it fit into
your collection?"
The iole-playing was followeu by an extensive uiscussion conceining communication style
conflicts in the family; some of these conceineu aiguments between Nancy anu Tati, paiticulaily
when Tati ielayeu phone messages to Nancy. She was always upset that he faileu to give hei
enough specific infoimation. The family agieeu to buy a message pau to use foi this puipose.
JESSE AND NANCY'S SCRIPT: Jesse would be more explicit about his
concerns about her trips. He explained, "In movies and on TV I see people who
work together and travel on business trips falling in love. I get jealous." Tati would
say, "I miss having you around because Dad and Nancy get into more arguments
when you are away." They then allowed Anna to respond.
Buiing the iole-playing, Anna was suipiiseu to leain that }esse was jealous. She hau nevei
consiueieu this anu hau seen his opposition to hei business tiips as an attempt to cuitail hei
fieeuom. She was even moie suipiiseu by Tati's obseivation that }esse anu Nancy woulu aigue
moie while she was away. A long uiscussion ensueu about communication style conflicts that leu
to uisagieements anu aiguing between Nancy anu }esse.
/-"#X-*A +..6:0"#0;.The theiapist maue a homewoik assignment. Both paiis woulu
tiy out what they hau leaineu at least once in theii teaching-leaining effoits uuiing the week.
Again, they woulu uiscuss the successes anu the pioblems of theii effoits.
The fouith session, in summaiy, incluueu the following:
Assessing the outcome of the Session S homewoik assignment anu giving suggestions,
if necessaiy.
Iuentifying a cognitive styles goal.
Wiiting sciipts.
Role-playing.
Biscussing the effoits anu making any necessaiy changes in sciipts anu ieplaying them.
Assigning homewoik.
=#..6-0 O. Again the theiapist staiteu the session by asking how each membei of the family
peiceiveu things hau gone the pievious week anu asking them if they hau any questions. They
then woikeu on anothei cognitive style goal that the family hau iuentifieu as veiy impoitant. This
one focuseu on leaining-teaching stylethis time on the neeu foi Anna to tutoi Tati on math
without losing hei patience with him anu the neeu foi hei to match hei teaching style to his
piefeiieu leaining style. The theiapist hau Anna anu Tati focus on the chaiacteiistics of fielu
sensitive leainingpioblem-solving on a Chilu Behavioi 0bseivation Checklist (Cox, Nacaulay, anu
Ramiiez, 198S).
TATI AND ANNA'S SCRIPT: After reviewing and discussing the Child Behavior
Observation Checklist, Tati and Anna worked on the teaching styles script. Anna
would say, "How would you like me to help with your homework?" She also
agreed to give more social rewards when Tati succeeded and to use more
modeling and less of the discovery approach when teaching. She would say,
"Would you like me to show you how I learned to solve that type of problem?"
Tati agreed to be less passive and to take more initiative in what he was doing.
}esse anu Nancy focuseu on the techniques useu to teach Nancy to uiive. The theiapist hau
them focus on the leaining behaviois of a fielu inuepenuent style anu on the fielu sensitive
teaching styles. Be assisteu them in wiiting a sciipt in which theie woulu be a bettei match
between leaining anu teaching styles.
JESSE AND NANCY'S SCRIPT: Jesse agreed to be more responsive to the way
Nancy preferred to be given driving lessons. She would say, "I would like for you
to have more confidence in me and let me try it my own way. When you are
going to show me how to do something new, tell me about it and then just let me
try it. If I have any questions, I can ask you." Jesse also agreed to be more
explicit and attentive to detail in his explanations. For example, in teaching Nancy
to parallel park, he would say, "The idea is to use the car that will be in front of
you for alignment when you are backing into the parking spot. You turn the wheel
so that the rear end of the car goes toward the curb. Once you are far enough in,
turn the wheel the other way to get the front end of the car close to the curb."
/-"#X-*A +..6:0"#0;.Both paiis woulu tiy out what they hau leaineu at least once in
theii teaching-leaining effoits uuiing the week. Again, they woulu uiscuss the successes anu the
pioblems of theii effoits.
+..#.."#0; -E G*-:*#..All foui family membeis again completeu the FAS, TNI, anu B0LS.
}esse anu Anna took the BAS again. To iuentify aieas in which piogiess hau been maue, as well as
aieas that still iequiieu woik, these scoies weie compaieu with those fiom the fiist
auministiation.
The fifth session, in summaiy, incluueu the following:
Assessing outcome of homewoik anu giving suggestions, if necessaiy.
Iuentifying a seconu cultuial oi cognitive styles goal.
Wiiting sciipts.
Role-playing.
Biscussing sciipts anu iole-playing, making changes, if necessaiy.
Assigning homewoik.
Assessing piogiess by ieauministeiing the assessment instiuments.
=#..6-0 P. The theiapist staiteu the session by asking about the outcome of the homewoik
assignment. Family membeis then iuentifieu a seconu cultuial goal they wanteu to woik on. Aftei
a shoit uiscussion, the Rosales settleu on the goal of how ielationships with membeis of the
extenueu family hau an influence on theii family. In paiticulai, Tati anu Nancy felt that }esse anu
Anna weie influenceu by theii aunts, uncles, anu paients with iespect to chiluieaiing behaviois.
This fiequently leu to conflict between }esse anu Anna anu to Nancy anu Tati feeling they weie
being tieateu unfaiily, paiticulaily by the paient to which they weie mismatcheu in teims of
cultuial anu cognitive styles. Noie specifically, }esse woulu be ciiticizeu by his mothei anu sisteis
as too C93#2$9 oi )5)D)6')39, because he anu Anna weie consiueiing allowing Nancy to uate at
age fouiteen. Anna, on the othei hanu, was being ciiticizeu by hei paients anu biotheis foi what
they iefeiieu to as "}esse's macho influence" on Tati. They felt this woulu make it impossible foi
Tati to become a "goou Ameiican" anu to be able to compete in high school anu college. The family
membeis peiceiveu this pioblem uiffeiently. What follows is what they hau to say.
NANCY: A lot of arguments at home start when we visit my grandparents and
aunts and uncles. Dad becomes stricter and Mother wants to give us more
freedom. We become confused.
TATI: I think that our family is different, but our parents want us to be like my
cousins.
ANNA: It is embarrassing to me that my brothers, my sisters-in-law, and parents
think that we are not being good parents.
JESSE: Every time we visit with my family, I come away thinking that my mother
and my sisters know the best way to bring up children. After all, my sisters and I
came out okay and my nieces and nephews are all doing well in school.
The theiapist askeu the family to bieak up into two sciiptwiiting paiis, but this time he askeu
if they weie ieauy to change paitneisTati anu Nancy togethei anu }esse anu Anna togethei. The
family membeis weie enthusiastic about this iuea. The paiis went to uiffeient aieas of the ioom
with the theiapist again ciiculating between them seiving as a consultant. 0nce the sciipts weie
ieauy, the theiapist encouiageu the paiis to ieassemble as a family; at this time the sciipt foi what
}esse anu Anna woulu say when theii family was ciiticizeu by membeis of the extenueu family
began.
In the past Nancy anu Tati oveiheaiu many of the conveisations between theii paients,
gianupaients, aunts, anu uncles, so they weie effective in playing these ioles. Now they enacteu
the sciipts they wiote iegaiuing theii behavioi shoulu theii paients be influenceu by the
membeis of the extenueu family. The iole-playing leu to an extensive anu animateu uiscussion.
Towaiu the enu of the session, the theiapist askeu each of the family membeis to shaie theii
views iegaiuing what they hau leaineu anu what they felt the exeicise hau uone foi the family.
All the family membeis felt that what they weie leaining uuiing the sessions hau extensive
caiiyovei to theii uaily inteiactions. They all iepoiteu that theii ielationships with each othei hau
impioveu uiamatically. They also iepoiteu that the iole-playing anu sciiptwiiting hau helpeu
them to unueistanu the family membei who was most mismatcheu to them anu hau helpeu them
achieve an empathy foi that membei that they hau nevei hau. The sixth session, in summaiy,
incluueu the following:
Assessing the outcome of homewoik.
Iuentifying a seconu cultuial oi cognitive styles goal.
Reassigning paiisexchanging paitneis anu wiiting new sciipts.
Role-playing.
Biscussing anu changing sciipts, if necessaiy, with the theiapist assuming a
nonuiiective iole.
Repoiting by family membeis about what they have leaineu fiom theiapy thus fai,
with theii inuiviuual assessment of piogiess maue to this point.
=#..6-0. R ;7*-(:7 LV. The following is a summaiy of foui pioceuuies anu activities useu foi
the Rosales's multicultuial family theiapy sessions:
1. Iuentifying auuitional cognitive (types of iewaius given by the paients to the chiluien)
anu cultuial styles (achieving a bettei balance between caieei anu family goals foi Anna
anu between spiiituality anu family foi }esse) goals with accompanying sciiptwiiting,
iole-playing, uiscussions, anu changes, as necessaiy.
2. Assigning homewoik aftei each session anu assessing uegiee of success at the next
session.
S. Wiapping up anu teiminating at the enu of Session 1u.
4. Following up six weeks aftei teimination of theiapy.
A giaphic summaiy of the uiffeient sessions of multicultuial family theiapy is piesenteu in
Figuie 12.1.







IIGUkL 12.1 Mu|t|cu|tura| therapy w|th fam|||es

=#..6-0 L
1. 0bseive seating
pattein, veibal anu
nonveibal behaviois as
well as communication
patteins suggesting
alliances baseu on match
anu mismatch
2. Bave each family
membei uefine a family
stiength anu weakness
S. 0bseive foi piefeiieu
cultuial anu cognitive
styles of inuiviuual
membeis; use the
Piefeiieu Cultuial anu
Cognitive Styles
0bseivation checklists
4. Ask each family
membei what change
they woulu like to see in
the next two weeks
S. Auministei the FAS,
TNI, B0LS, anu NEI
=#..6-0 M
(Paients only)
1. Intiouuce goals of
session
2. Auministei the BAS
S. 0btain histoiy of the
ielationship anu the
family
4. Pioviue feeuback of the
BAS anu histoiy
S. Nake suggestions foi
impioving ielationship
between paients
=#..6-0 W
1. 0btain inuiviuual family
membeis' peiceptions of
uegiee of success in
accomplishing change
goals iuentifieu at the enu
of the initial session
2. Intiouuce the cultuial
anu cognitive flex mouel
S. Pioviue assessment
feeuback fiom initial
session
4. Select a cultuial styles
goal
S. Wiite sciipts
6. Role-play
7. Assign homewoik
=#..6-0 N
1. Assess outcome of
homewoik assignment
2. Iuentify a cognitive
styles goal
S. Wiite sciipts
4. Role-play
S. Biscuss iole-play anu
make necessaiy changes
in sciipts anu iole-play
again if necessaiy
6. Assign homewoik
=#..6-0 O
1. Assess outcome of
homewoik anu give
suggestions if necessaiy
2. Iuentify seconu
cognitive oi cultuial
styles goal
S. Wiite sciipts
4. Biscuss anu make
changes if necessaiy
S. Assign homewoik
6. Assess piogiess by
ieauministeiing
assessment instiuments
=#..6-0 P
1. Assess outcome of
homewoik
2. Iuentify seconu cultuial
oi cognitive styles goal
S. Reassign gioups by
exchanging paitneis anu
wiite sciipts
4. Role-play
S. Biscussion anu make
necessaiy changes
6. Ask family membeis to
iepoit what they have
leaineu fiom theiapy anu
pioviue inuiviuual
assessment of piogiess
=#..6-0. RIU
1. Focus on auuitional
cultuial styles goals
2. Focus on auuitional
cognitive styles goals
S. Continue to use sciipt-
wiiting, iole-playing,
uiscussions, homewoik,
anu feeuback
=#..6-0 LV
1. Teiminate
2. Follow-up session six
weeks aftei teimination
MUL1ICUL1UkAL 1nLkA WI1n 1nL SINGLL-AkLN1 IAMIL
Piactitioneis anu ieseaicheis have long iecognizeu that single-paient families have neeus anu
pioblems of aujustment that uiffei fiom those of intact families. As eaily as 1974, Ninuchin
obseiveu that the absence of the fathei fiom the family iequiies ienegotiation anu iestiuctuiing
of family system bounuaiies. Bo (1987), focusing on cultuially uiffeient families, concluueu that
immigiation anu accultuiation stiessois, incieasing sepaiation anu uivoice, anu uecisions to have
chiluien outsiue of maiiiage weie all ielateu to the iise of single-paient families. Be fuithei
obseiveu that the tiauitional closeness of the mothei-chilu ielationship within ethnic minoiity
families coulu contiibute to enmeshment anu paient-chilu stiuctuial ielationships.
The clinical anu ieseaich expeiiences of this authoi in his woik with cultuially uiffeient,
single-paient families has leu to iuentification of the following five pioblems, which neeu to be
auuiesseu in theiapy (Bo, 1996, p. 14):
1. The influence of the noniesiuent paient anu that paitnei's extenueu family on
inteiactions between the membeis of single-paient families.
2. The effects of continuing conflict between the paients anu involvement of the chiluien in
theii cultuial anu cognitive styles mismatch stiuggles.
S. The influence of the noniesiuent paient's iemaiiiage anu, in paiticulai, the positive anu
negative impact of steppaients on the single-paient family.
4. The effects of economic piessuies on the single-paient family when theie is a uecline in
family income following sepaiation anuoi uivoice.
S. The influence of uiffeiences in cultuial anu cognitive styles between the estiangeu
paients, as well as between extenueu family membeis, on the uegiee to which chiluien
aie encouiageu oi uiscouiageu fiom iuentifying with the cultuie of the noniesiuent
paient.
}ohnson (1994) has founu that iuentification with the cultuie of the noniesiuent paient is a cential
issue in the uevelopment of mixeu-iace chiluien.
1he Case of Cam|||a and ner 1wo Daughters
!06;6&$ 8-0;&>; &0% G*#.#0;60: G*-K$#".. Camilla is a Latina who maiiieu Robeit, a
Caucasian. They have two biiacial uaughteis, Tiacy anu Lavis. Robeit anu Camilla have been
uivoiceu foi two yeais; Camilla has custouy anu Robeit has visitation iights. It hau been an
aciimonious uivoice with many uniesolveu issues ielateu to the bieakup of the maiiiage.
Camilla contacteu the theiapist because of conflict with hei oluei uaughtei. She felt these
conflicts weie exaceibateu whenevei the chiluien visiteu with theii fathei. Camilla also iepoiteu
that hei youngei uaughtei, Lavis, complaineu of feeling left out whenevei the two giils weie with
theii fathei. Lavis was also uncomfoitable uuiing these visits when Tiacy anu hei fathei woulu
ciiticize Camilla. A pattein hau uevelopeu: Following the visits, Camilla woulu call Robeit to
complain anu enu up in an angiy confiontation chaiacteiizeu by accusations, insults, anu
uiscussion of uniesolveu issues ielateu to the faileu maiiiage. Camilla hau uiscusseu the
possibility of family theiapy with Robeit, anu he hau agieeu to paiticipate if the theiapist felt it
was necessaiy.
Camilla anu Robeit hau met at the community college they weie both attenuing. They weie
intiouuceu by Camilla's sistei, who was maiiieu to Robeit's best fiienu. Camilla hau uateu only
one othei peison befoie Robeit anu was quite shelteieu. Theii uating hau gone well, but Camilla
aumitteu that, because of hei lack of expeiience in ielationships, she hau mainly uone whatevei
Robeit hau wanteu to uo anu faileu to asseit heiself, even to the point of agieeing to maiiiage
befoie she completeu hei college uegiee. This went against a piomise Camilla hau maue to hei
paientsthat she woulu complete hei euucation befoie maiiying. Neithei Camilla's noi Robeit's
extenueu families appioveu of the maiiiage; both sets of paients' ieasons foi opposing the union
hau been the same: "You aie too uiffeient. You shoulu maiiy someone whose backgiounu anu
expeiiences aie moie similai to youis."
Robeit wanteu a stay-at-home wife who woulu take caie of the chiluien anu suppoit him in
his caieei. Be felt that Latino cultuie encouiageu this type of behavioi anu his sistei-in-law,
Camilla's sistei, hau supposeuly auopteu that iole. Robeit's cultuial expectations of the maiiiage
weie ieflecteu in his iesponses to the FAS anu TNI.
Camilla ueciueu to continue hei college euucation once hei chiluien weie olu enough to go to
a uay-caie facility. She wanteu to woik with auolescents who weie having pioblems of
aujustment. She maiiieu Robeit because she believeu that, unlike Latinos, Caucasian men woulu
be moie egalitaiian in theii ielationships anu moie likely to help with housewoik anu with
ieaiing the chiluien. Camilla's expectations weie confiimeu in what she peiceiveu to be the iole of
hei biothei-in-law in his ielationship with hei sistei.
/6.;-*1 -E J&*6;&$ G*-K$#".. Both Camilla anu Robeit agieeu that the fiist foui yeais of the
maiiiage hau been goou. Camilla fulfilleu Robeit's expectations of the stay-at-home wife anu
mothei. Robeit was auvancing in his caieei anu pioviuing well foi the family. Camilla, howevei,
staiteu to become iesentful when Robeit uiu not help on householu choies anu with chiluieaiing.
Robeit became unhappy when Camilla ietuineu to college anu staiteu to uo volunteei woik. The
conflicts between them became moie fiequent. As she became moie involveu in hei college woik
anu volunteei effoits, Robeit felt that Camilla hau changeu too much.
Robeit felt uncomfoitable attenuing social activities in the Latino community: "They look at
me as if I uon't belonglike I am the white male enemy they hate." Camilla felt she uiu not have
much in common with Robeit's woik fiienus oi with theii wives. She also felt that they weie
insensitive to social pioblems anu weie mateiialistic. Camilla's values anu cultuial expectations of
hei maiiiage weie ievealeu in hei iesponses to the FAS anu TNI given uuiing Session 2.
=#..6-0IK1I=#..6-0 G*#.#0;&;6-0. The fiist session incluueu Camilla, Tiacy, anu Lavis. The
theiapist gieeteu the family in the waiting ioom, intiouuceu himself anu escoiteu them to his
office. The office offeieu a vaiiety of possible seating patteins, so the theiapist hau an oppoitunity
to obseive: Lavis anu Camilla sat next to each othei while Tiacy sat next to Lavis but at a uistance
fiom hei. The theiapist also obseiveu the inteiactions of the thieewho was talking anu what
facial expiessions anu eye contact weie taking place. Be saw that Camilla uiu most of the talking
anu that Tiacy contiauicteu hei mothei fiequently anu took what she peiceiveu was hei fathei's
siue on issues. Lavis was silent until auuiesseu by the theiapist. The theiapist useu the
obseivation instiuments uiscusseu in Chaptei 7 to obseive cultuial anu cognitive styles.
Befoie the session was ovei, the theiapist askeu if all thiee woulu agiee to have the fathei
involveu in a session; they uiu. The theiapist agieeu to contact Robeit about this. Be let the
mothei anu uaughteis know that foi the next session he woulu like to meet with Camilla anu
Robeit only to ask about the histoiy of theii ielationship: how they met, why they hau ueciueu to
maiiy (incluuing cultuial expectations), anu how pioblems hau uevelopeu in the ielationship anu
the family. Be enueu by assigning homewoik like that given uuiing the initial session with the
intact Rosales family.
The initial session, in summaiy, incluueu the following:
Looking foi possible alliances by obseiving seating patteins, veibal anu nonveibal
behaviois, anu communication patteins baseu on match anu mismatch.
Assessing the piefeiieu cognitive anu cultuial styles of inuiviuual membeis by using
the Piefeiieu Cultuial anu Cognitive Styles Checklists.
Beciuing whethei to incluue a noniesiuent paient in sessions.
Assigning homewoik.
=#..6-0 M. The seconu session foi this family incluueu only Camilla anu Robeit anu lasteu
between an houi anu a half anu two houis. Buiing this session, the theiapist intiouuceu himself to
Robeit anu outlineu the iules of the session to both Camilla anu Robeit: No inteiiuptions, no
iaiseu voices, anu no peisonal insults.
The theiapist askeu the clients to give the histoiy of theii ielationship. Be iealizeu that they
woulu each have uiffeient peispectives but that listening shoulu be valuable because it might
contain keys as to why they cannot communicate without conflict. "I woulu like you to stait with
the time you met anu go to the time you bioke up. Who woulu like to go fiist." Aftei the histoiy,
piioi to enu of the session, the theiapist auministeieu the same instiuments useu foi intact
families: fiist the Byauic Aujustment Scale to ieflect how they each felt piioi to theii sepaiation
anu uivoice, followeu by the FAS, the TNI foi cultuial styles, anu the B0LS foi cognitive styles
piefeiences anu assessment of uegiee of flex.
At this time the theiapist also uiscusseu expectations baseu on cultuial steieotypes, pioposing
how these coulu have contiibuteu to conflict anu uisappointment in the maiiiage. Befoie the enu
of the session, the theiapist askeu Robeit if he woulu be willing to paiticipate in the next session,
which woulu also incluue the chiluien. Robeit agieeu.
The seconu session, in summaiy, incluueu the following:
0utlining the iules foi the sessions.
Leaining the histoiy of the ielationship anu the family fiom each paient's point of
view.
Completing the BAS anu othei assessment instiuments.
Pioviuing feeuback about the finuings of the BAS anu the histoiies.
=#..6-0 WQ This session incluueu Camilla, Tiacy, Robeit, anu Lavis. 0nce again, the theiapist
obseiveu the seating pattein. As expecteu, Lavis anu Camilla sat next to each othei while Robeit
anu Tiacy sat togethei. The theiapist continueu to obseive the inteiaction of family membeis.
The theiapist iuentifieu goals foi theiapyfiist a cognitive style goal (communication styles
when uiscussing pioblems the chiluien weie having in school): Camilla was too global anu Robeit
too uetaileu-oiienteu. The seconu goal auuiesseu cultuial stylesRobeit's suspicions that
Camilla's extenueu family was tuining the giils against him, anu Camilla's belief that Robeit was
too self-centeieu anu spent money on himself that he shoulu be giving to the chiluien. The
theiapist assigneu the sciiptwiiting paiis: Camilla anu Tiacy, Robeit anu Lavis. The sciiptwiiting,
iole-playing, feeuback, anu uiscussion weie conuucteu as with the intact family.
The thiiu session, in summaiy, incluueu the following:
0bseiving communication patteins, as suggesteu by seating, veibal anu nonveibal
behaviois, anu alliances baseu on match anu mismatch.
Iuentifying the most impoitant cultuial anu cognitive styles goals.
Sciiptwiiting.
Role-playing.
Leauing feeuback anu uiscussion.
Naking changes in sciipts anu iole-playing again, if necessaiy.
Assigning homewoik.
=#..6-0. N &0% O. Sciiptwiiting anu iole-playing foi auuitional cultuial anu cognitive styles
goals continueu in Sessions 4 anu S also. By the conclusion of Session S, the family membeis weie
familiai with the pioceuuie anu with the cultuial anu cognitive flex mouel. They selecteu one
auuitional goal anu woikeu on it.
The fouith anu fifth sessions, in summaiy, incluueu the following:
Assessing outcome of the homewoik assignments.
0sing the same pioceuuies useu uuiing pievious sessions foi auuiessing a goal
selecteu by the family membeis.
=#..6-0 P. The clients weie sufficiently familiai with the pioceuuie. They no longei neeueu to
consult with the theiapist. The theiapist meiely uiiecteu uiscussion following the iole-plays.
Towaiu the enu of the session, the theiapist assesseu piogiess by ieauministeiing the vaiious
instiuments. Camilla, Tiacy, anu Lavis iequesteu two moie sessions. Robeit agieeu that these
sessions shoulu be uone without him, although he was willing to ietuin to the family sessions
shoulu it become necessaiy in the futuie.
The sixth session, in summaiy, incluueu the following:
Auuitional sciiptwiiting anu iole-playing, as neeueu, with the theiapist assuming a
nonuiiective iole.
Assessing piogiess.
Scheuuling auuitional sessions foi iesiuent family membeis, if necessaiy.
Following up six weeks aftei teimination.
Woiking on pioblems ielateu to homewoik: spenuing time with fiienus, housekeeping
assignments, anu uealing with the giils' feelings that Camilla uoes not give them
enough quality time at home.
)#*"60&;6-0 &; F0% -E =#..6-0 U. Six weeks latei the theiapist conuucteu a follow-up session
with all the family membeis piesent. The clients iepoiteu that they weie well satisfieu with the
piogiess that hau been maue. Robeit anu Camilla weie able to communicate without conflict.
Tiacy anu Lavis weie getting along well, anu they hau establisheu closei ielationships with
Camilla anu Robeit, iespectively. At the close of this session, the theiapist agieeu to check the
family's ongoing piogiess by phoning Camilla anu Robeit peiiouically.
Figuie 12.2 is a giaphic summaiy of multicultuial theiapy foi singlepaient families.

IIGUkL 12.2 Mu|t|cu|tura| therapy w|th s|ng|e-parent fam|||es

=#..6-0 L
1. 0bseive seating pattein, veibal
anu nonveibal behaviois as well
as communication patteins
suggesting alliances baseu on
match anu mismatch
2. Ask each family membei to give
one family stiength anu one
family pioblem
S. 0bseive foi piefeiieu cultuial
anu cognitive styles of inuiviuual
membeis using the Piefeiieu
Cultuial anu Cognitive Styles
checklists
4. Ask each family membei to
suggest one change they woulu
like to see in the family ovei the
next two weeks
S. Auministei the FAS, TNI, B0LS,
anu NEI
=#..6-0 M
(Paients only, iesiuent anu
noniesiuent)
1. Intiouuce goals of session
2. Auministei the BAS
S. 0btain histoiy of the
ielationship anu of the family
4. Pioviue feeuback on finuings of
the BAS anu the histoiy
=#..6-0 W
1. Iuentify most impoitant
cultuial anu cognitive styles goals
2. Assign sciiptwiiting gioups
S. Role-playing
4. Feeuback anu uiscussion
S. Nake changes in sciipts anu
iole-play again if necessaiy
6. Assign homewoik
=#..6-0. N &0% O
1. Assess outcomes of homewoik
assignments anu give suggestions
if necessaiy
2. Same as in Session S
=#..6-0 P
1. Auuitional sciiptwiiting anu
iole-playing as neeueu
2. Assessment of piogiess
S. Auuitional sessions foi family
membeis if necessaiy
4. Follow-up session six weeks
aftei teimination
Nonpart|c|pat|on by Nonres|dent arent
In some situations noniesiuent paients may be unable oi unwilling to attenu the sessions. In
othei cases the iesiuent paient may object to the inclusion of the noniesiuent paient. In those
instances, the initial session is conuucteu the same as foi single-paient families anu helu with the
iesiuent paient anu the chiluien. The session's goals aie the same but it is ciitically impoitant foi
the theiapist to ueteimine the impact of cultuial anu cognitive styles uiffeiences, expectations
baseu on steieotypes, anu continuing conflict between the paients on the uynamics of the single-
paient family. Also ciitical heie is ueteimination of potential alliances between chiluien anu the
noniesiuent paient anu his oi hei extenueu family membeis. This is paiticulaily uifficult in
situations wheie the iesiuent paient will not allow the theiapist to contact the noniesiuent paient
oi in those situations wheie the noniesiuent paient is unavailable oi unwilling to paiticipate.
The sessions miiioi those with the single-paient family with a paiticipating noniesiuent
paient. Bowevei, uuiing the seconu session, the theiapist meets with the iesiuent paient only. In
those cases wheie the iesiuent paient iefuses to allow the noniesiuent paient to paiticipate anu
when alliances with the noniesiuent paient aie contiibuting to significant family conflict, the
theiapist shoulu attempt to explain the potential implications of this uecision on the likely success
of the family theiapy sessions. Buiing this session, the theiapist leains the paient's peispectives
on the histoiy of the ielationship anu, if appiopiiate, of the maiiiage. If the iesiuent paient has not
alloweu the othei paient to paiticipate in the histoiy-taking, then the theiapist has the uifficult
task of attempting to obtain a balanceu histoiical pictuie fiom what is saiu by the chiluien uuiing
family sessions.
Pioceuuies anu stiategies of the iemaining sessions aie the same as foi Camilla's family but, if
the family agiees, the theiapist might play the iole of the noniesiuent paient in the iole-playing
situations.
SUMMAk
Family theiapy mouels anu stiategies uevelopeu foi use with cultuially uiffeient families have
focuseu on matching values, woiluviews, family stiuctuies, anu ioles, as well as auuiessing special
neeus anu peisonality vaiiables such as bicultuialismmulticultuialism. The multicultuial mouel
of family theiapy is an extension of the mouel useu foi uoing theiapy with couples. The focus is on
cultuial anu cognitive styles match anu mismatch anu how these aie ielateu to family alliances
anu misunueistanuings that contiibute to conflict. In auuition, the mouel also encouiages
iuentification of false expectations of paients baseu on cultuial steieotypes.
Sciiptwiiting, iole-playing, anu homewoik aie the impoitant theiapeutic stiategies employeu,
along with piefeiieu cultuial anu cognitive styles assessment instiuments. The multicultuial
mouel of theiapy has also been useu to auuiess the special neeus anu uynamics of single-paient
families.
13
THE MULTICULTURAL MODEL AND
MANAGED CARE
In iecent yeais manageu caie has tiansfoimeu the mental health fielu. In paiticulai,
inteivention oiientations anu stiategies useu by mental health piofessionals have changeu
uiamatically because of the iequiiements anu guiuelines of manageu caie. Nahoney (199S)
uefineu manageu caie as a tightly contiolleu anu iegulateu system in which clients aie given
access to limiteu foims of psychotheiapy, only if the uiagnosis waiiants, only foi a limiteu numbei
of sessions, anu with substantial uemanus on psychotheiapists foi papeiwoik anu justifications.
These stiingent tieatment iequiiements have leu to ieseaich focusing on what the futuie of
psychotheiapy might be.
Noicioss, Alfoiu, anu BeNichele (1992) suiveyeu psychotheiapy expeits to ueteimine which
inteivention stiategies anu appioaches aie likely to be most commonly employeu in the futuie.
Responuents to the suivey inuicateu that they believeu seveial techniques woulu be most
fiequently useu by theiapists: self-change techniques, pioblem-solving techniques, auuiovisual
feeuback, homewoik assignments, communication skills tiaining, self-contiol pioceuuies, imageiy
anu fantasy techniques, behavioial contiacting, computeiizeu theiapies, uiuactic
(teachingauvising) techniques, suppoitive techniques, anu bibliotheiapy.
Anothei inuiiect piouuct of the manageu-caie ievolution in the mental health fielu is the focus
on cultuial sensitivity anu cultuial competence in inteivention. In iesponse to conceins expiesseu
by membeis of minoiity gioups that the giowth of manageu caie might leau to a monolithic
appioach to health caie, the state of Califoinia establisheu cultuial competency guiuelines foi
Neui-Cal health plan contiactois. Cultuial competency, oi the level of knowleuge-baseu skills
iequiieu to pioviue effective clinical caie to patients fiom a paiticulai iacial oi ethnic gioup, is
uistinguisheu fiom cultuial sensitivity, which is psychological piopensity to aujust piactice styles
to the neeus of uiffeient gioups.
The multicultuial mouel of psychotheiapy anu counseling has much to offei when it comes to
meeting the iequiiements of uiagnosis anu inteivention imposeu by manageu caie. The mouel
also offeis many of the stiategies anu appioaches that psychotheiapy expeits have iuentifieu as
those most likely to be useu with clients in the futuie. In auuition, the mouel pioviues concepts
anu stiategies, such as cultuial anu cognitive styles matching anu theiapist self-evaluation
appioaches, foi uevelopment of cultuial competence.
This chaptei highlights the contiibutions that the multicultuial mouel can make to the geneial
as well as the client-specific iequiiements of manageu caie in completing outpatient iequest anu
authoiization foims as well as in foimulating tieatment plans. The chaptei focuses on the case of
Raul, who was intiouuceu in Chaptei 1 anu followeu in subsequent chapteis.
GLNLkAL CCN1kI8U1ICNS CI CCMLL1ING kLULS1-ICk-1kLA1MLN1
AND AU1nCkI2A1ICN ICkMS CN 1nL MUL1ICUL1UkAL MCDLL
Assessment
A cential concein in the assessment of multicultuial clients living in uiveise enviionments is
accultuiation level. As uiscusseu in Chaptei S, the Tiauitionalism-Noueinism Inventoiy (TNI) anu
the Family Attituue Scale (FAS) can be useu to assess the accultuiation level of clients along
uiffeient uimensions: genuei-iole uefinition; family iuentity; sense of community; time
oiientation; age status; uefeience to authoiity; spiiituality anu ieligion; anu attituues towaiu
aboition, capital punishment, anu aiu to immigiants (Ramiiez, 1998). Clients can be D,61/&12)/
(balanceu in tiauitional anu mouein oiientations) while otheis have piefeiieu tiauitional oi
mouein oiientations to life.
The Contempoiaiy Nulticultuial Iuentity items of the Nulticultuial Expeiience Inventoiy
(NEI, see Appenuix A) also ieflect uegiee of accultuiation as inuicateu by fiienuship patteins anu
extent of paiticipation in the cultuies of uiffeient ethniciacial gioups. Foi example, in the case of
Baiolu, he was veiy tiauitional in the uomain of genuei equality when he fiist came to theiapy.
Raul, on the othei hanu, hau uevelopeu a mixeu- tiauitional anu mouein cultuial style oiientation
in most aieas of his life.
D|agnos|s
The I,)5$9+&,6 )$3 <&)&,+&,6)/ ?)$1)/ 9= ?#$&)/ I,+923#2+ (BSN-Iv; APA 1994) pioviues five
categoiies to consiuei when assessing the client's cultuial anu social iefeience gioup: (1) cultuial
iuentity, (2) cultuial explanation of the client's illness, (S) cultuial factois ielateu to psychosocial
enviionments anu level of functioning, (4) cultuial elements of the ielationship between the
inuiviuual anu the theiapist, anu (S) oveiall cultuial assessment foi uiagnosis anu caie. In
auuition, BSN-Iv pioviues the uiagnostic categoiy foi an accultuiation pioblem (v62.4), uefineu as
a pioblem involving aujustment to a uiffeient cultuie. Also incluueu in BSN-Iv is iuentity pioblem
(S1S.82), which is useu when the focus is on unceitainty about multiple issues ielating to iuentity
such as fiienuship patteins, moial values, anu gioup loyalties. 0se of the cultuial anu cognitive
styles match anu mismatch analyses of the multicultuial mouel as well as the iesponses given by
the client to the FAS, the TNI, anu the NEI, pioviue infoimation foi meeting appiopiiate
uiagnostic iequiiements.
C||n|ca| Imp||cat|ons
'#$#5&0; /6.;-*1. This infoimation can be obtaineu by using the life histoiy inteiview
(socialization histoiy, exposuie to uiffeient cultuies anu psychosocial enviionments within the
same cultuie, anu similaiities anu uiffeiences between the values anu cognitive styles of the client
anu theiapist) anu the Bistoiical Bevelopment Pattein items of the NEI.
8$6#0; =;*#0:;7. &0%Y-* ZK.;&>$#. ;- G*-:*#... This infoimation can be obtaineu fiom the
life histoiy inteiview anu the subsequent match anu mismatch analyses (see Chaptei 4). The
availability of allies (mouels) as souices foi leaining how to use nonpiefeiieu styles oi foi fuithei
uevelopment of piefeiieu styles. Infoimation in this aiea is also ielateu to the uegiee of familial,
community, gioup, oi cultuial suppoit oi piessuie to confoim that the client is expeiiencing.
Infoimation conceining familial, cultuial, anu community suppoit systems is also obtaineu
thiough the life histoiy inteiview. In Raul's case, foi example, his paiticipation in powwows anu
spiiitual piactices on the ieseivation, as well as consultation anu uiscussions with his uncle anu
othei tiibal elueis, seiveu as excellent souices of familial, cultuial, anu community suppoit. Raul's
paiticipation in the inteinational ait community, which was suppoitive of his effoits to iesolve
aujustment pioblems ielateu to iuentity confusion by puisuing multicultuial multiiacial ait
themes, was also impoitant to him. 0bstacles to Raul's piogiess incluueu his abuse of maiijuana,
his pooi uecision making in intimate ielationships, anu his tenuency to isolate himself fiom family
anu fiienus when he encounteieu pioblems in his ielationships.
1reatment |an
G*-K$#". Aujustment of multicultuial clients can be iuentifieu by uoing cultuial anu cognitive
styles mismatch analyses following the life histoiy inteiview. In the case of Imelua, it was
mismatch to the values of hei gianupaients anu to the cognitive styles of hei fathei as well as
those of some of hei teacheis anu coaches that contiibuteu to uepiessive symptoms anu a pooi
self-image.
<#7&56-*&$ C-&$.. The cultuial anu cognitive styles flex goals aie geneiateu by both client
anu theiapist following the piesentation of the flex mouel anu feeuback on the finuings of the
assessment instiuments uone uuiing the seconu session. Flex goals aie also geneiateu fiom the
obseivations maue by the theiapist using the Piefeiieu Cultuial anu Cognitive Styles 0bseivation
Checklists uuiing the initial session. The goals of incieaseu cultuial anu cognitive flex aie achieveu
thiough incieaseu self- efficacy anu coping accomplisheu thiough uiveisity challenges,
sciiptwiiting, iole-playing, anu homewoik.
)6"# D60#. The multicultuial mouel helps clients to achieve theii tieatment goals in foui oi
five sessions, with the complete tieatment plan foi most clients being fifteen to seventeen
sessions. Peiiouic assessment of piogiess using the assessment instiuments pioviueu by the
multicultuial mouel anu evaluation of the uegiee of success achieveu thiough homewoik
assignments is iecommenueu (see Chaptei 9).
'&($[. )*#&;"#0; G$&0\ =B#>6E6> 8-0;*6K(;6-0. -E ;7# J($;6>($;(*&$ J-%#$. Exhibit 1S.1 is
iepiesentative of the Request-foi-Tieatment anu Authoiization Foim the theiapist completeu foi
Raul's piesenting pioblems.

LknI8I1 13.1 Lxamp|e of a kequest-for-1reatment and Author|zat|on Iorm
DSM-IV Multi-Axial Diagnosis
AXIS I: (Primary) 300.4 Dysthymic Disorder, Early Onset.
AXIS I: (Substance-related) 305.20 Cannabis abuse.
AXIS I: (Additional) 309.81 Posttraumatic stress disorder.
AXIS II: 301.9 Personality disorder not otherwise specified (with depressive and avoidant features).
AXIS III: None.
AXIS IV: Problems with primary support, occupation, social environment.
AXIS V: GAFCurrent 60 (Moderate symptoms at start of treatment). Highest: Past YearGAF 80 (If
symptoms are present, they are transient and expectable reactions to psychosocial
stressors).
Clinical InformationRelevant History
Medical-None.
Family-Alienated from most family members, particularly parents. Has a moderately good relationship
with his sister, but his relationships with his brothers are strained and distant.
Vocational-During the past four months the client has been unable to have consistent work attendance
at his permanent job and has been unable to work consistently on his artwork (part-time job).
Social-Has isolated himself from friends and is spending most of his time alone at his home when he is
not at his place of employment. His only consistent contact is with his sister and members of her
family.
Legal-None.
Marital-Single, never married.
Past Treatment-The client was in individual therapy about four years ago. From information provided by
the client and his former therapist, it was determined that an eclectic psychodynamic approach had
been used. The client terminated therapy with the approval of his therapist after six months.
Outcome-The client reports that most of his depressive symptoms have gone into remission. However,
he also indicates he has remained confused regarding his identity and that his relationships with his
parents and brothers have not improved. Furthermore, he states that he has continued to experience
failure in his intimate relationships.
Clinical Synopsis
Current Symptoms-Insomnia, low energy, low self-esteem, poor concentration, feelings of
hopelessness, recurrent and intrusive distressing recollections of traumatic events (experiences in
Vietnam), and recurrent substance use resulting in failure to meet major obligations at work.
Client Strengths and Obstacles to Progress
Client Strengths-The client's skills are highly valued at the print shop where he works. He receives
good emotional support from his sister, her husband, and their children. His artwork has given him a
good outlet for frustrations in the past and has also provided him with a good source of self-esteem
and self- efficacy because he has been able to sell some of his work and because his work has been
praised by accomplished artists.
LknI8I1 13.1 Lxamp|e of a kequest-for-1reatment and Author|zat|on Iorm
Obstacles to Progress-The client's parents and his brothers are very critical of him, contributing to self-
criticism and guilt. He is abusing marijuana, contributing to feelings of depression and to increased
isolation from others. Cannabis abuse is also related to decreased church attendance and attendance
at prayer groups as well as to decreased participation in Native American spiritual practices, which
had served as good sources of support for him in the past. He has also discontinued discussions with
elders on the reservation. In the past these people have contributed to good self-esteem and
development of a stable identity. His involvement in reservation activities, such as powwows, chants,
and sweat lodge meetings, have also given him ideas for his artwork in the past. The client has
stopped regular visits to his uncle, who is a medicine man living on the reservation, because of shame
related to substance abuse.
Clinical Coordination
With the permission of the client, the therapist agreed to coordinate with the client's uncle, a medicine
man. In the past the client's uncle has helped him to overcome some of the symptoms of
posttraumatic stress disorder and acculturation problems. The client agrees to contact his uncle; the
therapist will be in touch with the uncle upon the clients approval.
Medications
At the time of therapy, the client was not taking medication. Should the depressive symptoms become
more serious, particularly if the client experiences longer work absences or begins to suffer from
suicidal ideas, the therapist will encourage him to consult with a psychiatrist. The therapist made a
suicide contract with the client.
Substance Abuse
Substance Abused-Cannabis.
Date Last Used-A week prior to the client's initial session.
Frequency-The client reported that he smoked five marijuana cigarettes in a week.
Current Use-Client has not used in ten days.
Number of Years Used-Client used cannabis on a daily basis for two years when he was in the service;
he used it for six months following discharge from the armed services while he was unemployed.
OD or Withdrawal Symptoms-Client has never overdosed and/or experienced withdrawal symptoms.
Family History of Substance Abuse-Client's father was dependent on alcohol; one of his brothers
abused methamphetamines in the past while another abused cocaine and marijuana. No one in his
family besides his father appeared to meet the criteria for dependence.
Previous Treatment for Substance Abuse-The client had been active in Narcotics Anonymous (NA)
several years ago. He had a sponsor with whom he had not been in contact for two years. His
participation in NA led to a successful outcome, and the client has been in sustained full remission for
six years.
Mental Status and Risk Assessment
Mental Status-All within normal limits.
Risk-No suicidal, homicidal or domestic violence risk. The client does not have access to firearms.
Treatment Plan
LknI8I1 13.1 Lxamp|e of a kequest-for-1reatment and Author|zat|on Iorm
Problem-Abuse of marijuana.
Goal(s)-Discontinue marijuana use and renew attendance at NA meetings as well as regular contact
with sponsor, with uncle, and with other tribal elders. Renewed participation in powwows and spiritual
discussions with uncle and other elders of his tribe.
Interventions-Scriptwriting and role-playing for renewing contact with uncle and NA sponsor.
Identification of allies that can help to reintegrate the client into the international artistic community he
was involved with in the past. Teach stress- reduction techniques to substitute for marijuana use.
Problem-Self-blame and low self-esteem related to end of intimate relationship.
Goal(s)-Arrive at realistic assessment as to causes of failure of relationship, renew use of cultural and
spiritual support systems, and insight into needs in intimate relationships. Develop coping techniques
for meeting potential intimacy partners and for making better choices in intimate relationships through
script- writing, role-playing, and homework assignments for diversity challenges.
Interventions-Analysis of areas of cultural and cognitive styles mismatch to make a more realistic
assessment of why relationship failed. Encourage church attendance and prayer as well as
participation with uncle in treatment program to renew involvement in tribal community and spiritual
life. Use of life history technique to arrive at insight concerning insecurities in intimate relationships
(envy of other men) as well as needs that may be contributing to failure of his relationships.
Problem-Identity confusion.
Goal(s)-Establish a multicultural/multiracial identity.
Encourage renewed active participation in identification of models or allies who are multicultural and
multiracial, including scriptwriting and role-playing to facilitate contacts, use of bibliotherapy (The
Autobiography of Malcom X, The Original Sin, and Ceremony), and encourage use of multicultural
and/or multiracial themes in his artwork.

)#*"60&;6-0 -E )*#&;"#0;. Following implementation of the fifteen-session theiapy plan
outlineu above heie, Raul impioveu anu ietuineu to familial, community, anu cultuial suppoit
systems. Be uiscontinueu use of maiijuana anu became active in the powwows anu spiiitual
activities of his tiibe. Be met intimacy paitneis on the ieseivation anu in a singles gioup he joineu
thiough the Chiistian chuich he attenus anu began uating again. Be continueu to be active in the
inteinational ait community anu eventually began to teach at an inteinational ait institute. Raul
maue amenus to his biotheis anu his ielationships with them impioveu uiamatically. Bis
ielationships with his paients also impioveu.
'&($ '#;(*0. E-* )7#*&B1 )X- ]#&*. D&;#*. Following the ueath of one of his biotheis, Raul
began to expeiience symptoms of anxiety anu uepiession once again. The symptoms weie moie
seveie than those of beieavement. Be iemaineu in iecoveiy fiom the abuse of maiijuana anu
posttiaumatic stiess uisoiuei symptoms uiu not iecui. uuilt ovei his biothei's ueath conceineu
the feeling that his haish tieatment of his biothei uuiing chiluhoou hau leu to his biothei's
incieaseu iisk foi cancei (his biothei hau uieu of lung cancei). The infoimation pioviueu on Raul's
Request-foi-Tieatment anu Authoiization Foim foi the seconu phase of tieatment is shown in
Exhibit 1S.2.
!"#$%&'(%)& )+ ,"-)&. /0'," )+ (#"'($"&(Aftei five sessions, Raul impioveu anu ietuineu
to family, community, anu cultuial suppoit systems.
LknI8I1 13.2 Second hase of a kequest-for-1reatment and Author|zat|on Iorm
DSM-IV Multi-Axial Diagnosis
AXIS I: (Primary) 309.28 Adjustment Disorder with Mixed Anxiety and Depressed Mood.
AXIS I: (Substance) 305.30 Cannabis Abuse, in Sustained Full Remission 305.10 Nicotine Abuse.
AXIS I: (Additional) features of 300.4 Dysthymic Disorder, early onset.
AXIS II: v71.09 No diagnosis.
AXIS III: None
AXIS IV: Primary support group-death of brother.
Other-grief
AXIS V: GAF 60 Highest past year GAF 70.
Clinical Information
Medical-None.
Family-Death of brother.
Vocational-Decreased attendance and productivity at work, again since death of brother.
Clinical Synopsis-Increased use of tobacco (nicotine), low energy, self-blame.
Current Symptoms and Obstacles to Progress
LknI8I1 13.2 Second hase of a kequest-for-1reatment and Author|zat|on Iorm
Client's Strengths-Continued contacts with siblings, parents, uncle, and elders on reservation and
continues to date. Is also continuing to teach at international art institute.
Obstacles to Progress-Has discontinued a regular schedule of exercise (jogging and bike riding) which
he was following.
Clinical Coordination-With uncle on reservation and with NA sponsor.
Treatment Plan
Problem-Self-blame for brother's death.
Goal(s)-Realistic assessment of causes of brother's illness and death with diminution of symptoms of
anxiety and depression. Discontinue use of tobacco and resume exercise schedule. Resume regular
attendance at his job and increase productivity in artwork.
Interventions-Reconstruct life history on brother to understand possible causes of illness and death,
cultural and cognitive styles mismatch analysis, become mentor for brother's children, participate in
tribal mourning ritual for brother.
SUMMAk
The iequiiements imposeu by manageu caie on the mental health fielu have piouuceu majoi
changes in philosophies anu stiategies useu foi inteiventions with clients. In auuition, cultuial
sensitivity anu cultuial competence have become cential issues in psychotheiapy anu counseling.
The multicultuial mouel of psychotheiapy anu counseling has much to offei in meeting the
iequiiements of manageu caie, both with iespect to geneial anu client-specific infoimation
iequesteu in tieatment iequest anu authoiization foims. The mouel also offeis cultuial anu
cognitive match anu mismatch stiategies allowing piactitioneis to meet the iequiiements of
cultuial competence anu sensitivity.
14
CONCLUSIONS
Eveiyone has the potential to have a multicultuial oiientation to life. Bowevei, sociocultuial
enviionments can impose baiiieis that make it uifficult if not impossible to achieve the cognitive
anu cultuial flexibility essential to such an oiientation.
The baiiieis to multicultuial uevelopment fall into thiee majoi categoiies: piessuies to
confoim, piejuuice, anu oppiession. In geneial, these baiiieis aie ieflecteu in the uynamics of
families, of institutions, anu of societies. They ieflect the messages, whethei uiiect oi inuiiect,
passeu on to inuiviuuals about the uesiiability of uiveisity veisus ethnocentiism. Thiough these,
the inuiviuual leains to view uiveisity as eithei positive oi negative.
Biffeient inuiviuuals aie subjecteu to uiffeient baiiieis to multicultuial uevelopment anu to
vaiying uegiees of peimeability of these baiiieis. The cases of Imelua anu Baiolu best exemplify
piessuies to confoim as baiiieis to multicultuial uevelopment. Both weie subjecteu to stiong
piessuies to auopt cultuial anu cognitive styles that weie uiffeient fiom those they piefeiieu.
They weie encouiageu by paients oi paiental figuies to ieject theii unique selves anu to confoim
to an imposeu iueal.
The pievalence of ceitain mythical iueals imposeu by all societies, institutions, anu families on
theii membeis (Biink, 1984) piessuies most inuiviuuals to confoim. These iueals vaiy fiom
society to society; the following aie examples of mainstieam Ameiican mythical iueals:
Blonue, blue-eyeu, white-skinneu people aie smaitei than those who have uaikei
complexions.
Nen aie bettei at business, science, anu math than aie women.
Engineeis, physicians, anu lawyeis aie smaitei than those who woik in the social
sciences oi the aits.
Tall anu thin is bettei than shoit anu stocky.
Eveiyone has hau some type of mythical iueal imposeu on them. The iesult has been feelings
of infeiioiity, because it is impossible to fit these iueals peifectly. Beyonu limiting the inuiviuual,
these mythical iueals pievent membeis of society fiom iecognizing the value of the uiveisity
aiounu them anu fiom benefiting fiom it.
Piejuuice was the most impoitant baiiiei in the expeiiences of Taia anu Raul. Because Taia is
a woman anu an Afiican Ameiican anu because Raul is multiiacial anu suffeis fiom a leaining
uisability, they weie maue to feel unwanteu anu weie given the message that they uiu not belong.
Rose expeiienceu piejuuice because of hei impaiieu vision.
Those who holu the powei in society anu in institutions ueny equality of status to people who
aie uiffeient fiom themselves thiough piejuuicial piactices. The message is: "You can only achieve
the 'goouies' of society if you aie like us. You can't be like us if youi phenotype, genuei, values, oi
sexual oiientation aie not the same as ouis."
Piejuuice is uestiuctive to the uevelopment of a positive politics of uiveisity (Castaneua,
1984), because it keeps membeis of uiffeient gioups sepaiateu fiom each othei anu because it
piomotes the iuea that ceitain gioups anu cultuies aie supeiioi to otheis.
0ppiession is moie uestiuctive than the othei two baiiieis. Not only aie people piessuieu to
be what they aie not anu kept fiom fully paiticipating in society, but they aie also exploiteu foi
being who they aie as inuiviuuals (A. Ramiiez, 1972).
In Baiolu's case the baiiiei was his fathei's iefusal to accept his inteiest in the aits anu his
piefeiieu peisonality style. Bis fathei's attempt to foice him to be like his oluei biothei was
oppiessive to Baiolu. Foi Imelua, the baiiiei was hei school peeis who woulu cheei hei exploits
on the basketball couit but iefuse to incluue hei in theii ciicle of fiienus, because they felt she uiu
not meet theii uefinition of femininity.
A society that hopes to unueistanu, to nuituie, anu to value its uiveisity has to be able to
iuentify anu eliminate the baiiieis pieventing multicultuial uevelopment in its institutions anu in
its membeis. Bow can social scientists anu euucatois encouiage the uevelopment of positive
politics of uiveisity in families, institutions, anu societies. Thiee appioaches may move towaiu
that uiiection.
Fiist is the uevelopment of social science paiauigms anu ieseaich anu inteivention techniques
that aie tiuly baseu on inuiviuual anu cultuial uiffeiences. Foi example, Ramiiez (1998) pioposeu
a theoiy, along with a set of ieseaich stiategies anu inteivention appioaches, which is baseu on
the piinciples of multicultuialism.
In auuition, the iise of a positive politics of uiveisity is ieflecteu in the uevelopment of
community psychology inteivention piogiams in ueveloping countiies. These piogiams focus on
the empoweiment of heietofoie uisenfianchiseu peoples. Buiing the 197us anu 198us, the
wiitings, as well as the ieseaich anu uevelopment woik, of psychologists in Latin Ameiica anu the
Caiibbean showeu a tienu towaiu empoweiment piogiams.
Foi example, Almeiua anu Sanchez (198S) uesciibe how an inteiuisciplinaiy team of social
scientists woikeu in thiee iuial communities in the state of Puebla in Nexico. The team's objective
was to pioviue assistance in community uevelopment without piouucing iauical changes in the
native cultuie of the iegion. Pait of the piogiam involveu the uevelopment of a maiketing
piogiam wheieby local aitisans anu faimeis coulu sell theii piouucts without losing piofits to
miuulemen. 0thei membeis of the team woikeu with school peisonnel to upgiaue cuiiiculum anu
instiuction techniques. The piogiams actively encouiageu paiental paiticipation in the euucation
of theii chiluien.
venezuelan psychologist }ose Niguel Salazai (1981) auvocateu the uevelopment of a social
psychology ieflecting the histoiical anu political iealities of the cultuies of Latin Ameiica. Anothei
venezuelan psychologist, Naiitza Nonteio (1979), calleu foi the uevelopment of a community
psychology with its piimaiy goal of assisting people in the uevelopment of theii communities.
An oveiview of social psychology in Latin Ameiica (Naiin, 197S) inuicateu that uevelopments
theie at that time iepiesenteu a goou amalgamation of scientific objectivity with a uefinite
commitment to the solution of social pioblems. Be concluueu that applieu social psychology was
the most impoitant aiea of concentiation in Latin Ameiican psychology.
The thiiu appioach is the uevelopment of multicultuial euucational piogiams. These
piogiams auuiess the goal of teaching chiluien anu auolescents to iecognize, to iespect, anu to
leain fiom inuiviuual anu cultuial uiffeiences in oiuei to pievent the uevelopment of negative
steieotypes anu vulneiability to coeicion by the mythical iueals of society.
Ramiiez anu Castaneua (1974) anu Cox, Nacaulay, anu Ramiiez (1982) uesciibeu a cognitive
flex multicultuial piogiam that evolveu fiom the peispective of Latinos, baseu on the philosophy
of cultuial uemociacy. Bale- Benson (1986) uesciibeu a multicultuial euucational piogiam
specifically ielevant to Afiican Ameiicans. Baiuei (1991) auvocateu combining cultuial
uemociacy with the iueas of Paulo Fieiie (197u) anu Beniy uiioux (1981) to uevelop a ciitical
bicultuial fiamewoik foi bicultuial euucation.
The challenge foi social scientists anu euucatois in encouiaging the evolution of a positive
politics of uiveisity is gieat. It will be uifficult to eiauicate notions of supeiioiity anu infeiioiity in
the peiception of inuiviuuals, gioups, cultuies, anu nations. Equally challenging is oveicoming
negative steieotypes anu suspicions peoples holu iegaiuing otheis. Bowevei, the iewaius of a
positive politics of uiveisity aie high. It is multicultuial oiientations to life that can leau to the
fullest uevelopment of the peisonality, anu to peace anu coopeiation in the woilu.
Foi the people whose lives we have followeu in this book, a multicultuial peispective anu a
flexible oiientation towaiu life weie the keys to self-acceptance, to haimony in inteipeisonal
ielationships, to gieatei awaieness of how the enviionment was affecting theii lives, anu to the
fuithei uevelopment of theii potential. A multicultuial oiientation to life gave Imelua, Baiolu,
Raul, Taia, Alex, Rose, anu Tony the empoweiment they neeueu to inciease contiol ovei theii own
uestinies. It also fuinisheu the tools they neeueu to help the people anu societal institutions in
theii enviionments to achieve gieatei multicultuial awaieness. Foi Wanua anu }aviei, as well as
foi membeis of the Rosales family, anu foi Camila, Robeit, Tiacy, anu Lavis, multicultuial
peispectives ieuuceu conflict anu contiibuteu to incieaseu awaieness anu unueistanuing of
inuiviuual anu cultuial uiffeiences.
Imelua became moie asseitive anu outgoing. Because of this she was able to uevelop a ciicle
of fiienus anu mentois who seiveu as a suppoit system to hei anu who weie mouels anu souices
of incieaseu knowleuge as she stiove to uevelop flexibility in hei values anu cognitive styles. As
she began to woik closely with the stuuent council at hei school, hei effoits in that oiganization
gave stuuents a gieatei voice in making changes in the cuiiiculum anu teaching appioaches, as
well as in counseling seivices offeieu to female athletes. Bei ielationships with hei paients anu
gianupaients impioveu as she leaineu to iecognize anu match theii values anu behaviois moie
effectively. They, in tuin, became moie suppoitive of hei inteiests anu moie iesponsive to hei
iequests foi tieatment equal to that given to hei half sistei.
Baiolu's ielationship with his family impioveu uiamatically. Be anu his wife uevelopeu a
satisfying anu piouuctive paitneiship in the ait galleiy they hau openeu. The family's mutual
inteiests in photogiaphy anu tiavel biought them togethei as they hau nevei been befoie. Aftei
Baiolu iecognizeu that he hau been ielating to his own chiluien in much the same way as his
fathei hau ielateu to him, he became moie involveu in theii inteiests anu activities while at the
same time giving them the oppoitunity to uevelop theii own styles.
Baiolu was also successful in convincing his business paitneis of the neeu to uevelop a new
giaphic-ait softwaie piouuct line. This ievitalizeu his inteiest in the fiim. Be felt moie
enthusiastic about playing the iole of chaiismatic leauei anu about ueveloping a sense of
community in the fiim. Foi the fiist time since he was a stuuent in miuule school, Baiolu ietuineu
to the piano. This ieneweu inteiest in music helpeu him to ieestablish his ielationship with his
mothei. Bis effoits at initiating the Silicon valley suppoit gioups foi technical piofessionals who
weie expeiiencing symptoms of buinout was also a souice of gieat satisfaction foi him.
Baiolu was happy to have been able to make peace with his fathei anu to establish a
meaningful ielationship with him. Bis ability to match his fathei's style eventually leu his fathei to
empathize with him anu to apologize foi tiying to tiansfoim him into the image of his oluei
biothei.
Raul was able to establish healthiei intimate ielationships. In these ielationships he focuseu
moie on match anu mismatch in cultuial anu cognitive styles anu less on physical appeaiance. Be
maue amenus to his siblings anu became moie accepting of his paients, iesenting them less foi the
past. Be ieneweu his visits to his uncle who liveu on the ieseivation anu incieaseu his
paiticipation in the ieseivation's tiibal anu spiiitual life.
Taia, aftei sciiptwiiting anu iole-playing with the theiapist, confionteu hei paients anu
biotheis iegaiuing theii piessuies foi hei to ieunite with hei foimei boyfiienu anu to maiiy. Bei
family eventually came to iespect hei uecision to iemain a single paient foi the time being. She
uevelopeu a goou aujustment in hei new job anu continueu paiticipating in spoits with hei
cowoikeis. Eventually she gaineu financial inuepenuence fiom hei paients. She felt that, because
of this inuepenuence, hei family came to accept hei as an auult who coulu make hei own uecisions
anu be a iesponsible paient to Tamisha.
Alex enlisteu the help of his favoiite aunt anu uncle, anu, aftei sciiptwiiting anu iole-playing
exeicises, they weie able to tell his paients about Alex's sexual oiientation anu about his new
acauemic goal. Be was accepteu foi a mastei's piogiam in social woik at a univeisity in anothei
state anu completeu the piogiam successfully. When Alex last contacteu the theiapist, he was
eniolleu in a Ph.B. piogiam anu hau been awaiueu a foui-yeai fellowship.
Aftei caieful consiueiation anu aftei iepeateuly being tuineu uown in iequests to hei spouse
that they paiticipate in eithei family oi couples counseling, Rose ueciueu to file foi uivoice. She
anu hei chiluien moveu to a city thiee hunuieu miles fiom hei hometown. She founu a pait-time
job anu eniolleu in a bilingual special euucation college piogiam, planning to eain a bacheloi's
uegiee anu teaching cieuentials so that she coulu teach blinu anu visually impaiieu chiluien.
Tony leaineu to be moie asseitive anu tenacious in his uealings with public seivice agencies
anu institutions. Be became less embaiiasseu anu moie self-uisclosing about his memoiy
impaiiments; whenevei he woulu encountei a longtime acquaintance in the community, he woulu
say that he was soiiy but, although he iecognizeu the peison's face, his memoiy loss kept him
fiom iemembeiing names anu past events. Bis communication with his chiluien impioveu, anu he
became less authoiitative in his ielationship with them. When Tony was last in contact with the
theiapist, he iepoiteu a goou ielationship with a woman with whom he was living.
These inuiviuuals anu families weie able to uevelop the flexibility of peisonality anu
woiluview they neeueu to function effectively in a uiveise society. They weie able to effect
changes in theii enviionments anu to assist otheis who, like themselves, felt mismatcheu to
situations anu to people aiounu them.
These clients hau a piofounu effect on me as the theiapist: Thiough them I leaineu that the
uefinition of pluialism anu cultuie I hau been using when I fiist began my woik in multicultuial
theiapy was too limiting anu static. I leaineu that the "uiffeientness" expeiience is not limiteu to
membeis of cultuial, ethnic, anu genuei minoiity gioups. Nost impoitant, I leaineu to look beyonu
the supeificial, the exteinal chaiacteiistics of uiffeientness, to look foi the inteinal expiessions
anu signs of uniqueness. As a theiapist, I leaineu to examine my value system anu my piefeiieu
cognitive style anu to unueistanu how these affect the clients with whom I woik.
As a ieseaichei, I ieuiscoveieu the value of intensive stuuy of the inuiviuual case. I came to
unueistanu that the life histoiy is the path to aiiiving at unueistanuings about the meaning of life
in inuiviuuals anu families.
The expeiiences with my clients ieminueu me of the woius of my colleague anu mentoi, Al
Castaneua: "You can leain something fiom eveiyone because eveiy peison has, thiough theii life
expeiiences, uiscoveieu some tiuths about the meaning of life." These woius aie an effective
statement of the piincipal mission of multicultuial counseling anu psychotheiapy.
It is my feivent hope that thiough this book ieaueis will aiiive at a gieatei appieciation of
theii uniqueness as well as the uniqueness of otheis. I hope they will appieciate the uiveisity in
themselves anu in society as an oppoitunity foi gieatei self-knowleuge anu giowth.
Appendix A
MEI InventoryRevised
The NulticultuialNultiiacial Expeiience Inventoiy (NEI) was uevelopeu to assess an inuiviuual's
type of histoiical uevelopment pattein anu contempoiaiy multicultuial iuentity. 0iiginally
uesigneu foi people of coloi, it has been mouifieu so that it can be useu to inventoiy the
multicultuial multiiacial expeiiences of whites. Both the oiiginal anu the mouifieu instiuments
shaie a common suivey of uemogiaphic infoimation (Pait I). The iesponse choices anu scoiing
pioceuuies anu the two instiuments (foi people of coloi anu foi whites) aie piesenteu heie.
kLLIA8ILI1
The scale, ieviseu in 1996, has two veisionsone foi people of coloi anu one foi whites. The
instiuments weie auministeieu to 11S Nexican Ameiican, white, Asian Ameiican (vietnamese
anu Koiean), anu Afiican Ameiican male anu female univeisity stuuents. Split-half ieliability foi
the total gioup foi Type A items was i = .87. The content of Type B items makes it impossible to
obtain split-half ieliability.
VALIDI1
The total Type A anu Type B scoies of Nexican Ameiican univeisity stuuents in Texas anu
Califoinia weie coiielateu with effective leaueiship behaviois in ethnically uiveise gioups unuei
conuitions of conflict (meuiation, ensuiing that all membeis of the gioup weie able to expiess
theii opinions, seek compiomise, anu so on). Coiielation coefficients foi Type A items iangeu fiom
.6S to .71 anu foi Type B items fiom .69 to .7S.
SCCkING
Pait II is composeu of two types of items. Foi people of coloi, Type A items aie scoieu so that
a iesponse of "almost entiiely my ethnic gioup" oi "almost entiiely whites" (alteinatives 1 anu S,
iespectively) ieceive 1 point; iesponses of eithei "mostly my ethnic gioup with a few people of
coloi fiom othei gioups" oi "mostly whites with a few people of coloi" (alteinatives 2 anu 4)
ieceive 2 points; iesponses of "mixeu" (whites, my ethnic gioup, anu people of coloi about
equallyalteinative S) ieceive S points. Bence, highei scoies aie inuicative of a gieatei uegiee of
multicultuialism. Some Type A items aie histoiical (ieflect Bistoiical Bevelopment Pattein, BBP)
anu otheis assess contempoiaiy functioning anu iuentity (ieflect Contempoiaiy Nulticultuial
Iuentity, CNI).
All type B items aie CNI. Type B items aie answeieu using a Likeit-type foimat ianging fiom
"Extensively" to "Nevei." Responses of "Extensively" anu "Fiequently" aie assigneu 2 points. All
othei iesponses aie assigneu 1 point. Items 1-8 aie BBP items anu items 9-26 aie CNI items. A
total Nulticultuial Scoie (NC) is obtaineu by summing the BBP anu CNI total scoies.
BBP scoie SS maximum
CNI scoie 4S maximum
Total NC 87 maximum
Foi whites, Type A items aie scoieu so that a iesponse of "almost entiiely my ethnic gioup" oi
"almost entiiely people of coloi" (alteinatives 1 anu S, iespectively) ieceives 1 point; iesponses of
eithei "mostly my ethnic gioup with a few people of coloi" oi "mostly people of coloi with a few
people of my ethnic gioup" (alteinatives 2 anu 4) ieceives 2 points; iesponses of "mixeu" (my
ethnic gioup anu people of coloi about equally) ieceive S points. Bence, highei scoies aie
inuicative of a gieatei uegiee of multicultuialism.
CNI anu Total NC scoies aie uiffeient foi whites because theie aie fewei Type B items.
BBP scoie SS maximum
CNI scoie 4S maximum
Total NC 78 maximum
MLI Ak1 I
1. Name _______________________________________________________________________
2. Auuiess _______________________________________________________________________
City, State, Zip _______________________________________________________________________
S. uenuei _______________________________________________________________________
4. Age ______________________________________________________ Bate of Biith ___________________________
S. Place of Biith (citystatecountiy) _________________________________________________________________
6. Fathei's Place of Biith (citystatecountiy) _______________________________________________________
7. Nothei's Place of Biith (citystatecountiy) ______________________________________________________
8. Ethnic backgiounu of the following peisons (if applicable):

]-(*.#$E @&;7#* J-;7#*
=;#B
E&;7#*
=;#B
"-;7#*
Nexican
AmeiicanLatino

Afiican Ameiican
WhiteAnglo
Asian Ameiican
Native Ameiican
Nultiiacial
(specify)


9. In what countiy weie each of the following family membeis boin.
^06;#% =;&;#. Z;7#*Y=B#>6E1
You
Youi fathei
Youi fathei's fathei
Youi fathei's mothei
Youi mothei
Youi mothei's fathei
Youi mothei's mothei

1u. What is youi ieligious backgiounu. ______________________________________________________________
11. Bow active aie you in youi ieligion.
_________veiy _________Noueiately _________Somewhat _________Ninimally _________Not active
12. Bow many yeais have you liveu in the 0niteu States. _________
1S. Bave you liveu in a countiy othei than the 0niteu States.
_________Yes. Which countiy(ies). _____________________________________________
Foi how many yeais. ____________________________________
_________No
14. Bave you liveu in a state othei than the one in which you attenu school.
_________Yes. Which state(s). _____________________________________________
Foi how many yeais. ___________________________
_________No
1S. Wheie uiu you spenu the fiist 1S yeais of youi life (list all the places).
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
16. Wheie uo you consiuei "home" (communitystatecountiy).
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Woulu you uesciibe this community as
_________iuial _________semi-iuial _________semi-uiban _________uiban
17. What language(s) uoes (uiu) youi fathei speak. ________________________________________________
18. What language(s) uoes (uiu) youi mothei speak. ______________________________________________
19. What language(s) uo (uiu) youi paients speak at home.________________________________________
2u. What language(s) uo you speak. __________________________________________________________________
21. What is youi maiital status. ______________________________________________________________________
22. If you have hau a committeu ielationship, what is (was) the ethnic backgiounu of youi
paitnei. _______________________________________________________________

MLI Ak1 II
Ior eop|e of Co|or
BBP scoie SS maximum
CNI scoie S4 maximum
Total NC 87 maximum
)1B# + !;#".: Next to each item, ciicle the numbei of the iesponse that best uesciibes youi
past anu piesent behavioi.
1= almost entiiely my ethnic gioup
2= mostly my ethnic gioup with a few people of coloi fiom othei gioups
S= mixeu (my ethnic gioup, whites, anu othei minoiities, about equally)
4 = mostly whites with a few people of coloi
S = almost entiiely whites
1 2 S 4 S 1. The ethnic composition of the neighboihoous in which I liveu
1 2 S 4 S (a) befoie I staiteu attenuing school
1 2 S 4 S (b) while I attenueu elementaiy school
1 2 S 4 S (c) while I attenueu miuule school
1 2 S 4 S (u) while I attenueu high school
1 2 S 4 S 2. Ny chiluhoou fiienus who visiteu my home anu ielateu well to my
paients weie of. . .
1 2 S 4 S S. The teacheis anu counselois with whom I have hau the closest
ielationships have been of . . .
1 2 S 4 S 4. The people who have most influenceu me in my euucation have been
of.
1 2 S 4 S S. In high school, my close fiienus weie of . . .
1 2 S 4 S 6. The ethnic backgiounus of the people I have uateu have been of. . .
1 2 S 4 S 7. In the job(s) I have hau, my close fiienus have been of . . .
1 2 S 4 S 8. The people with whom I have establisheu close, meaningful
ielationships have been of.
1 2 S 4 S 9. At piesent, my close fiienus aie of . . .
1 2 S 4 S 1u. Ny close fiienus at woik weie (aie) of .. .
1 2 S 4 S 11. I enjoy going to gatheiings at which the people aie of ...
1 2 S 4 S 12. When I stuuy oi woik on a pioject with otheis, I am usually with
peisons of.
1 2 S 4 S 1S. When I am involveu in gioup uiscussions wheie I am expecteu to
paiticipate, I piefei a gioup of people of ...
1 2 S 4 S 14. I am active in oiganizations oi social gioups in which the majoiity of
the membeis aie of...
1 2 S 4 S 1S. When I am with my fiienus, I usually attenu functions wheie the
people aie of ...
1 2 S 4 S 16. When I uiscuss peisonal pioblems oi issues, I uiscuss them with
people of ...
1 2 S 4 S 17. I most often spenu time with people who aie of . . .
)1B# < !;#".: Next to each item below, ciicle the numbei that best uesciibes you.
1= Extensively
2= Fiequently
S= 0ccasionally
4= Seluom
S= Nevei
1 2 S 4 S 18. I attenu functions which aie pieuominantly white in natuie.
1 2 S 4 S 19. I attenu functions which aie pieuominantly of minoiity gioups othei
than my own.
1 2 S 4 S 2u. (I attenu functions which aie pieuominantly of my own ethnic gioup
in natuie.
1 2 S 4 S 21. I visit the homes of whites.
1 2 S 4 S 22. I invite whites to my home.
1 2 S 4 S 2S. I visit the homes of peisons of my ethnic gioup (othei than ielatives).
1 2 S 4 S 24. I invite peisons of my ethnic gioup (othei than ielatives) to my
home.
1 2 S 4 S 2S. I visit the homes of minoiities othei than of my own ethnic gioup.
1 2 S 4 S 26. I invite peisons of minoiities othei than those of my own ethnic
gioup to my home.

BBP _____
CNI _____
Total NC _____

MLI Ak1 II
Mod|f|ed for Wh|tes
BBP scoie SS maximum
CNI scoie 4S maximum
Total NC 78 maximum
)1B# + !;#".: Next to each item, ciicle the numbei of the iesponse that best uesciibes youi
past anu piesent behavioi.
1 = almost entiiely my ethnic gioup
2 = mostly my ethnic gioup with a few people of coloi
S = mixeu (my ethnic gioup anu people of coloi about equally)
4 = mostly people of coloi with a few people of my ethnic gioup
S = almost entiiely people of coloi

1 2 S 4 S 1. The ethnic composition of the neighboihoous in which I liveu
1 2 S 4 S (a) befoie I staiteu attenuing school
1 2 S 4 S (b) while I attenueu elementaiy school
1 2 S 4 S (c) while I attenueu miuule school
1 2 S 4 S (u) while I attenueu high school
1 2 S 4 S 2. Ny chiluhoou fiienus who visiteu my home anu ielateu well to my
paients weie of. . .
1 2 S 4 S S. The teacheis anu counselois with whom I have hau the closest
ielationships have been of . . .
1 2 S 4 S 4. The people who have most influenceu me in my euucation have been
of.
1 2 S 4 S S. In high school, my close fiienus weie of . . .
1 2 S 4 S 6. The ethnic backgiounus of the people I have uateu have been of. . .
1 2 S 4 S 7. In the job(s) I have hau, my close fiienus have been of . . .
1 2 S 4 S 8. The people with whom I have establisheu close, meaningful
ielationships have been of.
1 2 S 4 S 9. At piesent, my close fiienus aie of . . .
1 2 S 4 S 1u. Ny close fiienus at woik weie (aie) of .. .
1 2 S 4 S 11. I enjoy going to gatheiings at which the people aie of ...
1 2 S 4 S 12. When I stuuy oi woik on a pioject with otheis, I am usually with
peisons of.
1 2 S 4 S 1S. When I am involveu in gioup uiscussions wheie I am expecteu to
paiticipate, I piefei a gioup of people of ...
1 2 S 4 S 14. I am active in oiganizations oi social gioups in which the majoiity of
the membeis aie of...
1 2 S 4 S 1S. When I am with my fiienus, I usually attenu functions wheie the
people aie of ...
1 2 S 4 S 16. When I uiscuss peisonal pioblems oi issues, I uiscuss them with
people of ...
1 2 S 4 S 17. I most often spenu time with people who aie of . . .
)1B# < !;#".: Next to each item below, ciicle the numbei that best uesciibes you.
1= Extensively
2= Fiequently
S= 0ccasionally
4= Seluom
S= Nevei
1 2 S 4 S 18. I attenu functions which aie pieuominantly of my ethnic gioup in
natuie.
1 2 S 4 S 19. I attenu functions which aie pieuominantly of minoiity gioups in
natuie.
1 2 S 4 S 2u. I visit the homes of peisons of my ethnic gioup (othei than ielatives).
1 2 S 4 S 21. I visit the homes of people of coloi.
1 2 S 4 S 22. I invite peisons of my ethnic gioup (othei than ielatives) to my
home.
1 2 S 4 S 2S. I invite people of coloi to my home.
BBP _____
CNI _____
Total NC _____
Appendix B
Traditionalism-Modernism Inventory
Revised
INS1kUC1ICNS ICk SCCkING
The tiauitional (T) items of the Tiauitionalism-Noueinism Inventoiy (TNI) aie the following:
S, 4, S, 8, 9, 11, 12, 1S, 19, 2u, 21, 22, 2S, 28, Su, S1, S4, S6, S7, S9, 42, 44, 4S, 47, 49, anu S1. The
iemainuei aie mouein (N) items. Auu the scoies foi T items anu the scoies foi N items. Then,
subtiact N fiom T to obtain the total scoie. A positive scoie inuicates a tiauitional oiientation, a
negative scoie inuicates a mouein oiientation, anu a scoie of zeio inuicates a peifect tiauitional-
mouein balance.
Reliability anu valiuity uata foi this ieviseu instiument weie not available at the time of
publication.





<9126#: Bevelopeu by N. Ramiiez, S. Boell, anu N. Rouiiguez.

1kAD1ICNALISM-MCDLkNISM INVLN1Ck
Aftei each statement, inuicate whethei you: Stiongly Agiee (SA), Agiee (A), Bisagiee (B), oi
Stiongly Bisagiee (SB). Please ciicle youi choice.
1. Husbands and wives should share equally in housework.
SA A D SD
2. All institutions should follow a democratic decision-making process.
SA A D SD
3. I prefer to live in a small town or a friendly neighborhood where everyone knows each other.
SA A D SD
4. Women with children at home should not have a full-time career or job outside of the home.
SA A D SD
5. Students should not question the teachings of their teachers or professors.
SA A D SD
6. I prefer to live in a large city.
SA A D SD
7. Husbands and wives should share equally in child-rearing and child care.
SA A D SD
8. In industry or government, when two persons are equally qualified, the older person should get the
job.
SA A D SD
9. Its hard to meet and get to know people in cities.
SA A D SD
10. Women should assume their rightful place in business and in the professions along with men.
SA A D SD
11. Laws should be obeyed without question.
SA A D SD
12. You should know your family history so you can pass it on to your children
SA A D SD
13. In general, the father should have greater authority than the mother in bringing up children.
SA A D SD
14. Students should have decision-making power in schools and universities.
SA A D SD
15. It does not matter to me if my job requires me to move far away from the place where I have my
roots.
SA A D SD
16. Husbands and wives should participate equally in making important family decisions.
SA A D SD
17. With institutions, the amount of power a person has should not be determined by either age or
gender.
SA A D SD
18. I prefer the excitement of a large city to the relaxed living in a small town.
SA A D SD
19. Children should always be respectful of their parents and older relatives.
SA A D SD
20. Traditional observances, such as church services or graduation ceremonies, add meaning to life.
SA A D SD
21. Adult children should visit their parents regularly.
SA A D SD
22. We should not let concerns about time interfere with our friendships and interactions with others.
SA A D SD
23. Children should be taught to be loyal to their families.
SA A D SD
24. Creationism, the Biblical version of the universe, should not be taught in schools.
SA A D SD
25. Children should be encouraged to be independent of their families at an early age.
SA A D SD
26. If you are not careful, people can cause you to waste your time and you will never get anything
accomplished.
SA A D SD
27. Most traditional ceremonies are outmoded and wasteful of time and money.
SA A D SD
28. There is no doubt that the universe was created by a supreme being.
SA A D SD
29. Children should be taught to always feel dose to their families.
SA A D SD
30. We get into such a hurry sometimes that we fail to enjoy life.
SA A D SD
31. Everything a person does reflects on his or her family.
SA A D SD
32. Eventually, science will explain all the mysteries of life.
SA A D SD
33. A person should only be responsible to himself or herself.
SA A D SD
34. No matter how many advances we make through science, we will never be able to understand
many important things in life.
SA A D SD
35. Most religions are primarily folklore and superstition.
SA A D SD
36. When making important decisions about my life, I always like to consult members of my family.
SA A D SD
37. Religion adds meaning to our mechanized and impersonal lives.
SA A D SD
38. If my family does not agree with one of my major life decisions, I go ahead and do what I think is
right anyway.
SA A D SD
39. Tradition and ritual serve to remind us of the rich history of our institutions and our society.
SA A D SD
40. Traditions limit our freedom.
SA A D SD
41. A woman should have the right to decide whether or not to get an abortion.
SA A D SD
42. The right to life is more important than a woman's right to decide what she can do with her own
body.
SA A D SD
43. Gays and lesbians should not be considered to be living in sin, but rather as having a right to their
lifestyle.
SA A D SD
44. If the Bible says that homosexuality is wrong, then it should be considered sinful.
SA A D SD
45. Some criminals deserve to die.
SA A D SD
46. Criminals should be rehabilitated, not put to death.
SA A D SD
47. Local communities should run schools without having to put up with federal government mandates
and regulations.
SA A D SD
48. The federal government should ensure that local schools meet national goals and regulations for all
students.
SA A D SD
49. Mothers who have children out of wedlock should not receive welfare payments.
SA A D SD
50. Unwed mothers and their children should not be penalized by being denied welfare assistance.
SA A D SD
51. Children who are not U.S. citizens should not be allowed to attend our public schools.
SA A D SD
52. Children should not be denied an education because they are not U.S. citizens.
SA A D SD

Appendix C
Family Attitude ScaleRevised
The Family Attituue Scale (FAS)
1
was uevelopeu by Ramiiez (1969) to assess the uegiee of
iuentification with tiauitional Nexican Ameiican values. Some items weie uesigneu by the authoi
anu otheis weie auapteu fiom items in thiee existing scales: Tiauitional Family Iueology Scale
(Levinson anu Buffman, 19SS), the Bistoiico Sociocultuial Piemises Scale (Biaz- uueiieio, 19SS),
anu the Paient Attituue Reseaich Instiument (Schafei anu Bell, 19S8). The FAS was uesigneu to
tap six uimensions of tiauitional values: loyalty to the family, stiictness in chiluieaiing, iespect foi
auults, sepaiation of genuei ioles, male supeiioiity, anu time oiientation.
In 199S, Ramiiez anu Caiiasco ieviseu the FAS foi use in a ciossnational stuuy (Rouiiguez,
Ramiiez, anu Koiman, in piess) with paients anu theii auolescent chiluien in thiee cultuies:
Nexican, Nexican Ameiican, anu white.
Paiticipants can iesponu to each item on a Likeit scale ianging fiom Agiee Stiongly (AS) to
Bisagiee Stiongly (BS). Scoiing is uone as follows: AS = 1, A = 2, B = S, anu BS = 4. Nine items (2, 6,
9,11, 12, 2u, 2S, 27, anu 28) iequiie "ieveiseu" scoiing. The scoies foi ieveiseu (atiauitional)
items anu nonieveiseu (tiauitional) items aie auueu to obtain a total scoie.
kLLIA8ILI1
SPSS subpiogiam RELIABILITY was useu. Bata fiom S64 paiticipants in a cioss-national stuuy
collecteu in Nexico anu the 0niteu States yielueu an alpha coefficient of .7S foi the entiie sample.

1
<9126#: Bevelopeu by Nanuel Ramiiez anu N. Caiiasco, 1996. 18u
Foi the uiffeient cultuial gioups, the alpha levels weie .68 foi Nexican auults (N = 2uu), .69 foi
Nexican Ameiican auults (N = 177), anu .7S foi white auults (N = 187).
VALIDI1
The FAS was auministeieu to 4S Nexican, S9 Nexican Ameiican, anu 4S white two-paient
families with an auolescent chilu. All the families weie intact anu miuule class. To test foi
significant cultuial anu genuei uiffeiences on the total FAS scoie, a 2 (genuei) X S (cultuie)
AN0vA was peifoimeu sepaiately foi auolescents anu paients. Results foi both auolescents anu
paients yielueu a significant main effect foi cultuie. To ueteimine which cultuial gioups uiffeieu
on the FAS, a Tukey's Bonestly Significant Biffeiences (TBSB) test was peifoimeu. Results showeu
that Nexicans iepoiteu moie tiauitional family values than whites anu Nexican Ameiicans, with
whites iepoiting the most mouein family oiientations.

IAMIL A11I1UDL SCALL - kLVISLD
Aftei each statement, inuicate whethei you: Agiee Stiongly (AS), Agiee (A), Bisagiee (B), oi
Bisagiee Stiongly (BS). Please ciicle youi choice.
1. Parents always know whats best for a child.
SA A D SD
2. A husband should do some of the cooking and house cleaning.
SA A D SD
3. For a child, the mother should be the most-loved person in existence.
SA A D SD
4. People who are older tend to be wiser than young people.
SA A D SD
5. Girls should not be allowed to play with toys such as soldiers and footballs.
SA A D SD
6. Children should be taught to question the orders of parents and other authority figures.
SA A D SD
7. It is more important to respect the father than to love him.
SA A D SD
8. Boys should not be allowed to play with toys such as dolls and tea sets.
SA A D SD
9. Men tend to be just as emotional as women.
SA A D SD
10. It doesn't do any good to try to change the future, because the future is in the hands of God.
SA A D SD
11. It is all right for a girl to date a boy even if her parents disapprove of him.
SA A D SD
12. It's all right for a wife to have a job outside the home.
SA A D SD
13. Uncles, aunts, cousins, and other relatives should always be considered to be more important than
friends.
SA A D SD
14. We must live for today; who knows what tomorrow may bring?
SA A D SD
15. Young people get rebellious ideas, but as they grow older and wiser, they give them up.
SA A D SD
16. A person should take care of his or her parents when they are old.
SA A D SD
17. Parents should recognize that a teenage girl needs to be protected more than a teenage boy.
SA A D SD
18. All adults should be respected.
SA A D SD
19. The father should be considered to have the most authority.
SA A D SD
20. A child should not obey his parents if he or she believes that they are wrong.
SA A D SD
21. It is more important to enjoy the present than to worry about the future.
SA A D SD
22. The best time in a child's life is when they are completely dependent on their parents.
SA A D SD
23. The teachings of religion are the best guide for living a good, moral life.
SA A D SD
24. We can attain our goals only if it is the will of God that we do so.
SA A D SD
25. A child should be taught to be ambitious.
SA A D SD
26. Fathers should always be respected regardless of any personal problems they might have.
SA A D SD
27. A husband should take over some of the household chores and childrearing duties if his wife wants
to develop her career interests.
SA A D SD
28. A teenage boy needs to be protected just as much as a teenage girl.
SA A D SD
29. Being born into the right family is as important for achieving success as is hard work.
SA A D SD
30. A person should be satisfied with what he or she has without always wanting to achieve more.
SA A D SD
Total Tiauitionalism Scoie _____
Total Atiauitional Scoie _____
Balance Scoie_____
Appendix D
Therapist's Cognitive Styles Observation
Checklist

Communication Style
Field Sensitive Field Independent
___ 1. The therapist does more
talking than the client during
the session.
___ 1.
The therapist talks less than
the client during the session.
___ 2. The therapist personalizes
communications, is self-
disclosing.
___ 2. The therapist remains a "blank
screen" for the client.
___ 3. The therapist uses both verbal
and nonverbal modes of
communication.
___ 3. The therapist emphasizes
verbal communication.





Interpersonal Relationship Style
Field Sensitive Field Independent
___ 1. The therapist is informal and
establishes a close personal
relationship with the client.
___ 1. The therapist is formal and
maintains "professional"
distance.
___ 2. The therapist focuses on the
nature of the therapist-client
relationship in therapy.
___ 2. The therapist emphasizes self-
reliance and is problem-
focused.




Motivational Styles
Field Sensitive Field Independent
___ 1.
The therapist gives social
rewards to the client.
___ 1.
The therapist emphasizes self
rewards.
___ 2. The therapist emphasizes
achievement for others as
one of the goals of therapy.
___ 2. The therapist emphasizes
achievement for self.






Therapeutic-Teaching Style
Field Sensitive Field Independent
___ 1. The therapist becomes a
model for the client in
teaching new behaviors,
values, and perspectives
___ 1. The therapist uses the
discovery approach
___ 2. The therapist uses direct
interpretation.
___ 2. The therapist uses reflection,
encouraging the client to
arrive at his or her own
interpretations.
___ 3. The therapist uses deductive
approach (global-to-specific)
to teaching in therapy.
___ 3. The therapist uses inductive
(specific-to-global) approach
to teaching in therapy.

Appendix E
Client Preferred Cognitive Styles
Observation Checklist
Field Sensitive Field Independent
___ Self-disclosing ___ Depersonalizes problems
___
Shows interest in personalizing
relationship with therapist ___
Relationship with therapist
secondary to focus on problems
to be addressed in therapy
___
Indicates that social rewards
from therapist will be
important to progress ___
Indicates that increase in
personal well-being will be
important to progress
___
Global focus and deductive
learning style ___
Detail-focused and inductive
learning style
Appendix F
Client Preferred Cultural Styles Observation
Checklist
Traditional Modern
___ Behaves deferentially toward the
therapist
___ Seeks to establish equal status with
therapist
___ Expects the therapist to do most
of the talking
___ Does most of the talking
___ Appears shy and self-controlling ___ Appears assertive and self-confident
___ Is observant of social
environment
___ Seems to ignore social environment
___ Focuses on important others in
relating reasons(s) for seeking
therapy
___ Focuses on self in relating reason(s)
for seeking therapy
Appendix G
Bicognitive Orientation to Life Scale
SCCkING kCCLDUkL
Twelve of the Bicognitive 0iientation to Life Scale (B0LS) items expiess a fielu sensitive (FS)
oiientation in the aieas of: inteipeisonal ielationships, leaueiship style, leaining style, attituues
towaiu authoiity, anu inteiest anu natuial ability in physical anu math sciences veisus humanities
anu social sciences. Twelve coiiesponuing items expiess a fielu inuepenuent (FI) oiientation in
the same aieas of behavioi. Subjects expiess the extent of theii agieement with each statement on
a foui-point Likeit scale. Each item is subsequently scoieu on a scale fiom 1 to 4, with highei
scoies inuicating gieatei agieement with the statements. Items S, 7, 8, 9,11,14,1S,16,19, 2u, 22,
anu 2S ieflect an FI oiientation, while items 1, 2, 4, S, 6,1u,12,1S,17,18, 21, anu 24 ieflect an FS
piefeience.
Sepaiate fielu sensitive anu fielu inuepenuent scoies aie obtaineu foi each subject. The
bicognitive scoie is then calculateu by taking the absolute uiffeience between the two scoies. The
closei a iesponuent's scoie is to zeio, the moie bicognitive the iesponuent is juugeu to be. The
fuithei the scoie is fiom zeio, the gieatei the uegiee of eithei fielu inuepenuence oi fielu
sensitivity.
kLLIA8ILI1
Cionbach alphas weie .8S anu .82 foi FS anu FI items, iespectively.
VALIDI1
Total scoies weie coiielateu with leaueiship behaviois of monocultuial anu multicultuial
Latino college stuuents. Coiielation coefficients with effective leaueiship behaviois in mixeu
ethnic gioups unuei conuitions of conflict (meuiation, ensuiing that all membeis weie able to
expiess theii opinions, seek compiomises, anu so on) iangeu fiom .6S to .77.

8ICCGNI1IVL CkILN1A1ICN 1C LIIL SCALL
Aftei each statement, inuicate whethei you: Stiongly Agiee (SA), Agiee (A), Bisagiee (B), oi
Stiongly Bisagiee (SB). Please ciicle youi choice.
1. I have always done well in subjects such as history or psychology.
SA A D SD
2. I prefer parties that include my parents and other family members.
SA A D SD
3. An individual's primary responsibility is to himself or herself.
SA A D SD
4. I learn best by working on a problem with others.
SA A D SD
5. I like a leader who is primarily concerned with the welfare of the group, even if it means that the job
takes a little longer.
SA A D SD
6. When learning something for the first time, I prefer to have someone explain it to me or show me
how to do it.
SA A D SD
7. What my professors or job supervisors think of me is never as important as feeling that I am really
making progress in my studies or in my job.
SA A D SD
8. Math has always been one of my favorite subjects.
SA A D SD
9. Some persons do not deserve respect even though they are in positions of authority.
SA A D SD
10. Whenever I experience some failure or let-down, the encouragement of my family helps me get
going again.
SA A D SD
11. I enjoy living alone more than living with other people.
SA A D SD
12. I like to get suggestions from others and frequently ask my family for advice.
SA A D SD
13. It is less important to achieve a goal quickly than to make sure no one gets their feelings hurt in the
process.
SA A D SD
14. When I look at a mural or large painting, I first see all the little pieces and then, gradually, I see how
they all go together to give a total message.
SA A D SD
15. I have always done well in courses such as chemistry or physics.
SA A D SD
16. One of the greatest satisfactions in life is the feeling of having done better than others.
SA A D SD
17. I learn better from listening to a teacher than from reading a book.
SA A D SD
18. History and social studies, in general, have always been among my favorite subjects.
SA A D SD
19. I give people honest criticism even though it might hurt their feelings.
SA A D SD
20. Getting individuals to compete with one another is the quickest and best way to get results.
SA A D SD
21. I like to read biographies and autobiographies.
SA A D SD
22. I prefer to learn things on my own, even if I make repeated mistakes before finally understanding.
SA A D SD
23. I learn better by reading about something myself than by listening to a teacher lecture about it.
SA A D SD
24. When I look at a photograph of someone, I am more aware of the total person than of the details
such as hair color, facial expressions, or body type.
SA A D SD
Total FI Scoie _____
Total FS Scoie _____
Balance oi Bicognitive Scoie_____
Appendix H
Homework Effectiveness Assessment
Instrument
Name ______________________________________________________ Bate _________________________________
kat|ng Lffect|veness of D|vers|ty Lxper|ence
1. How would you rate the conditions in which the diversity experience was tried?
1
Very negative
2
Mostly negative
3
Some positive and
some negative
4
Mostly positive
5
Very positive
2. How confident were you when you attempted the diversity experience?
1
Not at all confident
2
Mostly not
confident
3
Some lack of
confidence and
some confidence
4
Mostly confident
5
Very confident
3. How receptive was(were) the target person(s) or group(s)?
1
Very unreceptive
2
Mostly unreceptive
3
Some lack of
receptiveness
and some
receptiveness
4
Mostly receptive
5
Very receptive
4. How closely did you follow the plans?
1
Total
improvisation
2
Mostly
improvisation
3
Some
improvisation
and some
adherence to
plan
4
Followed most of
plan
5
Total adherence to
plan
5. How successful was the diversity experience in achieving your goal(s)?
1
Total failure
2
Mostly a failure
3
Some failure and
some success
4
Mostly successful
5
Very successful
6. If you feel that you need to change the plan and try another diversity experience of this type, indicate
what you think should be done.
Appendix I
Figures and Tables for Introducing Flex
Theory







ersona||ty Character|st|cs of I|e|d Sens|t|ve and I|e|d Independent eop|e

Communications
Field Sensitive Field Independent
___1. Tends to personalize
communications by
referring to personal life
experiences, interests,
and feelings.
___1. Tends to be impersonal and to-
the-point in communications.
___2. Tends to focus more on
nonverbal than on verbal
communication.
___2. Tends to focus more on verbal
than on nonverbal
communication.
Interpersonal Relationships
Field Sensitive Field Independent
___1. Open and outgoing in social
settings.
___1. Reserved and cautious in social
settings.
___2. Presents as warm and
informal.
___2. Presents as distant and formal.
Motivation
Field Sensitive Field Independent
___1. Values social reward that
strengthen relationships
with important others.
___1. Seeks nonsocial rewards.
___2. Motivation is related to
achievement for others
(family, team, ethnic or
racial group, etc.)
___2. Motivation is related to self-
advancement.



Teaching, Parenting, Supervisory, and Counseling Relationships
Field Sensitive Field Independent
___1. Focuses on relationship
with student, child,
supervisor, or client.
___1. Focuses on task or goal.
___2. Is informal and self-
disclosing.
___2. Is formal and private.
1rad|t|ona| and Modern Cu|tura| Sty|es

Traditional Modern
___1. Typical of rural
communities and poor
neighborhoods in urban
communities and of
conservative religions.
___1. Typical of urban and suburban
communities and of liberal
religions.
___2. Emphasizes strictness in
childrearing and
separation of gender
roles.
___2. Emphasizes egalitarianism in
childrearing and in gender-role
definition.
___3. Emphasizes cooperation
and group competition.
___3. Emphasizes individual
competition.
___4. Emphasizes lifelong
identification with family,
community, and culture.
___4. Emphasizes separation from
family and community early in
life.
___5. Spiritualism emphasized
when explaining
"mysteries of life."
___5. Science emphasized when
explaining "mysteries of life."
Appendix J
Rating the Effectiveness of the Script
Name ______________________________________________________ Bate _________________________________
1. How would you rate the conditions in which the script was enacted?
1
Very negative
2
Mostly negative
3
Some positive and
some negative
4
Mostly positive
5
Very positive
2. How confident were you when you enacted the script?
1
Not at all confident
2
Mostly not
confident
3
Some lack of
confidence and
some confidence
4
Mostly confident
5
Very confident
3. How receptive was(were) the target person(s) or group(s)?
1
Very unreceptive
2
Mostly unreceptive
3
Some lack of
receptiveness
and some
receptiveness
4
Mostly receptive
5
Very receptive
4. How closely did you follow the plans for the script?
1
Total
improvisation
2
Mostly
improvisation
3
Some
improvisation
and some
adherence to
plan
4
Followed most of
plan
5
Total adherence to
plan
5. How successful was the script in achieving your goal(s)?
1
Total failure
2
Mostly a failure
3
Some failure and
some success
4
Mostly successful
5
Very successful
6. How would you change the script to make it more effective?


!""#$%&' )*++%,- ).""/ !0, &12"3/)
FAS-R T
Score
AT
Score
TMI M
Score
T
Score
MEI Scores BOLS FS
Score
FI
Score
Gender
roles
____ ____ Gender-role
definition
____ ____ Historical
development
pattern
____ Interpersonal
relationships
____ ____
Familism ____ ____ Family identity ____ ____ CMI ____ Leadership
style
____ ____
Male
superiority
____ ____ Sense of
community
____ ____ Degree of
comfort items
____ Learning style ____ ____
Time
orientation
____ ____ Family
identification
____ ____ Total Score ____ Attitude toward
authority
____ ____
Childrearing ____ ____ Time orientation ____ ____ Interest and
natural ability
in physics,
math,
sciences,
humanities,
and social
sciences
____ ____
Respect for
adults
____ ____ Age status ____ ____
Balance
score
____ ____ Importance of
tradition
____ ____
Spirituality
and/or religion
____ ____ Bicognitive
score
____ ____
Subservience to
convention and
authority
____ ____
Appendix K
Imelda's Response to TMI and Session Notes
Name: Ime|da M.
!"#$%# #'()#%% *+,) -),# .##"/01% $2+,- #$34 %-$-#5#0- 2#"+6 2* /07/3$-/01 64#-4#) *+,
8-)+01"* 91)## :89;< 91)## :9;< =/%$1)## :=;< +) 8-)+01"* =/%$1)## :8=;>
1. Husbands and wives should share equally in housework.
(SA) A D SD
2. All institutions should follow a democratic decision-making process.
SA A (D) SD
3. I prefer to live in a small town or a friendly neighborhood where everyone knows each other.
SA (A) D SD
4. Women with children at home should not have a full-time career or job outside of the home.
SA A D (SD)
5. Students should not question the teachings of their teachers or professors.
SA A D (SD)
6. I prefer to live in a large city.
SA (A) D SD
7. Husbands and wives should share equally in child-rearing and child care.
(SA) A D SD
8. In industry or government, when two persons are equally qualified, the older person should get the
job.
(SA) A D SD
9. Its hard to meet and get to know people in cities.
(SA) A D SD
10. Women should assume their rightful place in business and in the professions along with men.
(SA) A D SD
11. Laws should be obeyed without question.
(SA) A D SD
12. You should know your family history so you can pass it on to your children
(SA) A D SD
13. In general, the father should have greater authority than the mother in bringing up children.
(SA) A D SD
14. Students should have decision-making power in schools and universities.
SA (A) D SD
15. It does not matter to me if my job requires me to move far away from the place where I have my
roots.
SA A D (SD)
16. Husbands and wives should participate equally in making important family decisions.
(SA) A D SD
17. With institutions, the amount of power a person has should not be determined by either age or
gender.
SA (A) D SD
18. I prefer the excitement of a large city to the relaxed living in a small town.
SA A (D) SD
19. Children should always be respectful of their parents and older relatives.
(SA) A D SD
20. Traditional observances, such as church services or graduation ceremonies, add meaning to life.
(SA) A D SD
21. Adult children should visit their parents regularly.
(SA) A D SD
22. We should not let concerns about time interfere with our friendships and interactions with others.
(SA) A D SD
23. Children should be taught to be loyal to their families.
(SA) A D SD
24. Creationism, the Biblical version of the universe, should not be taught in schools.
SA A D (SD)
25. Children should be encouraged to be independent of their families at an early age.
SA A D (SD)
26. If you are not careful, people can cause you to waste your time and you will never get anything
accomplished.
SA A D (SD)
27. Most traditional ceremonies are outmoded and wasteful of time and money.
SA A D (SD)
28. There is no doubt that the universe was created by a supreme being.
(SA) A D SD
29. Children should be taught to always feel close to their families.
(SA) A D SD
30. We get into such a hurry sometimes that we fail to enjoy life.
(SA) A D SD
31. Everything a person does reflects on his or her family.
SA A D SD
32. Eventually, science will explain all the mysteries of life.
SA A D (SD)
33. A person should only be responsible to himself or herself.
SA A D (SD)
34. No matter how many advances we make through science, we will never be able to understand
many important things in life.
(SA) A D SD
35. Most religions are primarily folklore and superstition.
SA A D (SD)
36. When making important decisions about my life, I always like to consult members of my family.
(SA) A D SD
37. Religion adds meaning to our mechanized and impersonal lives.
(SA) A D SD
38. If my family does not agree with one of my major life decisions, I go ahead and do what I think is
right anyway.
SA A (D) SD
39. Tradition and ritual serve to remind us of the rich history of our institutions and our society.
(SA) A D SD
40. Traditions limit our freedom.
SA A D (SD)
?+-$" ? 83+)# @ ABC
?+-$" D 83+)# @ ECF
G$"$03# 83+)# @ AHC
1herap|st's kat|ngs and Notes on referred Cu|tura| Sty|es Cbservat|on Check||st
for Ime|da
Initial Session
Traditional Notes
X Behaves deferentially "Sir" and "Doctor"
X Expects therapist or counselor to
do the talking
Quiet, does not initiate interactions
X Appears shy and nonassertive Avoids eye contact, looks at floor
X Observant of physical and social
environments
Said she liked office as she was
leaving
X Focuses on important others
when discussing presenting
problem(s)
Focuses on relationship with
grandparents, parents, teachers,
and boyfriend
Modern Notes
___ Seeks to establish equal status
with therapist or counselor

___ Does most of the talking
___ Assertive and self-confident
___ Ignores environment
___ Focuses on self in discussing
presenting problems


Appendix L
Harold's Response to BOLS and Session
Notes
Name: naro|d n.
9.-#) #$34 %-$-#5#0-< /07/3$-# 64#-4#) *+, 8-)+01"* 91)## :89;< 91)## :9;< =/%$1)## :=;< +)
8-)+01"* =/%$1)## :8=;> !"#$%# 3/)3"# *+,) 34+/3#>
1. I have always done well in subjects such as history or psychology.
SA A (D) SD
2. I prefer parties that include my parents and other family members.
SA A D (SD)
3. An individual's primary responsibility is to himself or herself.
(SA) A D SD
4. I learn best by working on a problem with others.
SA A (D) SD
5. I like a leader who is primarily concerned with the welfare of the group, even if it means that the job
takes a little longer.
SA A (D) SD
6. When learning something for the first time, I prefer to have someone explain it to me or show me
how to do it.
SA A D (SD)
7. What my professors or job supervisors think of me is never as important as feeling that I am really
making progress in my studies or in my job.
(SA) A D SD
8. Math has always been one of my favorite subjects.
(SA) A D SD
9. Some persons do not deserve respect even though they are in positions of authority.
(SA) A D SD
10. Whenever I experience some failure or let-down, the encouragement of my family helps me get
going again.
SA A (D) SD
11. I enjoy living alone more than living with other people.
SA (A) D SD
12. I like to get suggestions from others and frequently ask my family for advice.
SA A D (SD)
13. It is less important to achieve a goal quickly than to make sure no one gets their feelings hurt in the
process.
SA A (D) SD
14. When I look at a mural or large painting, I first see all the little pieces and then, gradually, I see how
they all go together to give a total message.
(SA) A D SD
15. I have always done well in courses such as chemistry or physics.
(SA) A D SD
16. One of the greatest satisfactions in life is the feeling of having done better than others.
(SA) A D SD
17. I learn better from listening to a teacher than from reading a book.
SA A D (SD)
18. History and social studies, in general, have always been among my favorite subjects.
SA A D (SD)
19. I give people honest criticism even though it might hurt their feelings.
(SA) A D SD
20. Getting individuals to compete with one another is the quickest and best way to get results.
(SA) A D SD
21. I like to read biographies and autobiographies.
SA A (D) SD
22. I prefer to learn things on my own, even if I make repeated mistakes before finally understanding.
(SA) A D SD
23. I learn better by reading about something myself than by listening to a teacher lecture about it.
(SA) A D SD
24. When I look at a photograph of someone, I am more aware of the total person than of the details
such as hair color, facial expressions, or body type.
SA A (D) SD
?+-$" IJ 83+)# @ KCB
?+-$" I8 83+)# @ALM
G$"$03# +) G/3+10/-/N# 83+)# @ KOM
1herap|st's kat|ngs and Notes on referred Cogn|t|ve Sty|es Cbservat|on
Check||st for naro|d
Initial Session
Field Independent Notes
X Depersonalizes presenting
problem(s)
Focuses strictly on communication
styleno feelings discussed,
"businesslike," no attempt to
personalize; "I want to be as
effective and efficient as I used to
be."
X Relationship to therapist is
secondary to problem(s)

X Improvement in personal
effectiveness is primary concern
Notes he made on pad were very
detailed; goes from specific to
global
X Detail-focused and inductive
Field Sensitive Notes
X Self-disclosing Seems to value close relationships
with managers, supervisors, and
employees.
___ Personalizes relationship with
therapist

___ Values social rewards
___ Global-focused and deductive


Appendix M
Traditionalism-Modernism Inventory
(Pre-Revised)
!"#$%# #'()#%% *+,) .##"/01 $2+,- #$34 %-$-#5#0- 2#"+6 2* /07/3$-/01 64#-4#) *+, 91)##
8-)+01"* :C;< 91)## D/"7"* :H;< =/%$1)## D/"7"* :O;< +) =/%$1)## 8-)+01"* :L;>
1. Husbands and wives should share equally in housework.
4 3 2 1
2. All institutions should follow a democratic decision-making process.
4 3 2 1
3. I prefer to live in a small town or a friendly neighborhood where everyone knows each other.
4 3 2 1
4. Women with children at home should not have a full-time career or job outside of the home.
4 3 2 1
5. Students should not question the teachings of their teachers or professors.
4 3 2 1
6. I prefer to live in a large city.
4 3 2 1
7. Husbands and wives should share equally in child-rearing and child care.
4 3 2 1
8. In industry or government, when two persons are equally qualified, the older person should get the
job.
4 3 2 1
9. Its hard to meet and get to know people in cities.
4 3 2 1
10. Women should assume their rightful place in business and in the professions along with men.
4 3 2 1
11. Laws should be obeyed without question.
4 3 2 1
12. You should know your family history so you can pass it on to your children
4 3 2 1
13. In general, the father should have greater authority than the mother in bringing up children.
4 3 2 1
14. Students should have decision-making power in schools and universities.
4 3 2 1
15. It does not matter to me if my job requires me to move far away from the place where I have my
roots.
4 3 2 1
16. Husbands and wives should participate equally in making important family decisions.
4 3 2 1
17. With institutions, the amount of power a person has should not be determined by either age or
gender.
4 3 2 1
18. I prefer the excitement of a large city to the relaxed living in a small town.
4 3 2 1
19. Children should always be respectful of their parents and older relatives.
4 3 2 1
20. Traditional observances, such as church services or graduation ceremonies, add meaning to life.
4 3 2 1
21. Adult children should visit their parents regularly.
4 3 2 1
22. We should not let concerns about time interfere with our friendships and interactions with others.
4 3 2 1
23. Children should be taught to be loyal to their families.
4 3 2 1
24. The Biblical version of the creation of the universe, should not be taught in schools.
4 3 2 1
25. Children should be encouraged to be independent of their families at an early age.
4 3 2 1
26. If you are not careful, people can cause you to waste your time and you will never get anything
accomplished.
4 3 2 1
27. Most traditional ceremonies are outmoded and wasteful of time and money.
4 3 2 1
28. There is no doubt that the universe was created by a supreme being.
4 3 2 1
29. Children should be taught to always feel close to their families.
4 3 2 1
30. We get into such a hurry sometimes that we fail to enjoy life.
4 3 2 1
31. Everything a person does reflects on his or her family.
4 3 2 1
32. Eventually, science will explain all the mysteries of life.
4 3 2 1
33. 3 person should only be responsible to himself or herself.
4 3 2 1
34. No matter how many advances we make through science, we will never be able to understand
many important things in life.
4 3 2 1
35. Most religions are primarily folklore and superstition.
4 3 2 1
36. When making important decisions about my life, I always like to consult members of my family.
4 3 2 1
37. Religion adds meaning to our mechanized and impersonal lives.
4 3 2 1
38. If my family does not agree with one of my major life decisions, I go ahead and do what I think is
right anyway.
4 3 2 1
39. Tradition and ritual serve to remind us of the rich history of our institutions and our society.
4 3 2 1
40. Traditions limit our freedom.
4 3 2 1
?+-$" ? 83+)# @ PPPP
?+-$" D 83+)# @ PPPP
G$"$03# 83+)# @ PPPP
Appendix N
Record of Match and Mismatch
!"#$%&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& ($$) *+%&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&
M
a
t
c
h

Description of
Incident
Date and Time Situation and
Setting
How I Reacted
(Include verbal and
nonverbal
behaviors)
How My Partner
Reacted
(Include verbal and
nonverbal
behaviors)
Describe Areas
of Cultural and
Cognitive Styles
Match
Positive Effects
on Relationship
M
i
s
m
a
t
c
h

Description of
Incident
Date and Time Situation and
Setting
How I Reacted
(Include verbal and
nonverbal
behaviors)
How My Partner
Reacted (Include
verbal and
nonverbal
behaviors)
Describe Areas
of Cultural and
Cognitive Styles
Mismatch
Negative Effects
on Relationship
GLOSSARY
!""#"$%& () !**&+",-*& a nonjuugmental, positive, accepting atmospheie uevoiu of confoimity oi
assimilation piessuies. In theiapy this enables the client to expiess his unique, oi tiue, self.
.#*(/-#"#0& 12#&-","#(- "( 3#)& 4*,5& 6.1347 a peisonality inventoiy composeu of items that
ieflect the uegiee of piefeience foi fielu sensitive oi fielu inuepenuent cognitive styles in
uiffeient life uomains. Assesses cognitive flex by ueteimining the uegiee of agieement with
items that ieflect piefeience foi eithei fielu inuepenuent oi fielu sensitive cognitive styles. A
balance oi bicognitive scoie is also attaineu.
.#*(/-#"#0& 4"85& a cognitive style chaiacteiizeu by an ability to shuttle between the fielu
sensitive anu fielu inuepenuent styles. Choice of style at any given time is uepenuent on task
uemanus oi situational chaiacteiistics. Foi example, if a situation uemanus competition, the
bicognitive peison usually iesponus in a fielu inuepenuent mannei. 0n the othei hanu, if the
situation uemanus coopeiation, the bicognitive inuiviuual behaves in a fielu sensitive mannei.
People with a bicognitive oiientation also may use elements of both the fielu sensitive anu
fielu inuepenuent styles to uevelop new composite oi combination styles.
.#*$5"$2,59:$5"#*$5"$2,5 4"85& a cultuial style chaiacteiizeu by an ability to shuttle between the
tiauitional anu mouein cultuial styles. Choice of style at any given time is uepenuent on task
uemanus oi situational chaiacteiistics.
;<,-/& !/&-" a peison who actively seeks to encouiage changes in the social enviionment in
oiuei to ensuie acceptance anu sensitivity to all cultuial anu cognitive styles.
;(/-#"#0& ,-% ;$5"$2,5 =5&> ?<&(28 6(2 ?<&(28 () :$5"#*$5"$2,5 @&0&5(+A&-"7 the theoiy that
people who aie exposeu to socialization agents with positive attituues towaiu uiveisity,
paiticipate in uiveisity challenges, inteiact with membeis of uiveise cultuies, maintain an
openness anu commitment to leaining fiom otheis, anu aie moie likely to uevelop
multicultuial patteins of behavioi anu a multicultuial iuentity. People who have uevelopeu a
multicultuial iuentity have a stiong, lifelong commitment to theii gioups of oiigin as well as
to othei cultuies anu gioups.
;(/-#"#0& 4"85& a style of peisonality uefineu by the ways in which people communicate anu
ielate to otheis; the iewaius that motivate them; theii pioblem-solving appioaches; anu the
mannei in which they teach, socialize with, supeivise, anu counsel otheis. Theie aie thiee
types of cognitive styles: fielu sensitive, fielu inuepenuent, anu bicognitive.
;$5"$2,5 ,-% ;(/-#"#0& =5&> 6B&2C(-,5#"8 =5&>7 the ability to shuttle between fielu sensitive anu
fielu inuepenuent cognitive styles anu mouein anu tiauitional cultuial styles.
;$5"$2,5 @&A(*2,*8 (1) a philosophy that iecognizes that the way a peison communicates,
ielates to otheis, seeks suppoit anu iecognition fiom his enviionment, anu thinks anu leains
aie piouucts of the value system of his home anu community; (2) iefeis to the moial iights of
an inuiviuual to be uiffeient while at the same time be a iesponsible membei of a laigei
society.
;$5"$2,5 4"85& an oiientation to life ielateu to oi baseu on tiauitional anu mouein values oi a
combination of these values. Assesseu by the Tiauitionalism- Noueinism Inventoiy anu the
Family Attituue Scale.
@#0&2C#"8 ;<,55&-/&C a catalyst foi multicultuial uevelopment such as cultuial anu linguistic
immeision expeiiences, new tasks, anu activities that encouiage the piocess of synthesis anu
amalgamation of peisonality builuing blocks leaineu fiom uiffeient cultuies, institutions, anu
peoples.
DA+,"<8 B2(E&*"#(- the piocess wheieby a peison tiies to unueistanu the point of view anu
feelings of otheis whose cognitive styles anu values aie uiffeient fiom his own.
=,5C& 4&5) the iuentity uevelopeu as a iesult of attempts to confoim to cultuial anu cognitive styles
of authoiity figuies, institutions, anu majoiity cultuies.
=,A#58 !""#"$%& 4*,5& a peisonality inventoiy to assess a peison's uegiee of agieement with
tiauitional anu mouein family values.
=#&5% F-%&+&-%&-" a cognitive style chaiacteiizeu by inuepenuent, abstiact, uiscoveiy-oiienteu
leaining piefeiences, an intioveiteu lifestyle, a piefeience foi veibal communication styles,
anu an emphasis on peisonal achievement anu mateiial gain. People with a piefeiieu fielu
inuepenuent oiientation aie likely to be analytical anu inuuctive anu focus on uetail. They also
tenu to be nonuiiective anu uiscoveiy-oiienteu in chiluieaiing, anu in teaching, supeivising,
anu counseling otheis.
=#&5% 4&-C#"#0& a cognitive style chaiacteiizeu by inteiactive peisonalizeu leaining piefeiences,
an extioveiteu lifestyle, a piefeience foi nonveibal communication styles, a neeu to help
otheis. People with a piefeiieu fielu sensitive oiientation tenu to be moie global, integiative,
anu ueuuctive in theii thinking anu pioblem-solving styles, anu they tenu to be uiiective in
chiluieaiing, anu in teaching, supeivising, anu counseling otheis.
3#)& G#C"(28 F-"&20#&H focuses on the uevelopment anu expiessions of cultuial flex uuiing
uiffeient peiious of life: infancy anu eaily chiluhoou, eaily school anu elementaiy school
yeais, miuule school yeais, high school yeais, anu post- high school peiiou. The life histoiy
inteiview also focuses on the extent of an inuiviuual's actual paiticipation in both tiauitional
anu mouein families, cultuies, gioups, anu institutions. The life histoiy iuentifies the type of
cultuial flex by examining the uegiee to which a peison has been able to combine mouein anu
tiauitional values anu belief systems to aiiive at multicultuial values anu woiluviews.
:,"*< ,-%9(2 :#CA,"*< iefeis to peison-enviionment fit with iespect to the uegiee of haimony
oi lack of haimony between cultuialcognitive styles anu enviionmental uemanus. Two types
aie cognitive mismatch anu cultuial mismatch.
:#CA,"*< 4<(*I an extieme case of the mismatch synuiome.
:#CA,"*< 48-%2(A& a lack of haimony between a peison's piefeiieu cultuial anuoi cognitive
styles anu enviionmental uemanus. This occuis when people feel at ouus to the impoitant
people anu institutions in theii lives. They feel alone, hopeless, anu misunueistoou; they may
exhibit a numbei of symptoms, incluuing self-iejection, uepiession, negativity, iigiuity, anu
attempts to escape ieality.
:(%&5 a peison whom the client aumiies anu who is uominant in the cultuial cognitive styles the
client wants to leain.
:(%&5#-/ the piocess wheieby people leain unfamiliai cognitive anu cultuial styles thiough
imitation anu obseivation of otheis, thiough ieauing anu thiough tiavel.
:(%&2- a value oiientation that emphasizes anu encouiages sepaiation fiom family anu
community eaily in life. It is typical of uiban communities, libeial ieligions, anu of Noith
Ameiican anu Westein Euiopean cultuies. People who aie iuentifieu as having a mouein
value oiientation tenu to emphasize science when explaining the mysteiies of life; they have a
stiong inuiviuualistic oiientation; they tenu to ueemphasize uiffeiences in genuei anu age
ioles; anu they emphasize egalitaiianism in chiluieaiing piactices.
:$5"#*$5"$2,5 !AJ,CC,%(2 a multicultuial peison who piomotes the uevelopment of
multicultuial enviionments which encouiage unueistanuing (multicultuial euucation) anu
coopeiation among uiffeient people anu gioups.
:$5"#*$5"$2,5 D%$*,"(2 a multicultuial peison who euucates otheis about the auvantages of
cultuial anu cognitive uiveisity anu multicultuial oiientations to life.
:$5"#*$5"$2,5 D>+&2#&-*& F-0&-"(28 6:DF7 an inventoiy that assesses histoiical anu cuiient
expeiiences. It focuses on peisonal histoiy anu behavioi in thiee aieas: uemogiaphic anu
linguistic, socialization histoiy, anu uegiee of multicultuial paiticipation in the past as well as
the piesent. The NEI consists of two types of items: histoiical (ieflecting histoiical
uevelopment patteinBBP) anu contempoiaiy functioning (ieflecting contempoiaiy
multicultuial iuentityCNI). Incluues items that ueal with uegiee of comfoit anu acceptance.
:$5"#*$5"$2,5 :(%&5 () BC8*<("<&2,+8 a mouel of theiapy that emphasizes multicultuial
uevelopment by maximizing the client's ability to flex between cultuial anu cognitive styles
when faceu with uiffeient enviionmental uemanus anu uevelopment of a multicultuial
oiientation to life chaiacteiizeu by seiving as a multicultuial euucatoi, ambassauoi, anu peei
counseloi.
:$5"#*$5"$2,5 B&&2 ;($-C&5(2 a multicultuial peison who pioviues emotional suppoit anu
facilitates change anu uevelopment of empoweiment in those of his oi hei peeis who aie
suffeiing fiom mismatch.
:$5"#*$5"$2,5 B&2C(-KD-0#2(-A&-" =#" L(25%0#&H a woiluview that is baseu on the following
assumptions: (1) Theie aie no infeiioi people, cultuies, oi gioups in teims of genuei,
ethnicity, iace, economics, ieligion, physical uisabilities, iegion, sexual oiientation, oi
language; (2) pioblems of malaujustment aie the iesult of mismatch between people, oi
between people anu theii enviionments iathei than of infeiioi people oi gioups; (S) eveiy
inuiviuual, gioup, oi cultuie has positive contiibutions to make to peisonality uevelopment
anu to a healthy aujustment to life; (4) people who aie willing to leain fiom otheis anu fiom
gioups anu cultuies uiffeient fiom theii own acquiie multicultuial builuing blocks (coping
techniques anu peispectives), which aie the basis of multicultuial peisonality uevelopment
anu multicultuial iuentity; (S) synthesis anu amalgamation of peisonality builuing blocks
acquiieu fiom uiffeient people, gioups, anu cultuies occui when the peison with
multicultuial potential woiks towaiu the goals of unueistanuing anu coopeiation among
uiveise gioups anu peoples in a pluialistic society; anu (6) synthesis anu amalgamation of
peisonality builuing blocks fiom uiveise oiigins contiibute to the uevelopment of
multicultuial peisonality uevelopment anu psychological aujustment in a pluialistic society.
B2&)&22&% ;$5"$2,5 ,-% ;(/-#"#0& 4"85&C 1JC&20,"#(- ;<&*I5#C"C obseivational iating scales
that list fielu sensitive anu fielu inuepenuent behaviois in five uomains: communications;
inteipeisonal ielationships; motivation; teaching, paienting, supeivising, anu counseling;
leaining anu pioblem solving. The checklists can be useu to assess mouein anu tiauitional
cultuial styles anu values.
B2&)&22&% 4"85&C the uominant cultuial anu cognitive styles of a peison.
4*2#+"H2#"#-/ a theiapy stiategy useu, along with iole-playing, to piomote cultuial anu cognitive
flex uevelopment by matching the cultuial oi cognitive styles of a peison oi institution.
?<&(28 () :$5"#*$5"$2,5 @&0&5(+A&-" see Cognitive anu Cultuial Flex Theoiy.
?2,%#"#(-,5 a value oiientation that emphasizes close ties to family anu community thioughout
life. It is typical of iuial communities, conseivative ieligions, anu of minoiity anu ueveloping
cultuies. People iuentifieu as having tiauitional value oiientations tenu to have a spiiitual
oiientation towaiu life, aie stiongly iuentifieu with theii families anu communities of oiigin,
usually believe in sepaiation of genuei anu age ioles; anu typically enuoise stiict appioaches
to chilu- ieaiing.
?2,%#"#(-,5#CAK:(%&2-#CA F-0&-"(28 6?:F7 a peisonality inventoiy that assesses the uegiee of
iuentification with tiauitional anu mouein values anu belief systems. The instiument yielus
scoies inuicating the uegiee of agieement with items ieflecting tiauitionalism oi moueinism.
The uegiee of flex can be ueteimineu by examining the uiffeiences between the total
tiauitionalism anu total moueinism scoies (balance scoie) as well as by looking at the uegiee
of agieement with the tiauitional anu mouein items acioss the uiffeient uomains of life:
genuei-iole uefinition; family iuentity; sense of community; family iuentification; time
oiientation; age status; impoitance of tiauition; subseivience to convention anu authoiity;
spiiituality anu ieligion; attituues towaiu issues such as sexual oiientation, the ueath penalty,
the iole of feueial goveinment in euucation, benefits to single motheis anu noncitizens, anu
aboition. Type of flex can be ueteimineu by examining the uegiee of flex within each uomain.
?82,--8 () "<& 4<($5%C an inuiviuual's peiception of the self baseu on what she believes otheis
expect the peison to be like. The piessuie to confoim coulu contiibute to psychological
malaujustmentthe inuiviuual uevelops a false self baseu on the "shoulus" of paients,
impoitant otheis, anu societal institutions.
M-#N$& 4&5) a peison's piefeiieu cultuial anu cognitive styles befoie he has been subjecteu to the
piessuies of confoimity.
REFERENCES
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