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This document discusses different types of foundations for buildings, including footings, mat/raft foundations, pile foundations, and concrete slab foundations. It explains that footings are the first part of the structure built and are used to spread structural loads across a wide soil area. The type of footing needed depends on factors like the building design, soil type, and site constraints. Mat or raft foundations extend over a large area to reduce differential settlement. Pile foundations transmit loads through poor soil layers down to stronger soil. Concrete slab foundations can be used with wood framing but require properly treated wood below grade.
This document discusses different types of foundations for buildings, including footings, mat/raft foundations, pile foundations, and concrete slab foundations. It explains that footings are the first part of the structure built and are used to spread structural loads across a wide soil area. The type of footing needed depends on factors like the building design, soil type, and site constraints. Mat or raft foundations extend over a large area to reduce differential settlement. Pile foundations transmit loads through poor soil layers down to stronger soil. Concrete slab foundations can be used with wood framing but require properly treated wood below grade.
This document discusses different types of foundations for buildings, including footings, mat/raft foundations, pile foundations, and concrete slab foundations. It explains that footings are the first part of the structure built and are used to spread structural loads across a wide soil area. The type of footing needed depends on factors like the building design, soil type, and site constraints. Mat or raft foundations extend over a large area to reduce differential settlement. Pile foundations transmit loads through poor soil layers down to stronger soil. Concrete slab foundations can be used with wood framing but require properly treated wood below grade.
FOOTINGS Footings are the first part of a house that is built, and they stop your house shifting from its intended position. Every new house and extension will need new footings, the footings will need to be specified by an engineer ( or possibly architect if they are very straight forward). There are a number of factors which will determine the type of foundations you will need. SITE CONSTRAINTS Each site is unique, the slope, soil type and rock position will all affect the design of your footings. If there is any slope to your site you may need to do some cut and fill excavation or you may have a site with uneven rock under the soil. Footings need to have even bearing on solid ground, this means that the concrete needs to sit on rock or very hard compacted earth. EXCAVATION The excavation of footings will be done with a bobcat or excavator. If you need to drill piers then the excavator that you hire will need to have a orger bit attachment. You may need to consider how the excavator will access your site and where the excavated earth will go, are there some garden beds planned for near the house. HOW TO DECIDE WHICH FOOTING SYSTEM TO USE: 1. The type of house you are building: If you are building a house which includes many of the following, then your house will be heavy. This means that your footing system will need to be substantial to handle the higher loads, and will typically come at an increased cost.
Concrete slabs Double brick walls (known as "full-brick") Multi-storey (particularly if concrete slabs are used for floors at all levels) Tile roofing Large load-bearing concrete columns and walls ("framing").
If you are building a house which includes many of the following, then your house will be lighter and you will be able to use a foundation system which typically would not cost as much.
Steel frame (advantage is they are truly straight, and unaffected by vermin) Timber frame Virtually any floor system which is not concrete Cladded walls (metal or timber) Metal roofing
2. The type of ground you are building on DETAILS OF WOODEN FOOTING FOUNDATION Foundations for wood-frame structures are built to take advantage of the structures ability to spread the load out over a wider area rather than concentrating it on columns. Because of this, it is important for the footings to be placed deep enough in the ground to avoid freeze/thaw cycles There are two primary options for foundations for wood-frame structures: concrete and pressure treated wood. PRESSURE TREATED WOOD FOUNDATION By eliminating the concrete floor slab, wooden foundations are best used in areas with heavy precipitation, which can cause problems with the concrete. It is important that the wood be pressure treated to ensure that the structural stability of the wood is not compromised due to insects and moisture. CONCRETE SLAB FOUNDATION DETAILS OF WOODEN FOUNDATION A. Anchor bolts B. Ledger board C. Joists (typical) D. Band board E. Vertical post F. Concrete footing (shown with form)
LESSON 1:FOUNDATION UNIT1: FOUNDATION Brief History Therefore, whosoever heareth these saying of mine, doeth them, I will liken him onto a wise man, which built his house upon a rock, And the rain descends, and the floods came, and the winds blew, and beat upon the house, and it fell not for it was founded upon a rock.
Matthew 7:24-25 The advanced knowledge brought about by the science of Geology and Soil mechanics have confirmed the rock foundation bed to be the most stable medium where to lay the footing of the structure . The early buildings of the babylonian Empire constructed Raft or Mat foundation from out of the sundried and burned bricks on top of flat moulded earth which was filled up from 1.50m. to 4.50meters high The many foundation was constructed to a thickness of 1.00. to 1.50meters of brick platform bound together by a natural asphaltic material forming a solid foundation where the city walls, temples and public buildings, were constructed. The Greeks extensively used marble blocks as foundation oftenly tied together with metal band likewise, the Chinese buildings also used large stones carefully cut and accurately fitted to each other without the use of mortar as evidently seen in the construction of the Great Wall of China. The Roman builders introduced various foundation types to suit the soil condition Woodpiles were used on very soft ground and ground and wooden mats were laid underground where masonry structure were built upon them. The Roman builders further developed, this early use of concrete, was forgotten consisting of flat stone bonded with cement which, unfortunately, this erly use of concrete, was forgotten during the middle ages. The introduction the grillage footing resolved the problem of foundation weight in the year 1880 when it was first introduced. The improved grillage footing made of steel rail embedded in concrete was introduced in Chicago by John Root in the year 1891. The advent of reinforced concrete in the early part of 1890. superceded all these kind of footing due to the advantage it offered in all aspect of building construction.
UNIT2: SOIL AS A FOUNDATION The earth underlying the building of man provides the ultimate support of the structure against all elements of nature. Thus, the soil where the building stand automatically becomes a material of construction Physically, soil is a material to carry load satisfactorily, a greater area of volume of soil is necessarily required. Loads that are carried by the steel, concrete, and wood has to be transmitted to the ground but in needs a transfer device called foundation. Foundation has its purpose, to transmit the collective building load to the in such a way that the supporting soil will not be overstressed (load) and will not undergo deformation that may cause serious building settlement. A structural foundation performs properly only if the supporting soil behaves properly. Building support is provided by a soil foundation system, which is an in separable combination. Considering that soil foundation system responsible for proving support for the lifetime of the building, all forces that may not over that time period must be considered. For the building to last, its foundation must be designed for the worst conditions that may develop.
Typically, foundation design always include the following 1. the effect of the natures dead load plus the live load 2. Load effects caused by wind, heat, water, earthquake 3. Explosive blasts
Foundation are grouped into two boad categories: 1. Spread footing 2. Mat or Raft foundations Shallow foundations includes: a. Spread footing b. Mat or Raft foundations Deep foundations also includes: a. Piles b. Piles c. Caissons The Floating Foundations is a special category of foundation and is not a different type but it represents a special application of soil mechanics principles to combination mat- caisson foundation The General types of foundations are: 1. Spread Footing 2. Mat or Raft Foundation 3. Piles and Pier Foundation 4. Floating Foundation Spread footing Spread Footing is typically of plan concrete or reinforced concrete. Basically, it is used to spread put building column and wall loads over a sufficiently large soil area. Spread footing are constructed as close to the ground surface as the building design permits and as controlled by local conditions and building regulations. To be classified as spread footing, the foundation does not have to be on shallow depth. However, spread footing will be located deep enough into ground if soil conditions or building design requires. The spread footing foundations for building columns and wall have a common shape of: 1. Square 2. Rectangular 3. Trapezoidal 4. Long Strips
Mat or Raft Foundations The mat or raft foundation is considered a large footing extending over a wide area. Frequently, the entire area is occupied by mat or raft foundation. The mat foundation is adopted in a condition where individual column footings (if used) would tend to be closer with each other or tend to overlap. The type of foundation is utilized as a means to reduce differential settlement between adjacent areas. The mat structure should be rigid and thicker than spread footing to function effectively. Pile and Pier Foundations Pile and pier foundation is intended to transmit structural load through the upper zone of poor soil to a depth where the earth is capable of providing the desired support. The type of foundation is utilized where it is necessary to provide resistance to uplift or where is a possible loss of ground or erosion due to flowing water. Piles are slender foundation units driven into place. Pier units are formed in place by excavating an opening to the desired depth where concrete is poured. Naturally, such foundations are large enough to allow an individual to enter and inspect the exposed earth layer. A clear distinction between pile and pier type type foundation is not definite because of the changes and innovations in construction or installation methods. The developing practice classify all deep slender foundation units simply as pile type foundation with terms such as driven, bored, or drilled all deep slender foundation units simply as pile type foundation with terms such as driven, bored or drilled and precast or cast in place to indicate the method of installation and construction . A caisson is a structural box or chamber that is sunk in place or built in place by excavating systematically below the bottom of the unit which descends to the final depth.
Open caisson maybe: box type or pile type. The top and bottom are opening during installation. When in place, the bottom maybe sealed with concrete if needed to keep out of water. Sometimes the bottoms are socketed into rock to obtain a high bearing capacity. Pneumatic caissons have the top and side sealed and use compressed air to prevent water and soil from entering the lower chamber where excavations to advance the caissons occur. Floating Foundation The floating foundation is a special type of foundation applied in location where deep deposits of compressible cohesive soils exist and the use of piles is impractical. The floating foundation concept requires that a building substructure (below the ground structure) be assembled as a combination mat and caisson to create a rigid box. This foundation is installed to a selected depth that the total weight of the soil excavated for the rigid box is equal to the total weight of the planned building. In theory, the soil below the structure occur when the bottom of the excavation expands after excavation and recompresses during and after the construction Piles By definition, piles is a structural member of small cross-sectional area with reasonable length driven down the ground by means of hammer or vibratory generators. Piles are classified according to: a. Type and size b. Shape as to the cross-section c. Material
As to the kind of material a. Timber pile b. Concrete pile c. Metal pile The important functions and uses of Piles: The decision to use pile foundation is the result of scientific method of exploration and tests of the underlying soil conducted by designing engineers which were brought about by any one of the following purpose: a. As friction pile at their bottom portion transmitting the load through soft strata into stiffer lower strata. b. As friction pile utilizing its full length. c. As soil compactor d. As end bearing column e. As stabilizer of banks f. As batter pile g. As a dolphin h. As sheeting Unless batter piles are intended to be effective in serving any one of these functions, they should not be utilized, otherwise, driving piles without any purpose will be expensive exercise in futility. UNIT 3: POST AND COLUMUS Wooden post The traditional methods of construction utilizing wood as post have been outmoded by reinforced concrete column and the use of load bearing masonry blocks. The use of lumber in most construction is now limited to floor and roof framing, studs and joists, ceiling and paneling. Lumber material is fast becoming are and costly despite of its being inferior in quality. Lumber, which is most abundant and a cheap construction material something ago has turned out to become hot item today. For brief historical background, the construction of building with wooden post is briefly discussed as follows: 1. wooden post to rest on a concrete footing is dressed with its bottom end squared and trimmed perpendicular at its side. 2. A charcoal or chalk mark is established along the face length of the post connecting both ends. This marking will serve as the reference line for checking its vertical position with the aid of plumb bob. 3. From the bottom of the post, measure and indicate the height of the girder and girts, make the necessary dap before its erection to assure that the girder and girts are in the horizontal level. However, it is assumed that the concrete footing is horizontally leveled with the floor line. 4. The post could be erected manually using 2*3 lumber braces and man power or by the use of rope and pulley mounted on a jump-pole. 5. Check the vertical position of the post on two sides with the aid of plumb bob, then have it permanent position. The size of the drill must be the same as that of the machine bolts. 6. With boring tools, drill a hole across the opposite strap and have it bolted to its permanent position. The size of the drill must be the same as that of the machine bolts.
In most cases, not all wooden post selected for post structures are straight. Some are bowed slightly curved but thry could be corrected in the process of construction. Bent posts are erected in a counter-bend position with other post facing toward the outside of the building perimeter. After mounting the girder and floor joist-straightening operation could follow. However, no attempt should be done through the use of a bar clamp or a rope as shown in Figure 4-2. The common failure of this process is the crushing of footing pedestal caused by twisting of the wrought iron post strap. However, it could be prevented with a proper diagonal and horizontal bracing at the lower potion of the wooden post along the post strap. Column Reinforced Concrete The term column is loosely used in a general sense for any support such as a post or pier. The chief purpose of a column is to support a floor and roof beam or arch. Most columns are free standing; some however, are integrated, that is , part of the circumference is embedded in a wall.
Reinforced concrete columns are classified into two: 1. Short column-when the unsupported height is not greater than times shortest lateral dimension of the cross section. 2. Long column-when the unsupported height is more than ten times the shortest dimensions of the cross section. Columns are classified according to the types of reinforcement used: 1. Tied column 2. Spiral column 3. Composite column 4. Combined column 5. Lally column The cross section of a column is either 1. Square 2. Rectangular 3. Circular 4. Elliptical 5. Octagonal or any other geometrical forms depending upon the needs and tastes of the designer. Tied Column Tied column has reinforcement consisting of vertical or longitudinal bars held in position by lateral reinforcement called lateral ties. The vertical reinforcement shall consist of at least 4 bars with a minimum diameter of 16mm or number 5 steel bars. Lateral Ties-the ACI code on lateral ties provides: All non-prestressed bars for tied column shall be enclosed by lateral ties of at least NO. 3 bar size for longitudinal bars NO. 10 or smaller and at least NO. 4 size for NO. 11, 14 and 18 and bundled longitudinal bars. The spacing of the ties shall not exceed 16 longitudinal bar diameter or the least dimension of the column.
The Code is specific as to the size of the lateral ties required with respect to the size of the longitudinal bars, which is the main reinforcement of the column, thus: 1. A No. 3 or 10mm lateral tie is required if the main reinforcement of the column size is No. 10(32mm) or smaller. 2. No. 4(12mm) lateral ties shall be used if the main reinforcement size of the column is either Nos. 11, 14 or 18(36mm, 45mm or 57mm) steel bars.
The spacing of the lateral ties of a tied column is governed by conditions: 1. That the distance should not be more than 16 times the diameter of the main reinforcing bar. 2. That the spacing should not be more than 48 times the diameter of the lateral ties. 3. Spacing should not be more than the shortest dimension of the cross section of the column. To find the spacing of a lateral tie required for a tie column the following illustration is presented: Determine the spacing of the lateral ties for a tied column as shown in figure 8-3. Solution: 1. The diameter of the longitudinal bar is 20mm. 2. Multiply 16*20mm=320mm or 32cm 3. Multiply 48*10mm=480mm or 48cm. 4. The shortest dimension of the column is 35cm. From the result of the above computation, it could be seen that the least value found is 32cm. Therefore, the spacing of the lateral ties will be 32cm. On center. When there are more than 4 vertical bars in a tied column, additional ties shall be provided to hold the longitudinal bars firmly to its designed position. The Code further states: The tie shall be so arranged that every corner and the alternate longitudinal bar shall have lateral support provided by the corner of the tie having an inclined angle of not more than 135 degrees and no bar shall be farther apart than 15cm. Clear on either side from such a laterally supported bar. Reinforcement Ratio and Limitation The size and number of steel bars to be places in a tied column is governed by the proportion of its cross sectional area to the gross area of the column. The Code so provides that: The cross sectional area of the vertical reinforcement shall not be less than 0.01 nor more than 0.08 times the gross area of the column section. Find the minimum and maximum steel bars that could be placed in a tied column having a cross sectional dimension of 25*30cm. In figure 8-5. Solution: A. Determine the Minimum Reinforcement Area: 1. The cross sectional area of the column is: 25*30=750sq.cm 2. Find the minimum area of the vertical reinforcement area 0.01*750=7.5sq.cm 3. Convert this area to the size and number of steel bars with the aid of Table 10-1 and 10-4 Area of 4pcs. No. 5 (16mm) bar=8.04sq.cm
B. Determine the Maximum Reinforcement Area 1. 0.08*750=60sq.cm Maximum area of steel bars. 2. Referring to Table 10-2 10pcs. Of No. 9(28mm) bars=61.6sq.cm 8pcs. Of No. 10(32mm) bars=64.3sq.cm
From the result of the illustration (Figure 8-5), the minimum steel bars that could be placed in a 25*30cm, column are 4pcs. 16mm. And the maximum are either 10pcs. 28mm. Or 8pcs. 32mm. Bundled Bars in a Column Difficulties have been experienced in placing concrete mixture inside forms congested with steel bars. A column that is heavily loaded with reinforcement has this serious problem when large number of steel bars are positioned and held individually by lateral ties. Bundled bars consisting of 2 to 4 bars tied in direct contact with each other is somethings employed to using bundled bars is to accommodate the required steel bars for the column and at the same time provide enough space for the concrete thereby observing the rules and specifications as to the spacing of bar limitation and the required concrete protective covering. Failure of Tied Column The failure of a tied column is by crushing and shearing outward along an inclined plane where vertical bars fail by bucking outward between lateral ties. The failure of a tied column is said to be abrupt and complete and is considered to be more disastrous than the failure of a single beam girder in the same floor. Methods of Constructing Tied Column There are three methods presented in constructing a tied column for a small and medium reinforced concrete structure: 1. Block laying after the concreting of tied column. 2. Concreting of the tied column after block laying. 3. Simultaneous concreting of columns and wall. Stock laying after the concreting of tied column. This type of construction is actually erecting an isolated or independent column providing steel dowels in anticipation of the installation of walls and partitions. There are two methods adopted in setting tied column reinforcement of the column on the footing by means of steel dowel embedded during the concreting of the footing slab. The other is directly attaching the main reinforcement itself to the footing slab reinforcement, followed by concreting of the footing slab ahead or monolithically with the column.
The construction procedures under this method of block laying after the concreting of the concreting of the tied column are as follows: 1. Install the scaffolding that will support the column reinforcement and its form. Usually, there are 4 pieces of lumber installed vertically around the 4 corners of the column provided with horizontal members and diagonal braces. The horizontal member of the scaffolding is vertically spaced at about 1.00 meter between each layer. 2. Transfer the marking and reference point of the building from the batter board to the upper and lower member of the scaffolding. By the use of plumb bob, check the vertical projections of this marking. 3. Install the assembled tied column reinforcement directly to the footing slab reinforcement if concreting of the column and foundation are simultaneous, or to the footing dowels if concreting of the foundation slab is ahead of the column. 4. Provide a temporary wood brace on top and lower members of the scaffolding across the column reinforcement. Insert these braces across the tied column reinforcement to hold the bars to its vertical position. The idea of inserting this brace across the tied reinforcement is to give way to the mounting or installation of the column forms. 5. Verify the vertical position of the reinforcement in the row of several columns in series both in either direction. 6. Install first the narrower side forms in opposite direction on its vertical position. 7. Do not cover the form until after the following accessories have been verified from the plan and installed, if there is: a. Downspout b. Electrical conduits and utility boxes c. Stand pipe or fire hydrant d. Plumbing soil and water supply line e. Telephone line f. Burglar alarm line g. Intercom door bell line h. Steel dowels for walls and partitions, etc.
8. Have the work inspected by authorized inspectors or supervisions. This is done as a matter of procedures to give access to the inspector to see everything inside the form before it is closed. 9. Before covering the form, see to it that the wide cover is provided with charcoal line mark and nail as a guide to assure the column size and in fixing the form to its vertical position. All dirt and debris inside the form shall be removed before covering. 10. Do not leave the forms if it is not firmly set and completely supported. Most of the bulging failures of forms are due to negligence and the inherited manana habit attitude. 11. Verify if the form is provided with window opening for pouring of concrete at lower elevation pouring of concrete at high elevation is one cause of segregation of particles Concreting of column after block laying of walls Under this type of construction, which is very common, the wall footing and the column footing are worked and concreted ahead. The column and the wall reinforcement are set into its final position followed by installing masonry blocks then concreting of the column.
The methods of construction are as follows: 1. After the excavation of the soil, guide post for block laying is prepared and installed about the corner of the wall line. This guide post is usually lumber of the size from2*2 or 2*3 erected vertically in plumb line to serve as guide of the mason for his block laying work. 2. Concretion of the wall footing is followed immediately by concrete block laying. The idea is to have a strong bond between the footing and the masonry block aside from the saving in the use of mortar.
3. The tied column footing is concreted much ahead than the wall footing with the column reinforcement embedded on it. Masonry block laying stops where it meets the column reinforcement. 4.after the block laying, the forms for the column are installed and properly braced, but see to it that accessories such as downspouts, electrical conduits, etc. are also installed if called for the plans. 5.prior to the pouring of concrete mix to the column, the inside space of the forms are cleared with dirt, sawdust, debris and washed thoroughly then grouted before pouring of concrete.
The popularity of this method of construction is attributed to the following advantages: 1. This method of construction requires less material for forms scaffolding and bracing. 2. Once the column form is mounted, G.I. tie wire could be sufficient to hold the form in rigid position 3. The bond between the wall and the column is stronger than when they are connected by mortar as in the other method of construction. 4. Cracks between the wall and the column are unlikely or seldom appear on the surface. 5. The horizontal bars used in block laying are laid continuously across the column reinforcement. This process minimize the horizontal overlapping of splices and consequently eliminate the use of horizontal dowels supposed to be inserted across the column in preparation for the wall construction if column concreting is ahead of the block laying. 6. The column will not be affected much by shocks or vibrations caused by the removal of forms because the column is laterally supported by the hollow block walls and only two forms are to be removed. 7. The work is fast, easy, and economical with less destruction of forms, lumber braces and supports, waste of nails and labor aside from the handy handing in transferring and reinstalling of the forms. The methods of construction under the third category of simultaneous pouring for column and walls in one setting of mixing could only be made possible if the concrete mixture for both the wall and columns are of the same proportions. Otherwise, if the concrete proportion of column differs from that of the wall, one structure must be poured ahead using each specified mixture proportions. In such a case, the column has the priority, which in effect, the methods of construction fall under the first category. Spiral Column Spiral column is the term given where a circular concrete core is enclosed by spirals with vertical or longitudinal bars. The vertical reinforcement is provided with evenly spaced continuous spiral held firmly in position by at least three vertical bar spacers. The column reinforcement is also protected by a concrete covering cast monolithically with the core. Comparatively, this type of column is stronger than the tied column and is preferred for a slender (long) column in carrying heavy load. When a load is imposed on a cylindrical column, a lateral pressure is exerted at the confining materials, which eventually causes hoop tension in the spiral. A closely spaced spiral, confining the concrete and vertical bar, counteracts the lateral expansion, while the concrete in the core increases its carrying capacity. The sign of failure of spiral column is advanced by the shell (protective covering) spall due to excessive load, but failure of the column occurs only when the spirals yield or burst. Unlike the tied column that fails abruptly, the spiral column with heavy spirals shows a gradual and ductile failure. Spiral reinforcement limitation and Spacing or cast in place of construction, the following should be observed: 1. The spiral column shall have a minimum diameter of 10 mm, or 1cm. 2. The clear spacing between the spirals shall not be more than 7.5cm. Or less than 2.5cm. 3. The longitudinal reinforcement area to the gross column area shall not be less than 0.01 nor more than 0.08. 4. The minimum number of vertical bars shall not be less than 6 pieces of 16mm. Bar diameter. Section 7-12 2 of the ACI Building Code provides that: Spiral reinforcement for compression members shall consists of evenly spaced continuous spiral held firmly in place and true to the line by vertical spacers. At least two spacers shall be used for spirals less than 50cm. diameter, three for spirals 50cm. to 75cm. In diameter and four spaces for more than 75cm. Diameter. When bigger size of steel bar is used for spiral such as 16mm. Or larger, three spaces shall be used for a spiral having 60cm. diameterThe spiral shall be protected from distortion due to handing and placing from the designed dimensions. Spiral Anchorage and Spacing The anchorage of spiral reinforcement shall be provided by one and a half-extra turn of spiral bar or wire at each end of the spiral unit. When splices are necessary for special bars it shall be tension lap splices with 48 bar diameters as minimum but in no cases shall be less than 30cm. or welded. The reinforcing spiral shall extend from the floor level in any storey or from the top of the footing to the level of the lowest horizontal reinforcement in the slab, drop panel or beam above. Where beams or brackets are not present on all sides of the column, ties shall extend above the terminal of the spiral to the bottom of the slab or drop panel. In a column with a capital, the spiral shall extend to a plane at which the diameter or width of the capital is twice that of the column. Composite, Combined and Lally Column Composite column is another type of column where structural steel column is embedded into the concrete core of a spiral column. The work involved under this type of column is similar to that of a spiral column after the structural steel have been set to its position. The combined column is a column with a structural steel encased in concrete of at least 7cm. Thick reinforced with wire mess surrounding the column at a distance of 3cm. Inside the outer surface of the concrete covering. The construction process of a combined column calls for the installation of the structural steel as the main reinforcement followed by the attachment of the wire mesh covering. The wire mesh serves as the holding rids of the encased concrete. Usually the wire mess is attached to the structural steel by weld. The forms are similar to that of the tied column construction as previously discussed. Lally column is a fabricated post made of steel pipe provided with a plain flat steel bar or plate which hold a girder, bear or girts. The steel pipe is something filled with a grout or concrete for additional strength and protection from rust and corrosion.
The Relationship Between the Material and the Structure Building structure has to be distinguished from building materials. Although, the quality and durability of the material is a prime consideration, material in its original form as a unit has nothing to do with the strength of participation in supporting load nor resisting forces unless utilized as part of the structural. The combination of different building materials that make it into a building part is called building structure. The utilization of the different materials in the structure has their own purpose of service in counteracting the different forces affecting the structure. This is where design comes in to determine the sizes, quantity, quality, spacing, proportions, etc. Although this subject matter is beyond the scope of this book to discuss stresses, moments, compression, torsion and the like is considered as important matter since to discuss those terms briefly will orient the beginner and future builders of the rudimentary knowledge on how these terms influences the principle on designing structure. Likewise, the reacting behaviors of the structure when different forces are applied on it are also relevant in the knowledge of building construction. The different kinds of stresses that may act on structures are: 1. Compressive Stresses 2. Tensile (Tension) Stresses 3. Shear and Strain Stresses 4. Torsion Stress and Strain Stresses on structures are usually brought about by load, which are classified into three categories: a. Live load b. Dead load c. Environmental load Live Load-refers to the occupancy load, which is either partially or fully in place or may not be present at all. Dead load-are those loads that are distributed or concentrated, which are fixed in position throughout the lifetime of the structure such as the weight of the structure itself. Environment load-consist of wind pressure and suctions, earthquake, rainwater on flat roof, snow and forces caused by temperature differentials. Strength-is the cohesive power of the materials that resist an attempt to pull it apart in the direction of its fiber. Ultimate Strength-is the maximum unit of stress developed at anytime before rupture.
Moment-is a kind of alteration or deformation produced by the stresses. Strain-is a kind of alteration or deformation produced by the stresses. Stress-is an internal action set up between the adjacent molecule of the body when acted upon by forces, or combination of forces, which produces strain. Stress refers too the pressure of load, weight and some other adverse forces or influences.