1

DESIGN CALCULATION OF
INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHIC EXPOSURE ROOM
Mohamad Pauzi Ismail, PhD

The use of X-ray generators and radioactive sources is no doubt danger to
the operator, therefore precautions must be taken to prevent exposure to
direct and scattered radiation and to high voltages. The operator is
normally protected from electrical shocks by the design of the X-ray
equipment, but protection against the insidious affects of radiation has to be
provided partly by the construction of shielded accommodation for the
source of the radiation and partly by the operator's appreciation of the
dangers involved. Whenever practicable a permanent exposure room should
be provided for industrial radiography. Such facility must necessarily be
designed. The following points should be considered in the design or
selection of a radiographic exposure room.

(i) It should have electrical and water connections within especially for X-
ray room.
(ii) There should be a separate place outside the exposure room to house
the control unit so that the operator is not exposed.
(iii) The thickness and the material of the walls or doors should be
sufficient to reduce the dose below the maximum permissible level.
Dense concrete or lead of calculated thickness is usually used.
(iv) Audible and/or visual warning signs shall be provided within the
exposure room. These signs shall be actuated before irradiation begins
and remain actuated until completion of the irradiation.
(v) Reliable locks or interlocks shall be provided to prevent any person
from entering a radiation room during irradiation. In the event of an
exposure being terminated by interlock, it shall only be possible to
initiate the irradiation from the control panel.
2
(vi) Suitable means of exit shall be provided, so that any person who is
accidentally shut in the irradiation room can leave the enclosure
without delay.
(vii) There should be a shielded apartment within the room preferably
underground where gamma containers can be stored while not in use.
The key for this enclosure should be kept with care and responsibility,
(viii) A survey meter should be available in the laboratory. This is required
for checking the dose level before entering the room.
(ix) The flooring and the ceiling of the room should be such as to give
minimum backscatter. Lead lining of the walls, floor and the ceiling
would be an ideal situation.

The design of X-ray or gamma ray radiographic exposure room requires
some calculations on shielding to provide safe operation of the facility and
minimum exposure to radiation workers.

Careful design can lead to economical installations with minimal barriers.
The design depends on the following factors:
(i) Maximum tube voltage or gamma energy,
(ii) The maximum tube current or source strength,
(iii) The permitted full-body dosage at the point of interest. For radiation
workers this would be 100 millirads per-week (10 Gy per-week), and
for other persons, 10 milli-rads per week (10 Gy per week).
(iv) The workload (W). For X-ray equipment this is given in mA-min. per-
week and in rad in air per-week at lm for gamma source.
(v) The use factor (U). This represents the fraction of the work time that
the beam is turned towards the point under consideration. In the
absence-of information obtained by monitoring. Table I gives the
values of U recommended by ICRP.
3
(vi) The-occupancy factor (T). This is the fraction of the work time spent
in the area in question. The recommended values laid down by the
ICRP are given in Table II.
(vii) Maximum dose output from the tube or RHM factor of radioactive
source.
(viii) Shielding materials. Choice of material for a barrier depends on
convenience and cost. The radiographic exposure room is usually
made of concrete with lead lining.

Primary Protective Barriers

Primary protective barriers are those "sufficient to attenuate the useful beam
to the required degree" (1). The thickness required may be obtained after
calculating B, the maximum allowable transmission given by [2],
WUT
d P
B
2
= (1)
where P = maximum permissible exposure for design purpose (0.1 rem/week
or 0.01 rem/week)
d = distance in metres from source to position occupied.
W = weekly workload in mA-min/week or R/week at l m.
U = use factor (Table I)
T = occupancy factor (Table II).

For X-ray up to 3MV, equation (1) yields B in units of R/mA-min at 1 m: for
gamma rays B is transmission. The shield thickness corresponding to the
calculated value of B is read from the appropriate transmission curve.
Figures 5 to 8 show transmission curves for a range of X-ray energies and
gamma rays with lead and concrete.
Lead linings for walls and floors are useful particularly when converting
existing buildings or providing enclosures for X-ray work.

4
Secondary Protective Barriers

Barriers for scatter radiation
For scatter radiation, the maximum allowable transmission B by [2],
WTS
d P
B
s
s
2
100
= (2)
P and T are the same as in equation (1). W is also the same, but if the
source to scatterer distance is not 1 m, equation (2) must be modified
according to the inverse square law; thus if the source to scatterer distance
is 50 cm the denominator is multiplied by 4. S is the percent of the incident
absorbed dose rate or exposure rate scattered to 1 m for the irradiated area
of interest; values of S may be derived from Figs. 9 and 10. It is useful to
note that a change in the source to scatterer distance is balanced by the
resulting change in irradiated area. For high energy X-rays, S must be
multiplied by the ratio of the output at the potential of interest to that of 0.5
MV namely 20 at 1 MV, 300 at 2 MV and 850 at 3 MV. ds is the distance in
metres from the scatterer to the location of interest. The shield thickness
corresponding to the calculated values of B is read from the transmission
chart that is used for calculating primary-barriers.

Barriers for Leakage Radiation

Leakage radiation is defined as "all radiation except the useful beam, coming
from the tube or source housing [1]). It must be below certain limits of
exposure rate. Shielding required for leakage radiation may be calculated
from the number of tenth value thickness NTVT corresponding to the
maximum allowable transmission [2],

P d
T W
N
L
TVT
2
10
log =
5
T, d and P are the same as in equation (1). WL is the weekly leakage
exposure rate, or absorbed dose rate at 1 m from the source. The number of
half-value thickness NHVT is 3.3 NTVT.

The shield thickness is obtained by multiplying NTVT or NHVT by the values
given in Tables IV and V.

If the shield thickness for scatter and leakage radiation differ by 1 TVT or
more, the thicker shield should be adopted for the secondary barrier
thickness. However, if they differ by less than 1 TVT, the thicker shield
should be adopted and 1 HVT added.

Example 1
Examples of X-ray shielding requirements are given in Table VII for primary
barrier and Table VIII for secondary barrier [2]. Table VIII is based on
typical irradiation characteristics:
50 cm source to scatterer distance;
90
0
angle of scatter;
400 cm
2
irradiated area implying 0.1% of the incident exposure rate
scattered to 1m;
200 mA.min/h maximum continuous tube rating at 100 and 150kV and
1000 mA.min/h at 200-400kV;
leakage radiation 0.1R/h at 1m from the target for 100 and 150kV and
1R/h at 1m for 200-400 kV, at the maximum continuous tube ratings.

Example 2
Let us consider a design of exposure room for a 50Ci Ir-192 uncollimated
source. Labyrinth door design is preferred. Consider the design is as in Fig.
4.
For primary barrier (wall)
P = 0.01 rem/week (for non-radiation worker)
6
d = 1 m
W = 0.48 X 50 X 40 R/week (40 working hours/week) = 960
U = 1
T = = 0.25
WUT
d P
B
2
=
25 . 0 * 1 * 960
1 * 01 . 0
2
= B = 4.17*10
-5
Concrete wall thickness = 650 mm.

Primary barrier for control area
P = 0.1 rem/week (for radiation worker)
d = 1 m
W = 0.48 X 50 X 40 R/week (40 working hours/week) = 960
U = 1
T = 1
WUT
d P
B
2
=
1 * 1 * 960
1 * 1 . 0
2
= B = 1.04*10
-4
Concrete wall thickness = 600 mm.

Secondary barrier for lead door
P = 0.01 rem/week (for non-radiation worker)
ds = 3 m
W = 0.48 X 50 X 40 R/week (40 working hours/week) = 960
T =
S = 0.1% incident absorbed dose rate scattered to 1m per 400cm
2
irradiated
area. Scattering angle = 90
0
(Fig. 9).
WTS
d P
B
s
s
2
100
=
7
1 . 0 * 25 . 0 * 960
3 * 01 . 0 * 100
2
=
s
B = 0.375

Lead door thickness = 6 mm (Fig. 11).

Shielding Construction

To provide protection against radiation, the construction should be leak
proof to radiation and this can be achieved by over-lapping the lead sheets
or concrete blocks. Further, nails or screws, which are used to unite plies of
entry door, must be covered with extra lead. In addition, the conduits, pipes
and air ducts, passing through the walls of the shielded area must be
completely shielded. The entry door must overlap with the boundary of
concrete wall to avoid leakage of radiation. Figs. 1 to 4 show typical
protective constructions practice.

If the exposure room is on the lowest floor of a building, the floor of the room
need not be completely protected. However, if the wall is lined with lead, the
lead lining should not stop at the floor level. It should be extended inward
from all four walls. This is to prevent radiation from escaping from the room
by penetrating the floor and then scattering upward outside the protective
barriers. An alternative is to extend the lead protection in the walls
downward from some distance below floor level. The same considerations
apply to the ceiling if the room is located on the top floor of a building. Of
course, if there is occupied space above or below the exposure room, the
ceiling or floor of the exposure room must have a full radiation protection
over its whole area.

Although lead is the most common material for x-ray protection, other
materials may be used. In particular, structural walls of concrete or brick
may afford considerable protection and may reduce the thickness, and
therefore the cost of the lead required. Above 500 kV, concrete is most used
8
as protective material. The thickness of lead required at these higher
energies are so great, where fastening the lead to the walls becomes a
serious problem. Therefore, concrete is often used because of the ease of
construction. In new construction, the use of concrete may have economic
advantages even for protection against radiation generated at low energies
(well below 500 kV). Applicable codes should be examined and any
installations checked for compliance with their requirements.

References
1- ICRP Publication 3, Report of Committee III on Protection against X-rays,
Oxford, Pergamon, 1960.
2- ICRP Publication 15 and 21, 1976 edition.
3- AELB Safety Code of Practise for Industrial Radiography
9
Table I: Use Factors [1]

Full Use
(U=1)
Floors of radiation rooms except dental installations,
doors, wall and ceiling areas of radiation rooms routinely
exposed to useful beam.

Partial Use
(U=1/4)
Doors and wall areas of radiation rooms not routinely
exposed to the useful beam, floors of dental installations.

Occasional Use
(U=1/16)
Ceiling areas of radiation rooms not routinely exposed to
thc useful beam


Table II: Occupancy Factors [1]

Full Occupancy
(T = 1)
Control space, offices, corridors and waiting space large
enough to hold desks, darkrooms, workrooms and shops,
nurse stations, rest and lounge rooms routinely used by
occupationally exposed personnel, living quarters,
children's play areas, occupied space in adjoining
buildings.

Partial
Occupancy
(T = )
Corridors too narrow for desks, utility rooms, rest and
lounge rooms not used routinely by occupationally
exposed personnel, wards and patients rooms, elevators
using operators, unattended parking lots

Occasional
Occupancy
(T = 1/16)
Closets too small for future occupancy, toilets not used
routinely by occupationally exposed personnel, stairways,
automatic: elevators, sidewalks, and streets.


10
Table III: Outputs of Gamma-ray Sources [2]


Nuclides

Half-life
Principal -ray energies
(MeV), and % photon per
disintegration
Exposure rate, R/h
at 1m from 1Ci
60
Co


5.24y


1.17 (100%);
1.33 (100%)

1.30
137
Cs

30y 0.66 (85%) 0.32
192
Ir

74d 0.3 ~ 0.6 0.48
226
Ra
and daughter
1620y 0.074 to 2.4 0.825

Table IV: Approximate Half-Value-Thickness and Tenth-Value-Thickness for
Heavily Attenuated Broad Beams of X-Rays

X-ray Half-value-thickness, cm Tenth-value-thickness, cm
source Lead Concrete Lead Concrete
50 kV 0.005 0.4 0.018 1.3
70 - 1.0 - 3.6
75 0.015 - 0.050 -
100 0.025 1.6 0.084 5.5
125 - 1.9 - 6.4
150 0.029 2.2 0.096 7.0
200 0.042 2.6 0.14 8.6
250 0.086 2.8 0.29 9.0
300 0.17 3.0 0.57 10.0
00 0.25 3.0 0.82 10.0
500 0.31 3.6 1.03 11.9


Table IV: Approximate Half-Value-Thickness and Tenth-Value-Thickness for
Heavily Attenuated Broad Beams of Gamma Rays

Material
Nuclide
Uranium, cm

Lead,cm

Steel, cm

Concrete, cm

HVT TVT HVT TVT HVT TVT HVT TVT
60
Co 0.7 2.2 1.2 4.0 2.0 6.7 6.1 20.3
137
Cs 0.3 1.1 0.7 2.2 1.5 5.0 4.9 16.3
192
Ir 0.4 1.2 0.6 1.9 1.3 4.3 4.1 13.5

11

Table VI: Lead Equivalent of Various Materials for Low Energy X-rays


Material Material

cm lead equivalent at applied kV of

Material Density
gm/cm
3
Thickness
, cm
50 75 100 150 200 250 300 400
Clay
brick
1.6 10
20
30
40
50
0.06
0.14
0.22
-
-
0.08
0.17
0.27
0.38
-
0.09
0.19
0.31
0.45
-
0.08
0.17
0.26
0.37
0.48
0.08
0.17
0.26
0.37
0.48
0.10
0.23
0.40
0.60
0.81
0.11
0.30
0.55
0.83
1.13
0.13
0.45
0.85
1.27
1.71
Barytes
Plaster
or
concrete
3.2 1.0
2.0
2.5
5.0
7.5
10.0
12.5
0.09
0.18
0.23
-
-
-
-
0.15
0.27
0.33
-
-
-
-
0.18
0.33
0.40
-
-
-
-
0.09
0.18
0.22
0.43
0.59
-
-
0.07
0.14
0.17
0.34
0.50
0.68
-
0.06
0.13
0.17
0.36
0.56
0.77
-
0.06
0.14
0.18
0.39
0.61
0.84
1.08
0.08
0.16
0.20
0.43
0.68
0.95
1.21
Steel 7.8 0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
0.01
0.03
0.05
0.07
0.09
-
-
-
-
-
0.02
0.03
0.05
0.07
0.09
-
-
-
-
-
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.09
0.17
0.25
0.33
0.40
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.04
0.08
0.16
0.23
0.30
0.37
-
-
-
-
0.03
0.08
0.17
0.28
0.38
0.49
-
-
-
-
0.03
0.08
0.19
0.33
0.47
0.63
-
-
-
-
0.04
0.09
0.24
0.43
0.65
0.88


12

Table VII: Primary X-Ray Shielding Requirements for 0.1 Rem per Week

Effective cm lead required at cm concrete required at
Potential Workload source distance of source distance of
kV mA.min/week 1m 2m 4m 1m 2m 4m
100 1000 0.24 0.19 0.14 17 13.6 10.4
250 0.19 0.14 0.09 13.6 10.4 7.1
60 0.14 0.09 0.05 10.4 7.1 4.1
150 1000 0.3 0.25 0.19 25.5 21.1 16.8
250 0.25 0.19 0.14 21.1 16.8 12.3
60 0.19 0.14 0.09 16.8 12.3 8
200 40000 0.66 0.58 0.51 46.3 41 35.9
10000 0.58 0.51 0.43 41 35.9 30.6
2500 0.51 0.43 0.35 35.9 30.6 25.4
625 0.43 0.35 0.28 30.6 25.4 20.1
250 40000 51.8 46.5 41
10000 46.5 41 35.4
2500 41 35.4 29.8
625 35.4 29.8 24.1
300 40000 58.4 52.5 46.3
10000 52.5 46.3 40.2
2500 46.3 40.2 34
625 40.2 34 27.8
400 40000 65 59 53
10000 59 53 46.8
2500 53 46.8 40.6
625 46.8 40.6 34.4


13

Table VIII: Scatter and Leakage X-Ray Shielding Requirements for 0.1 Rem
per Week

Effective cm lead required at cm concrete required at
Potential Workload source distance of source distance of
kV mA.min/week 1m 2m 4m 1m 2m 4m
100 1000 0.08 0.04 0.02 5.5 2.7 0.3
250 0.04 0.02 0 2.7 0.3 0
60 0.02 0 0 0.3 0 0
150 1000 0.11 0.06 0.03 8.9 4.9 1.3
250 0.06 0.03 0 4.9 1.3 0
60 0.03 0 0 1.3 0 0
200 40000 0.4 0.32 0.24 26.9 21.6 16.4
10000 0.32 0.24 0.16 21.6 16.4 11.3
2500 0.24 0.16 0.09 16.4 11.3 6.4
625 0.16 0.09 0.04 11.3 6.4 2
250 40000 0.78 0.61 0.45 30.6 25.1 19.4
10000 0.61 0.45 0.28 25.1 19.4 13.9
2500 0.45 0.28 0.14 19.4 13.9 8.5
625 0.28 0.14 0.05 13.9 8.5 3.4
300 40000 34.8 28.7 22.6
10000 28.7 22.6 16.3
2500 22.6 16.3 10.2
625 16.3 10.2 4.6
400 40000 40.8 34.7 28.7
10000 34.7 28.7 22.5
2500 28.7 22.5 16.2
625 22.5 16.2 9.6


14

Fig. 1: Plan views of door entries to exposure rooms, showing incorrect (a)
and correct (b), (c) methods of fitting. (a) Leakage of primary radiation due
to incorrectly fitted sliding door; (b) hinged door; (c) sliding door.


Fig. 2: Methods of shielding when pipes ducts, conduits or cables must
pass through walls of exposure room.
(a)
(b) Hinged door (c) Sliding door
15

Fig. 3: Scatter of radiation through a roof.


3 m


1 m
1 m
Control
Partial
Occupancy
Partial
Occupancy
Partial
Occupancy
Partial
Occupancy
16
Fig. 4: Labyrinth Design of Exposure Room. This is effectively reduced
the lead door thickness. Radiation is reduced to approximately
0.1% on each scatter.


Fig. 5: Broad-beam transmission of X-rays through concrete (= 2.35 g/cm
3
)
17


Fig. 6: Broad-beam transmission of X-rays through lead ( = 11.35 g/cm
3
)
18


Fig. 7: Broad-beam transmission of -rays through concrete (= 2.35 g/cm
3
)

19

Fig. 8: Broad-beam transmission of -rays through concrete (= 2.35 g/cm
3
)
20


Fig. 9: Variation with potential of the absorbed dose rate measured in air
due to X-rays scattered at 90 from various materials. Percent scatter
is related to primary beam measurements in air at the point of
incidence [2].
21

Fig. 10: Scattering patterns of diverging X-ray and gamma ray beams
normally incident on concrete shield. Percent is related to primary
beam measurements in free air at the point of incidence [2].

22