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Mark A. Wickert
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ECE 2610 Signals and Systems iii
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Introduction and Course Overview
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Signals and Systems What Ior?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Course Perspective From Here to There. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Course Syllabus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Computer Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Introduction to Mathematical Modeling oI Signals and Systems . . . . . . . 18
Mathematical Representation oI Signals 18
Mathematical Representation oI Systems 110
Thinking About Systems 112
The Next Step 113
Sinusoids
Review oI Sine and Cosine Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Sinusoidal Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Relation oI Frequency to Period 27
Phase ShiIt and Time ShiIt 29
Sampling and Plotting Sinusoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Complex Exponentials and Phasors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Review oI Complex Numbers 216
Complex Exponential Signals 223
The Rotating Phasor Interpretation 224
Phasor Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Phasor Addition Rule 228
Summary oI Phasor Addition 232
Physics oI the Tuning Fork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Equations Irom Laws oI Physics 234
General Solution to the DiIIerential Equation 235
Listening to Tones 238
Time Signals: More Than Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Spectrum Representation
The Spectrum oI a Sum oI Sinusoids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
A Notation Change 36
Beat Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
iv ECE 2610 Signals and Systems
Beat Note Spectrum 37
Beat Note WaveIorm 39
Multiplication oI Sinusoids 310
Amplitude Modulation 310
Periodic WaveIorms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Nonperiodic Signals 314
Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Fourier Series: Analysis 318
Fourier Series Derivation 318
Orthogonality Property 320
Summary 322
Spectrum oI the Fourier Series. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Fourier Analysis oI Periodic Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
The Square Wave 324
Spectrum Ior a Square Wave 326
Synthesis oI a Square Wave 327
Triangle Wave 331
Triangle Wave Spectrum 333
Synthesis oI a Triangle Wave 335
Convergence oI Fourier Series 336
TimeFrequency Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Stepped Frequency 338
Spectrogram Analysis 339
Frequency Modulation: Chirp Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Chirped or Linearly Swept Frequency 342
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
SampIing and AIiasing
Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Sampling Sinusoidal Signals 44
The Concept oI Aliasing 46
The Spectrum oI a Discrete-Time Signal 412
The Sampling Theorem 414
Ideal Reconstruction 416
Spectrum View oI Sampling and Reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
The Ideal Bandlimited Interpolation 420
FIR FiIters
Discrete-Time Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
The Running (Moving) Average Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
The General FIR Filter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
ECE 2610 Signals and Systems v
The Unit Impulse Response 58
Convolution and FIR Filters 512
Using MATLAB`s Filter Function 516
Convolution in MATLAB 517
Implementation oI FIR Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
Building Blocks 519
Block Diagrams 520
Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
Time Invariance 525
Linearity 526
The FIR Case 528
Convolution and LTI Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
Derivation oI the Convolution Sum 530
Some Properties oI LTI Systems 532
Cascaded LTI Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
Filtering a Sinusoidal Sequence with a Moving Average Filter 537
Frequency Response of FIR FiIters
Sinusoidal Response oI FIR Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Superposition and the Frequency Response. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Steady-State and Transient Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610
Properties oI the Frequency Response. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
Relation to Impulse Response and DiIIerence Equation 614
Periodicity oI 616
Conjugate Symmetry 616
Graphical Representation oI the Frequency Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
Cascaded LTI Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
Moving Average Filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
Plotting the Frequency Response 626
Filtering Sampled Continuous-Time Signals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
Interpretation oI Delay 632
z-Transforms
DeIinition oI the z-TransIorm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
The z-TransIorm and Linear Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
The z-TransIorm oI an FIR Filter 73
Properties oI the z-TransIorm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
The Superposition (Linearity) Property 76
The Time-Delay Property 77
A General z-TransIorm Formula 78
vi ECE 2610 Signals and Systems
The z-TransIorm as an Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Unit-Delay Operator 78
Convolution and the z-TransIorm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710
Cascading Systems 712
Factoring z-Polynomials 713
Deconvolution/Inverse Filtering 714
Relationship Between the z-Domain and the Frequency Domain. . . . . . 716
The z-Plane and the Unit Circle 716
The Zeros and Poles oI H(z) 717
The SigniIicance oI the Zeros oI H(z) 719
Nulling Filters 719
Graphical Relation Between z and 722
UseIul Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724
The L-Point Moving Average Filter 724
A Complex Bandpass Filter 726
A Bandpass Filter with Real CoeIIicients 726
Practical Filter Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726
Properties oI Linear-Phase Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726
The Linear Phase Condition 726
Locations oI the Zeros oI FIR Linear-Phase Systems 727
IIR FiIters
The General IIR DiIIerence Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Block Diagram 82
Time-Domain Response. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Impulse Response oI a First-Order IIR System 83
Linearity and Time Invariance oI IIR Filters 84
Step Response oI a First-Order Recursive System 86
System Function oI an IIR Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
The General First-Order Case 811
System Functions and Block-Diagram Structures 812
The Transposed Structures 814
Relation to the Impulse Response 815
Poles and Zeros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816
Poles or Zeros at the Origin or InIinity 817
Pole Locations and Stability 818
Frequency Response oI an IIR Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820
3D SurIace Plot oI 823
The Inverse z-TransIorm and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823
A General Procedure Ior Inverse z-TransIormation 824
Steady-State Response and Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833
Second-Order Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836
ECE 2610 Signals and Systems vii
Poles and Zeros 836
Impulse Response 839
Frequency Response 843
Example oI an IIR Lowpass Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845
Continuous-Time SignaIs and LTI Systems
Continuous-Time Signals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Two-Sided InIinite-Length Signals 91
One-Sided Signals 93
Finite-Duration Signals 94
The Unit Impulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Sampling Property oI the Impulse 97
Operational Mathematics and the Delta Function 98
Derivative oI the Unit Step 99
Continuous-Time Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911
Basic System Examples 911
Linear Time-Invariant Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912
Time-Invariance 912
Linearity 913
The Convolution Integral 913
Properties oI Convolution 915
Impulse Response oI Basic LTI Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915
Integrator 916
Ideal delay 916
Convolution oI Impulses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 916
Evaluating Convolution Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 916
Step and Exponential 916
Square-Pulse Input 919
Properties oI LTI Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 920
Cascade and Parallel Connections 920
DiIIerentiation and Integration oI Convolution 921
Stability and Causality 922
Frequency Response
The Frequency Response Function Ior LTI Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Response to Real Sinusoid Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Symmetry oI 105
Response to a Sum oI Sinusoids 105
Periodic Signal Inputs 105
Ideal Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Simulation oI Circuit Implementations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
viii ECE 2610 Signals and Systems
ECE 2610 Signal and Systems 11
Introduction and
Course Overview
Introduction
Signals and systems what for?
Course perspective
Course syllabus
Instructor policies
Computer tools
Introduction to mathematical modeling of signals and sys-
tems
Signals and Systems What for?
Electronics for audio (iPod) and wireless devices (cell
phones, wireless local area networking) are all around us
What are some others?
Signals and systems are an integral part of making these
devices perform their intended function
Signals convey information from one point to another
They may be generated by electronic means, or by some
natural means such as talking, walking, your heart beating,
an earthquake, the sun heating the sidewalk
Chapter
1
Chapter 1 Introduction and Course Overview
12 ECE 2610 Signals and Systems
Systems process signals to produce a modified or transformed
version of the original signal
The transformation may be as simple a microphone con-
verting a sound pressure wave into an electrical waveform
The four campuses of the University of Colorado are often
termed the CU System
In this class systems are specialized primarily to those that
process signals of an electrical nature
If we do not have an electrical signal directly we may use a
transducer to obtain one, e.g., a thermistor to sense the
temperature of the heat sink in a computer power supply
In the traditions of electrical engineering, signals and systems
means the mathematical modeling of signals and systems, to
assist in the design and development of electronic devices
Course Perspective From Here to There
ECE 2610 Signals and Systems 13
Course Perspective From Here to There
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!
Chapter 1 Introduction and Course Overview
14 ECE 2610 Signals and Systems
Course Syllabus
g y
Spring Semester 2011
Instructor: Dr. Mark Wickert Office: EB-292 Phone: 255-3500
wickert@eas.uccs.edu Fax: 255-3589
http://www.eas.uccs.edu/wickert/ece2610/
Office Hrs: M&W 12:45-1:15am, M&W 3:05pm-4:00pm, others by appointment.
Required
Text
James McClellan, Ronald Schafer, and Mark Yoder, Signal Processing First,
Prentice Hall, New Jersy, 2003. ISBN 0-13-090999-8.
Optional
Software:
The student version of MATLAB 7.x available under general software in the
UCCS bookstore. Other specific programming tools will be discussed in class.
Grading: 1.) Graded homework worth 20%.
2.) Quizzes worth 15% total
3.) Laboratory assignments worth 20% total.
4.) Mid-term exam worth 15%.
5.) Final MATLAB project worth 10%.
6.) Final exam worth 20%.
Note: that topics 912 will most likely only be overviewed at the end of the
semester.
Topics Text Weeks
1. Course Overview and Introduction 1.11.4 0.5
2. Sinusoids 2.12.9 1.0
3. Spectrum Representation 3.13.9 1.0
4. Sampling and Aliasing 4.14.6 1.0
5. FIR filters 5.15.9 1.5
6. Frequency response of FIR filters 6.16.9 1.5 (exam)
7. z-Transforms 7.17.10 1.0
8. IIR Filters 8.18.12 2.0
9. Continuous-Time Signals and Systems 9.19.10 1.5?
10. Frequency Response 10.110.6 0.5?
11. Continuous-Time Fourier Transform 11.111.11 1.5?
12. Filtering, Modulation, and Sampling 12.112.4 1.5 (project)
Course Syllabus
ECE 2610 Signals and Systems 15
Instructor Policies
Homework papers are due at the start of class
If business travel or similar activities prevent you from
attending class and turning in your homework, please inform
me beforehand
Grading is done on a straight 90, 80, 70, ... scale with curving
below these thresholds if needed
Homework solutions will be placed on the course Web site
in PDF format with security password required; hints pages
may also be provided
Chapter 1 Introduction and Course Overview
16 ECE 2610 Signals and Systems
Computer Tools
Through-out this semester we will be using MATLAB for
modeling and simulation of signals and systems
MATLAB is a very powerful vector/matrix oriented pro-
gramming language
If features an integrated graphics/visualization engine
MATLAB has and integrated source code editor and debug-
ging environment
There are specialized toolboxes available for signal process-
ing, communications, image processing, and may other engi-
neering applications
The text for this course includes a collection of MATLAB
functions specialized for the signal processing taught in this
course
The laboratory portion of this course will focus on the use of
MATLAB to explore signals and systems
A very brief introduction to MATLAB follows
We will be learning shortly that a signal in mathematical
terms can be as simple as a function of time, say a trigono-
metric function like
(1.1)
where we call the amplitude, the frequency in cycles
per second, and is the independent variable
! " ( ) # !t$
"
" ( ) #$% =
# $
"
"
Computer Tools
ECE 2610 Signals and Systems 17
MATLAB operates from a command window similar to a
calculator
On the first line we create a time axis vector running from
0 to 2 seconds, with time step 0.01 seconds
The second line we fill a vector ! with functional values
that correspond, in this case, to the sum of two sinusoids
What are the amplitudes and frequencies of these sinu-
soids?
Finally we plot the signal using the "#$%&' function
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
Time in seconds
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Sum of Two Sinusoids Signal
Chapter 1 Introduction and Course Overview
18 ECE 2610 Signals and Systems
Introduction to Mathematical Modeling of
Signals and Systems
Mathematical Representation of Signals
Signals represent or encode information
In communications applications the information is almost
always encoded
In the probing of medical and other physical systems,
where signals occur naturally, the information is not pur-
posefully encoded
In human speech we create a waveform as a function of
time when we force air across our vocal cords and through
our vocal tract
A microphone has
converted the
sound pressure
from the vocal
tract into an
electrical signal
that varies over
time, !
Introduction to Mathematical Modeling of Signals and Systems
ECE 2610 Signals and Systems 19
Signals, such as the above speech signal, are continuous
functions of time, and denoted as a continuous-time signal
The independent variable in this case is time, t, but could be
another variable of interest, e.g., position, depth, temperature,
pressure
The mathematical notation for the speech signal recorded by
the microphone might be
In order to process this signal by computer means, we may
sample this signal at regular interval , resulting in
(1.2)
The signal is known as a discrete-time signal, and is
the sampling period
Note that the independent variable of the sampled signal is
the integer sequence
Discrete-time signals can only be evaluated at integer val-
ues
% " ( )
&
%
% ' | | % '&
%
( ) =
% ' | | &
%
' . ! & " & ! . , , , , , , { } e
Chapter 1 Introduction and Course Overview
110 ECE 2610 Signals and Systems
The speech waveform is an example of a one-dimensional
signal, but we may have more that one dimension
An image, say a photograph, is an example of a two-dimen-
sional signal, being a function of two spatial variables, e.g.
If the image is put into motion, as in a movie or video, we
now have a three-dimensional image, where the third inde-
pendent variable is time,
Note: movies and videos are shot in frames, so actually
time is discretized, e.g., (often fps)
To manipulate an image on a computer we need to sample the
image, and create a two-dimensional discrete-time signal
(1.3)
where m and n takes on integer values, and and repre-
sent the horizontal and vertical sampling periods respectively
Mathematical Representation of Systems
In mathematical modeling terms a system is a function that
transforms or maps the input signal/sequence, to a new out-
put signal/sequence
(1.4)
where the subscripts c and d denote continuous and discrete
system operators
( ! ) , ( )
! ) " , , ( )
" '&
%
& &
%
'" =
( * ' , | | ( *A
!
'A
)
, ( ) =
A
!
A
)
) " ( ) &
+
! " ( ) { } =
) ' | | &
,
! ' | | { } =
Introduction to Mathematical Modeling of Signals and Systems
ECE 2610 Signals and Systems 111
Because we are at present viewing the system as a pure math-
ematical model, the notion of a system seems abstract and
distant
Consider the microphone as a system which converts sound
pressure from the vocal tract into an electrical signal
Once the speech waveform is in an electrical waveform for-
mat, we might want to form the square of the signal as a first
step in finding the energy of the signal, i.e.,
(1.5)
The squarer system also exists for discrete-time signals, and
in fact is easier to implement, since all we need to do is mul-
tiply each signal sample by itself
) " ( ) ! " ( ) | |
!
=
) " ( ) ! " ( ) | |
!
=
A squarer system
Chapter 1 Introduction and Course Overview
112 ECE 2610 Signals and Systems
(1.6)
If we send through a second system known as a digital
filter, we can form an estimate of the signal energy
This is a future topic for this course
Thinking About Systems
Engineers like to use block diagrams to visualize systems
Low level systems are often interconnected to form larger
systems or subsystems
Consider the squaring system
The ideal sampling operation, described earlier as a means to
convert a continuous-time signal to a discrete-times signal is
represented in block diagram form as an ideal C-to-D con-
verter
) ' | | ! ' | | ( )
!
! ' | | ! ' | | = =
) ' | |
& { } ! " ( ) ) " ( )
( )
!
! " ( ) ) " ( )
T is a generic system
deal
C-to-D
Converter
&
%
! " ( ) ! ' | | ! '&
%
( ) =
A system parameter that
specifies the sample spacing
Introduction to Mathematical Modeling of Signals and Systems
ECE 2610 Signals and Systems 113
A more complex system, depicted as a collection of subsys-
tem blocks, is a system that records and then plays back an
audio source using a compact disk (CD) storage medium
The optical disk reader shown above is actually a high-level
block, as it is composed of many lower-level subsystems,
e.g.,
Laser, on a sliding carriage, to illuminate the CD
An optical detector on the same sliding carriage
A servo control system positions the carriage to follow the
track over the disk
A servo speed control to maintain a constant linear veloc-
ity as 1/0 data is read from different portions of the disk
more ...
If we just considering a CD player, we would only need the
last two subsystem blocks (why?)
The Next Step
Basic signals, composed of linear combinations of trigono-
metric functions of time will be studied next
We also consider complex number representations as a means
to simplify the combining of more than one sinusoidal signal
Chapter 1 Introduction and Course Overview
114 ECE 2610 Signals and Systems

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