B M I / O N W 1-537

Distribution Category UC-70

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Reducing the Likelihood of Future Human Activities
That Could Affect
Geologic High-level Waste Repositories
Technical Report
May 1984
Human Int erf erence Task Force
prepared for
Of f i ce of Nuclear Waste Isol ati on
Battelle Memor i al Inst i t ut e
505 King Avenue
Columbus, OH 43201-2693
The content of this report was effective as of December 1983. This report was prepared by Office of
Nuclear Waste Isolation under Contract No. DE-AC02-83CH10140 with the US. Department of Energy.
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DISCLAIMER

This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an
agency of the United States Government. Neither the United States
Government nor any agency Thereof, nor any of their employees,
makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal
liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or
usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process
disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately
owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product,
process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or
otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement,
recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any
agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein
do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States
Government or any agency thereof.
DISCLAIMER

Portions of this document may be illegible in
electronic image products. Images are produced
from the best available original document.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The Human I nt er f er ence Task For ce* i s ver y gr at ef ul f or t he val uabl e
cont r i but i ons of t he t ask f or ce consul t ant s:
Dr. War r en Ber r y, Mat er i al s Sci ence
Dr. Paul Ekman, Nonver bal Communi cat i on
Dr. Davi d Gi vens, Ant hr opol ogy and Nonver bal Communi cat i on
Dr. Maur een Kapl an, Ar chaeol ogy
Dr. Geor ge Kukl a, Long- Ter mCl i mat ol ogy
Dr. Thomas Sebeok, Li ngui st i cs and Semi ot i cs
Dr. Per cy Tannenbaum, Behavi or al Psychol ogy and Publ i c Pol i cy
They t ook t he t i me t o compr ehend t he i ssues we f aced and t o appl y t hei r
exper t i se t owar d achi evi ng t he obj ect i ves we est abl i shed.
t he pat i ence necessar y t o t ut or us i n t he appr opr i at e appl i cat i on of t hei r
speci al t i es.
pr ovi ded t hr oughout t hi s document , f ar mor e t han t he ci t at i ons al one mi ght
suggest .
We al so expr ess our t hanks t o Br enda J er man of Bat t el l e Memor i al
I nst i t ut e who pr ovi ded t he t echni cal edi t i ng necessar y t o make t he esot er i c
become compr ehensi bl e.
They al so exhi bi t ed
We have dr awn heavi l y upon t he r ef er ences and t he gui dance t hey
*See Appendi x B f or t he l i st of member s.
c
a
1 anguage/ soci et a1 changes
symbol t o denot e "Caut i on
t housands of non- r adi oact
i i i / i J
ABSTRACT
The di sposal of r adi oact i ve wast es i n deep geol ogi c f or mat i ons pr ovi des a
means of i sol at i ng t he wast e f r ompeopl e unt i l t he r adi oact i vi t y has decayed
t o saf e l evel s. However , i sol at i ng peopl e f r omt he wast es i s a di f f er ent
pr obl em, si nce we do not knowwhat t he f ut ur e condi t i on of soci et y wi l l be.
The Human I nt er f er ence Task For ce was convened by t he U.S. Depar t ment of
Ener gy t o det er mi ne whet her r easonabl e means exi st ( or coul d be devel oped) t o
r educe t he l i kel i hood of f ut ur e humans uni nt ent i onal l y i nt r udi ng on r adi o-
act i ve wast e i sol at i on syst ems. The t ask f or ce concl uded t hat si gni f i cant
r educt i ons i n t he l i kel i hood of human i nt er f er ence coul d be achi eved, f or
per haps t housands of year s i nt o t he f ut ur e, i f appr opr i at e st eps ar e t aken t o
communi cat e t he exi st ence of t he r eposi t or y. Consequent l y, f or t wo year s t he
t ask f or ce di r ect ed most of i t s st udy t owar d t he ar ea of l ong- t er mcommuni ca-
t i on. Met hods ar e di scussed f or achi evi ng l ong- t er mcommuni cat i on by usi ng
per manent mar ker s and wi del y di ssemi nat ed r ecor ds, wi t h var i ous st eps t aken t o
pr ovi de mul t i pl e l evel s of pr ot ect i on agai nst l oss, dest r uct i on, and maj or
Al so devel oped i s t he concept of a uni ver sal
- Bi ohazar dous Wast e Bur i ed Her e". I f used f or t he
ve bi ohazar dous wast e si t es i n t hi s count r y al one, a
symbol coul d t r anscend gener at i ons and l anguage changes, t her eby vast l y
i mpr ovi ng t he l i kel i hood of successf ul i sol at i on of al l bur i ed bi ohazar dous
wast es.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
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Page
1 THE HUMAN I NTERFERENCE I S S UE .......................................
1.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................
1.2 HUMAN I NTERFERENCE ............................................
1.3 S I GNI F I CANCE OF HUMAN INTERFERENCE A C T I V I T I E S .................
1.4 PROTECTI NG AGAI NST HUMAN I NTERFERENCE .........................
2 HUMAN I NTERFERENCE TASK FORCE APPROACH AND F I NDI NGS ................
2.1 HUMAN I NTERFERENCE TASK FORCE APPROACH ........................
2.2 P REMI SES BOUNDING THE STUDY ...................................
2.3 LOGI C FOR ANALY ZI NG HUMAN I NTERFERENCE P OTE NTI AL ..............
2.4 HUMAN I NTERFERENCE TASK FORCE F I NDI NGS ........................
2.4.1 S i t i n g .................................................
2.4.2 R e p o s i t o r y D e s i g n ......................................
2.4.3 C ommuni c ati ons .........................................
2.4.4 S ys t e m E f f e c t i v e n e s s ...................................
2.4.5 A p p l i c a b i l i t y ..........................................
3 S I TI NG. LAND USE. AND I NS T I T UT I ONAL CONTROLS .......................
3.1 S I T I NG CONSI DERATI ONS .........................................
3.2 LAND USE ......................................................
3.3 I NS T I T UT I ONAL CONTROLS ........................................
4 COMMUNICATION AS A MEANS OF REDUCING THE L I KE L I HOOD
OF HUMAN I NTERFERENCE ..............................................
4.1 BASIC ELEMENTS OF MESSAGE COMMUNICATION .......................
4.2 MESSAGE DURABI L I TY AND DE TE CTABI L I TY ..........................
4.2.1 D u r a b i l i t y .............................................
4.2.2 D e t e c t a b i l i t y ..........................................
4.3 MESSAGE COMP REHENSI BI LI TY .....................................
4.4 RESPONSE TO MESSAGE ...........................................
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
(Cont i nued)
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Page
4.4.1 Message I nformati on ....................................
4.4.2 Message Relevance ......................................
4.4.3 Factual Basis ..........................................
4.5 MESSAGE REDUNDANCY ............................................
5 MESSAGE STRUCTURE AND CONTENT ......................................
5.1 CAUTION MESSAGE (FIRST LEVEL) .................................
5.1.1 I coni c Message .........................................
5.1.2 Symbolic Message .......................................
5.1.3 Verbal Message .........................................
5.3 DETAILED MESSAGE (THIRD LEVEL) ................................
5.2 WARNING MESSAGE (SECOND LEVEL) ................................
5.4 DETAILED TECHNICAL INFORMATION (FOURTH LEVEL) .................
5.5 SUMMARY .......................................................
6 MESSAGE TRANSMISSION ...............................................
6.1 ARCHAEOLOGICAL INFORMATION ....................................
6.1.1 Ancient Monuments ......................................
6.2 MESSAGE DURABILITY ............................................
6.2.1 Onsi te Markers .........................................
6.2.2 Wri tten Records ........................................
6.'3 MESSAGE DETECTABILITY ..........................................
6.3.1 P eri pheral Markers .....................................
6.3.2 Central Monument .......................................
6.3.3 Earthworks and Anomalies ...............................
6.3.4 Of f s i te Wri tten Message ................................
6.3.5 Oral Transmission ......................................
6.4 SUMMARY .......................................................
7 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS COMPONENTS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS ............
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
(Cont i nued)
Page
7.1 S I TE LOCATORS AND DESCRIPTORS .................................
7.1.1 P eripheral Markers .....................................
7.1.2 Central Monument .......................................
7.1.3 Other S i te Markers .....................................
7.2 INFORMATION AND RECORDS DI SSEMI NATI ON AND
RETENTION OFF THE S I TE ........................................
7.2.1 I denti f i cati on of Repository Locations
on Maps and Charts .....................................
7.2.2 Di s tri buti on and Archiving of Documents and Maps .......
7.2.3 Educational and I ns ti tuti onal Acti vi ti es ...............
7.3 SUMMARY DI SCUSSI ON .............................................
7.3.1 F i r s t Level Channels ...................................
7.3.2 Second Level Channels ..................................
7.3.3 Thi rd Level Channels ...................................
7.3.4 Fourth Level Channels ..................................
7.4 OVERALL ASSESSMENT OF COMMUNICATION METHODS ...................
8 AREAS REQUI RI NG FUTIJ RE WORK ........................................
8.1 EFFECTI VENESS OF MESSAGE ......................................
8.2 MATERIAL AND MESSAGE DURABILITY ...............................
8.3 MESSAGE TRANSMI SSI ON ..........................................
8.4 SITE-SPECIFIC STUDY ...........................................
REFERENCES ............................................................
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100
102
102
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103
104
105
APPENDI X A P I CTOGRAP HI C PRESENTATION OF BIOHARZARDOUS
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I CAUTION MESSAGE 113
B HUMAN I NTERF 'ERE NCE TASK FORCE MEMBERS ...................... 119
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LI ST OF FI GURES
Page
1-1
2- 1
3- 1
4- 1
4-2
4-3
4-4
4-5
4-6
5- 1
5-2
5-3
6- 1
6-2
6- 3
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7-2
7-3
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7-5
7-6
7-7
A- 1
5- 1
Di r ect I nt r usi on by Expl or at or y Dr i l l i ng
and Resul t i ng Connect i on of Aqui f er s ..........................
Human I nt er f er ence Logi c Fl ow .................................
Reduci ng t he Li kel i hood of Human I nt er f er ence .................
El ement s of Ef f ect i ve Long- Ter mCommuni cat i ons ................
Basi c El ement s of Communi cat i on ...............................
Message Dur abi l i t y ............................................
Message Det ect i on .............................................
Ef f ect i ve Message Compr ehensi on ...............................
Response t o Messages ..........................................
Compr ehensi on and Response ....................................
Symbol . "Caut i on . Bi ohazar dous Wast e Bur i ed Her e" .............
Exampl e of Thi r d Level Message ................................
Dur abi l i t y and Det ect abi l i t y ..................................
St onehenge ....................................................
Ser pent Mound .................................................
Two Possi bl e Const r uct i on Met hods f or a Quasi - Monol i t h
Per i pher al Mar ker Message .....................................
Cent r al Monument ..............................................
Vaul t Det ai l ..................................................
Al t er nat e Cent r al Monument ....................................
Al t er nat e Cent r al Monument Det ai l .............................
Typi cal Cent r al Monument Pl aza ................................
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Per i pher al Mar ker s ............................................
Pi ct ogr aphi c Pr esent at i on of Bi ohazar dous
Caut i on Message ...............................................
LI ST OF TABLES
Summar y o f Message Level s .....................................
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1 THE HUMAN I NTERFERENCE I SSUE
I
1.1 I NTRODUCTI ON
For near l y t wo decades t he Uni t ed St at es gover nment has been eval uat i ng
pot ent i al concept s f or t he per manent di sposal of hi gh- l evel r adi oact i ve wast es.
The l eadi ng cont ender of t he opt i ons consi der ed by t he Uni t ed St at es and by
f or ei gn gover nment s has been t he sol i di f i cat i on of wast es i nt o a r el at i vel y
i nsol ubl e f or mand t he i nt er ment of t hose sol i di f i ed wast es i nsi de l ar ge r ock
f or mat i ons sever al hundr ed met er s bel ow t he ear t h' s sur f ace ( deep geol ogi c
di sposal ) . The r ock f or mat i on t hat i s chosen f or di sposal woul d be at a dept h
and l ocat i on r el at i vel y f r ee f r omci r cul at i ng gr ound wat er i n or der t o mi ni mi ze
t he l i kel i hood of wast e movement f r omt he pl ace of bur i al .
Consi der abl e ef f or t s have been devot ed t o l ocat i ng r ock f or mat i ons wi t h
sui t abl e geol ogi c, t her mal - mechani cal , geochemi cal , and hydr ol ogi c pr oper t i es so
t hat :
1.
2. I f such cont act occur r ed, t he wast e woul d be r el eased r el at i vel y sl owl y
Ci r cul at i ng gr ound wat er woul d be unl i kel y t o cont act t he wast e.
( i f at al l ) i nt o t he gr ound wat er .
Tr anspor t t i me of t he wast e f r omt he poi nt of bur i al t o pot ent i al
poi nt s wher e wast es coul d cont act humans woul d be suf f i ci ent l y l ong so
t hat di l ut i on, r adi oact i ve decay, and adsor pt i on or pr eci pi t at i on of
r adi onucl i des i n t he geol ogi c f or mat i ons al ong t he gr ound- wat er pat hway
woul d r esul t i n very l ow, i f . any, doses t o humans.
3.
The pr edomi nant st r at egy i n sel ect i ng wast e di sposal si t es and desi gni ng
wast e di sposal syst ems has been t o use mul t i pl e bar r i er s agai nst wast e r el ease
t o achi eve i t ems ( 1) t hr ough (3) above, . Fur t her ef f or t has gone i nt o t he
char act er i zat i on of sever al pot ent i al host r ock f or mat i ons t hr oughout t he Uni t ed
St at es. Si mi l ar l y, consi der abl e ef f or t has gone i nt o t he devel opment of wast e
f or ms wi t h l ow l each char act er i st i cs and wast e packages t hat pr ovi de hi gh i nt eg-
r i t y and hi gh r esi st ance t o cor r osi on.
The Ci vi l i an Radi oact i ve Wast e Management ( CRWM) pr ogr am ( f or mer l y t he
Nat i onal Wast e Ter mi nal St or age [ NWTS] pr ogr am) , under t he di r ect i on of t he
Uni t ed St at es Depar t ment o f Ener gy (DOE), has t he r esponsi bi l i t y f or t he
i dent i f i cat i on and devel opment of hi gh- l evel wast e di sposal syst ems wi t hi n t he
Uni t ed St at es. At pr esent , t he CRWM pr ogr am i s f ocused on f our pr i me medi a:
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basal t i c r ocks i n t he nor t hwest er n por t i on of t he Uni t ed St at es, geol ogi c t uf f
i n t he sout hwest er n por t i on of t he Uni t ed St at es, bedded and domal r ock sal t i n
t he sout heast er n and sout her n cent r al por t i ons of t he Uni t ed St at es, and gr a-
ni t i c r ocks i n t he nor t h cent r al , nor t heast er n, and sout heast er n por t i ons of t he
Uni t ed St at es.
t he above- ment i oned r ock t ypes of f er a hi gh pr obabi l i t y of pr ovi di ng adequat e
i sol at i on of t he r adi oact i ve wast es over t he l ong t i me per i ods dur i ng whi ch such
i sol at i on i s requi red. *
Si mi l ar l y, st udi es of pot ent i al wast e f or ms and wast e package desi gns have
r esul t ed i n package conf i gur at i ons whi ch appear capabl e of pr ovi di ng l ow r adi o-
nucl i de r el ease r at es f r omwast e packages t o t he gr ound wat er , shoul d cont act
occur as ment i oned i n I t em2 pr evi ousl y.
di sposal syst ems ( geol ogi c r eposi t or i es) f or t he syst ems pr esent l y under consi d-
er at i on r esul t i n a ver y hi gh l i kel i hood of successf ul wast e i sol at i on and t he
cont i nued pr ot ect i on of humans. Anal yses of pot ent i al r eposi t or y syst ems have
shown t hat adequat e l evel s of i sol at i on shoul d cont i nue i n spi t e of pot ent i al
unt owar d geol ogi c, ext r at er r est r i al , and l ong- t er mcl i mat i c event s, or pr ocesses
t hat coul d adver sel y act on r eposi t or y syst ems.
The st udi es wi t hi n t he CRWM pr ogr amhave i ndi cat ed t hat al l of
The combi nat i on of si t i ng and engi neer i ng f act or s whi ch char act er i ze wast e
1. 2 HUMAN I NTERFERENCE
The successf ul i sol at i on of hi gh- l evel r adi oact i ve wast es over l ong per i ods
of t i me, however , r equi r es not onl y t hat t he wast es be unaf f ect ed by nat ur al
event s and pr ocesses, but al so t hat wast e i sol at i on be sat i sf act or i l y i ndepen-
dent of f ut ur e act i vi t i es of humans.
number of i ndi vi dual s and or gani zat i ons t hat at some t i me af t er t he r eposi t or y
has been seal ed, per haps f ar i n t he f ut ur e, humans may engage i n some t ype of
act i vi t y at or near t he r eposi t or y si t e t hat woul d cause wast e i sol at i on t o be
Consi der abl e concer n has been voi ced by a
*I sol at i on means segr egat i ng wast es f r omt he accessi bl e envi r onment ( bi ospher e)
t o t he ext ent r equi r ed t o meet appl i cabl e r adi ol ogi cal per f or mance obj ect i ves,
e. g. , U. S. Envi r onment al Pr ot ect i on Agency ( EPA) or U.S. Nucl ear Regul at or y
Commi ssi on ( NRC) st andar ds. I sol at i on per i ods of sever al t housand year s ar e
gener al l y consi der ed adequat e t o r educe most r adi oact i ve speci es t o saf e l evel s
( DOE, 1980).
3
sever el y di mi ni shed ( DOE, 1980). Ther e ar e t wo basi c t ypes of human i nt er -
f er ence act i vi t i es t hat ar e of concer n, di r ect i nt er f er ence and i ndi r ect
i nt er f er ence.
Di r ect i nt er f er ence act i vi t i es ar e t hose t hat woul d somehow br each t he
The most commonl y act ual r eposi t or y f aci l i t y and i ni t i at e a wast e r el ease.
hypot hesi zed f or mof di r ect i nt er f er ence i s di r ect i nt r usi on i nt o a seal ed
r eposi t or y by means of a shaf t or bor ehol e whi l e expl or i ng f or , or at t empt i ng
t o r ecover , r esour ces ( Fi gur e 1-1). Di r ect i nt r usi on coul d r ange f r oma
bor ehol e passi ng t hr ough t he r eposi t or y and est abl i shi ng hydr ol ogi c cont i nui t y
wi t h one or mor e aqui f er syst ems, t o t he act ual mi ni ng by convent i onal or
sol ut i on t echni ques of nat ur al l y occur r i ng mat er i al s i n t he r eposi t or y r ock
f or mat i on.
di st ance f r omwher e wast es ar e act ual l y empl aced ( i . e. , of f si t e) , but t hat
coul d adver sel y af f ect wast e cont ai nment or i sol at i on (e. g. , shor t - cut t he
hydr ol ogi c t r anspor t path).
i nt er f er ence event s. However , as st at ed i n t he U.S. Depar t ment of Ener gy' s
St at ement of Posi t i on on t he U.S. Nucl ear Regul at or y Commi ssi on Wast e Conf i -
dence Rul emaki ng ( DOE, 1980), t he r i sks f r omwar , t er r or i sm, or sabot age
shoul d not be si gni f i cant due t o t he dept h, desi gn, and di f f i cul t y of access
of a seal ed r eposi t or y. For exampl e, al t hough a r eposi t or y coul d be sever el y
damaged by a di r ect at t ack wi t h power f ul ( nucl ear ) weapons, t he i ndi r ect
ef f ect s on peopl e of such an at t ack, due t o r el eases of r adi oact i vi t y f r omt he
r eposi t or y, woul d be much smal l er t han t he di r ect damage i nf l i ct ed by such
weapons. Si mi l ar l y, t he dept h of t he r eposi t or y, t he r el at i ve i mmobi l i t y of
r adi onucl i des wi t hi n t he wast e f or m, and t he di st r i but i on of wast e packages
wi t hi n t he l ar ge vol ume of r ock compi i si ng t he r eposi t or y woul d make post -
cl osur e t er r or i st or sabot age act i vi t i es bot h unl i kel y and i nef f ect i ve. *
Reposi t or i es shoul d, t her ef or e, be unat t r act i ve t ar get s f or war , sabot age, or
t er r or i sm.
I ndi r ect i nt er f er ence r ef er s t o act i vi t i es t hat coul d t ake pl ace at some
War , t er r or i sm, and sabot age have al so been post ul at ed as pot ent i al human
I
*Each wast e package woul d be i ndi vi dual l y seal ed i n t he r ock f or mat i on, maki ng
each package r el at i vel y i ndependent of any ot her package.
Impermeable Zone
Repository
Host Rock
Impermeable
Zone
Confined
Aquifer
Impermeable
Basement Rock
FIGURE 1-1. DIRECT INTRUSION BY EXPLORATORY DRILLING AND RESULTING CONNECTION OF AQUIFERS
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1. 3 SI GNI FI CANCE OF HUMAN I NTERFERENCE ACTI VI TI ES
The si gni f i cance of pot ent i al human i nt er f er ence act i vi t i es i s measur ed
by t he pot ent i al t hose act i vi t i es ar e cal cul at ed t o have f or i ncr easi ng t he
r adi ol ogi cal dose t o humans f r omt he r eposi t or y.
r eposi t or i es of f er a r el at i vel y passi ve f or mof pr ot ect i on f r omt he empl aced
r adi oact i ve wast e; i . e. , t he combi nat i on of t he r ock mass, t he hydr ol ogy, t he
r eposi t or y desi gn, and t he wast e f or mwi l l be chosen t o i mpede t he di ssol ut i on
and mi gr at i on of r adi oact i ve wast e f or a wel l - desi gned and pr oper l y si t ed
r eposi t or y syst em. The r el ease of any wast es t o t he bi ospher e i n si gni f i cant
amount s i s unl i kel y; t he i ncr ease i n r adi oact i vi t y i n t he bi ospher e, i f any,
woul d be ver y smal l compar ed wi t h r adi oact i vi t y l evel s f r omnat ur al l y occur -
r i ng sour ces (DOE, 1980).
been per f or med on hypot het i cal r eposi t or y syst ems. The r esul t s var y wi del y
dependi ng upon t he par amet er s used, t he physi cal pr ocesses t aken i nt o account ,
and t he pur pose of t he anal ysi s.
(e. g. , usi ng sol ubi l i t i es, ci r cul at i on r at es, and geomet r i es r epr esent at i ve of
cur r ent sol ut i on mi ni ng pr act i ces) , have r esul t ed i n cal cul at ed doses t hat
wer e a f r act i on of t he nat ur al backgr ound dose, usual l y a f ew mi l l i r ems or
t ens of mi l l i r ems ( Of f i ce of Nucl ear Wast e I sol at i on [ ONWI ] , 1981). Wher e
assumed human i nt er f er ence scenar i os r esul t ed i n wast e r el eases t o an aqui f er
syst em, cal cul at ed doses t o humans ar e nor mal l y f r act i ons of a mi l l i r em.
As di scussed pr evi ousl y,
Over t he past sever al year s, var i ous anal yses of human i nt er f er ence have
Anal yses per f or med on a r eal i st i c basi s
I n
al l cases, t he act ua
dependent wi t h "r eal
doses.
Al t hough t he ca
r el at i vel y smal l f or
human i nt er f er ence m
magni t ude of t he cal cul at ed doses i s st r ongl y assumpt i on
st i c" anal yses gener al l y r esul t i ng i n r el at i vel y l ow
cul at ed r el eases r esul t i ng f r omhuman i nt er f er ence ar e
r ea; i st i c and even r easonabl y conser vat i ve anal yses,
anal yses due t o t he r el at
1 be t he domi nant cont r i but or t o post - cl osur e r i sk
ve i mmuni t y of r eposi t or y syst ems t o nat ur al l y
i nduced r el eases.
6
1.4 PROTECTI NG AGAI NST HUMAN I NTERFERENCE
n
The pr ot ect i on af f or ded by t h
t he r eposi t or y si t e i s expect ed t o
r el ease of r adi onucl i des t o gr ound
cont act i s due t o nat ur al or human
hypot het i cal syst ems show t he l i ke
w
r eposi t or y desi gn, t he wast e package, and
adequat el y mi t i gat e t he consequences of t he
wat er , whet her t he gr ound- wat er / wast e
i nduced causes. I nsof ar as anal yses of
i hood of human i nt er f er ence t o be gr eat er
t han t he l i kel i hood of nat ur al event s or pr ocesses br eachi ng a r eposi t or y
syst em, however , pr udence di ct at es t hat met hods di r ect ed at r educi ng t he
l i kel i hood of such i nt er f er ence be eval uat ed.
The gener al soci et al t r end of cont i nuous t echni cal advancement makes i t
unl i kel y t hat human i nt er f er ence coul d be pr ecl uded by desi gn measur es; i . e. ,
t echni cal advances ar e l i kel y t o r ender pr ot ect i ve syst ems put i n pl ace by one
gener at i on vul ner abl e t o t he t echnol ogy of subsequent gener at i ons. I f f ut ur e
gener at i ons el ect t o appl y t hei r t echnol ogy t o gai ni ng access t o t he wast e
r eposi t or y, t hey ar e l i kel y t o succeed wi t h r easonabl e pl anni ng and at con-
si der abl e cost ( see Sect i on 2, gr ound r ul e 2).
has t aken t he posi t i on t hat : ' I . . . al t hough t hi s gener at i on bear s t he
r esponsi bi l i t y f or pr ot ect i ng f ut ur e soci et i es f r omt he wast e t hat i t cr eat es,
f ut ur e soci et i es must assume t he r esponsi bi l i t y f or any r i sks whi ch ar i se f r om
del i ber at e and i nf or med act s whi ch t hey choose t o per f or m" ( DOE, 1980,
p. 11-189).
concept of r el eases f r omt he r eposi t or y t aki ng pl ace because t hose soci et i es
t hat caused or coul d be af f ect ed by t he r el eases wer e uni nf or med.
as i t s mai n f ocus t he r educt i on of t he l i kel i hood of uni nf or med human i nt er -
f er ence wi t h r eposi t or y syst ems. Ther e ar e t hr ee pr i mar y mechani sms f or
r educi ng t he l i kel i hood of human i nt er f er ence.
i ncent i ve f or human i nt er f er ence, (2) desi gni ng t he r eposi t or y t o i ncr ease t he
di f f i cul t y of i nt er f er ence, and ( 3 ) communi cat i ng t he exi st ence of t he r eposi -
t or y t o gener at i ons f ar i nt o t he f ut ur e.
r epor t , t he t ask f or ce f ocused on t he t hi r d mechani sm.
l ogi c used by t he t ask f or ce t o anal yze t he pr obl emand t o ar r i ve at i t s
r ecommendat i ons ar e di scussed i n Sect i on 2 of t hi s r epor t .
The U.S. Depar t ment of Ener gy
However , at t he hear t of t he human i nt er f er ence i ssue i s t he
Thi s t ask f or ce endor ses t he Depar t ment ' s posi t i on and, t her ef or e, adopt s
These ar e ( 1) r educi ng t he
For t he r easons di scussed i n t hi s
The appr oach and t he
7
2 HUMAN I NTERFERENCE TASK FORCE APPROACH AND FI NDI NGS
2.1 HUMAN I NTERFERENCE TASK FORCE APPROACH
The U.S. Depar t ment of Ener gy ( DOE) convened t he Human I nt er f er ence Task
For ce i n 1980.
or gani zat i ons ( see Appendi x 6 ) . Thei r exper t i se i ncl uded pol i t i cal sci ence,
soci ol ogy, envi r onment al sci ences, l aw, hi gh- l evel wast e management , nucl ear
r egul at i on, and nucl ear engi neer i ng. The gr oup devel oped t he over al l
anal yt i cal l ogi c and met hods f or addr essi ng t he human i nt er f er ence i ssue.
Addi t i onal ar eas of exper t i se consi der ed cr i t i cal t o t he anal ysi s wer e
i dent i f i ed, and i n t hose di sci pl i nes exper t s whose wor k seemed par t i cul ar l y
r el evant wer e consul t ed. The ar eas of exper t i se i dent i f i ed i ncl uded
l i ngui st i cs, semi ot i cs, ant hr opol ogy, behavi or al psychol ogy, publ i c pol i cy,
nonver bal communi cat i on, mat er i al s sci ence, cl i mat ol ogy, and ar chaeol ogy.
anal ysi s of human i nt er f er ence i ssues. Af t er consi der abl e di scussi on, t he
t ask f or ce r eached a consensus t hat a l ogi c f l ow di agr am( see Fi gur e 2- 1,
p. 13) pr esent ed a r easonabl e and st r uct ur ed appr oach t o devel opi ng and
anal yzi ng t he i ssues.
pr esent at i on of t he many f act or s i nvol ved i n anal yzi ng human i nt er f er ence and
I t consi st s of a gr oup of exper t s sel ect ed f r omsever al
A var i et y of met hods wer e consi der ed by t he t ask f or ce i n devel opi ng t he
The l ogi c f l ow f or mat chosen pr ovi ded a cl ear
pr ovi ded di r ect i on i n devel opi ng measur es t o r esol ve t hose i ssues. That
appr oach and t he subsequent act i vi t i es under t aken i n i t s i mpl ement at i on have
been r evi ewed by peer s r epr esent i ng r el evant t echni cal di sci pl i nes and f ound,
t hus f ar , t o be r easonabl e.
Bef or e di scussi ng t he l ogi c f l ow f or mat , however , t he pr emi ses boundi ng
t hi s st udy or "gr ound r ul es" must be exami ned.
2. 2 P REMI SES BOUNDI NG THE STUDY
I n devel opi ng t he appr oach i n t hi s r epor t ; t he t ask f or ce f or mul at ed
basi c gr ound r ul es and assumpt i ons t o r easonabl y bound t he i ssue of human
i nt er f er ence.
obj ect i ves f or si t i ng and devel opi ng a hi gh- l evel wast e r eposi t or y as wel l as
wi t h exi st i ng and pr oposed r egul at or y r equi r ement s. The gr ound r ul es, assump-
t i ons, and r el at ed consi der at i ons used by t he t ask f or ce ar e di scussed bel ow.
The gr ound r ul es and assumpt i ons ar e consi st ent wi t h pr oposed
8
1. Pr esent soci et y' s r esponsi bi l i t y i s t o di spose of r adi oact i ve wast es
i n a manner t hat i s saf e, i s envi r onment al l y accept abl e, and does not r equi r e
l ong- t er mmai nt enance or sur vei l l ance. Thi s gr ound r ul e i s consi st ent wi t h
t he obj ect i ves i n t he U.S. Depar t ment of Ener gy' s St at ement of Posi t i on i n t he
U.S. Nucl ear Regul at or y Commi ssi on ( NRC) Wast e Conf i dence Rul emaki ng ( DOE,
1981) and wi t h a pr oposed U.S. Envi r onment al Pr ot ect i on Agency ( EPA) cr i t er i on
t hat woul d l i mi t r el i ance on act i ve i nst i t ut i onal cont r ol s t o a 100- year
per i od af t er r epos
A pr emi se f or
a t angi bl e benef i t
pose of t he wast e
t or y cl osur e ( EPA, 1982a).
t hi s gr ound r ul e i s t hat si nce pr esent soci et y i s der i vi ng
f r omnucl ear power pr oduct i on, and, si nce t he means t o di s-
s wi t hi n t he t echni cal capabi l i t y of t he pr esent soci et y,
t hen a mor al obl i gat i on exi st s f or pr esent soci et y t o saf el y di spose of i t s
wast e. Thi s obl i gat i on i ncl udes t aki ng r easonabl e st eps t o r educe t he l i kel i -
hood of i nadver t ent i nt er act i ons bet ween f ut ur e humans and t he r eposi t or y.
The obj ect i ve i s to mi ni mi ze, t o t he ext ent pr act i cabl e, t he l i kel i hood t hat a
f ut ur e human woul d unknowi ngl y decr ease t he ef f ect i veness of t he r eposi t or y.
Reposi t or y syst ems must be si t ed and desi gned t o mi t i gat e t he consequences of
bot h nat ur al and human- i nduced r educt i ons i n t he ef f ect i veness of wast e
cont ai nment or i sol at i on.
l i kel i hood and pot ent i al consequences of human i nt er f er ence i s pr er equi si t e t o
assur i ng any subsequent exposur es of f ut ur e humans t o be at as l ow as i s
r easonabl y achi evabl e l evel s.
r eposi t or y, i t s cont ent s, and t he r i sks of i nt er f er ence, bear t he f ul l
r esponsi bi l i t y f or any of t hei r act i ons t hat can r easonabl y be expect ed t o
adver sel y af f ect t he per f or mance of t he r eposi t or y.
consi st ent wi t h t he U.S. Depar t ment of Ener gy' s St at ement of Posi t i on i n t he
NRC Wast e Conf i dence Rul emaki ng ( DOE, 1980).
t hi s gr ound r ul e.
wi t hst and a det er mi ned, per haps t echni cal l y super i or , f ut ur e soci et al ef f or t
t o over come i t . Second, al t hough cer t ai n pot ent i al l y val uabl e mat er i al s
(e. g. , heavy met al s i n hi gh- l evel wast e) may be deemed unsui t abl e f or
r ecycl i ng at pr esent due t o economi c or pol i t i cal r easons, t he l egi t i mat e use
of such mat er i al s by f ut ur e gener at i ons shoul d not be pr ecl uded.
soci et i es el ect i ng t o t ake act i ons t hat woul d knowi ngl y decr ease t he
Adopt i ng r easonabl e measur es t o r educe bot h t he
2. Fut ur e soci et i es wi t h knowl edge of t he exi st ence and l ocat i on of t he
Thi s gr ound r ul e i s al so
Ther e ar e t wo basi c pr emi ses f or
Fi r st , i t i s i mpr obabl e t hat any st r uct ur e or syst emwoul d
However ,
9
ef f ect i veness of t he r eposi t or y i n i sol at i ng wast e ( by such measur es as
at t empt i ng t o r ecover t he wast e or t o modi f y t he gr ound- wat er f l ow r egi me or
chemi cal composi t i on) must assume r esponsi bi l i t y f or any r i sks t hat r esul t
f r omt hose act i ons t o ei t her t hei r gener at i on or l at er gener at i ons.
i sol at i on syst emt hat woul d cont i nue t o f unct i on i f l ef t undi st ur bed, by
avoi di ng pr obabl e causes of di st ur bance, and by t r ansmi t t i ng knowl edge of t he
r eposi t or y t o f ut ur e gener at i ons, t hus al l owi ng t hemt o pl an t hei r act i vi t i es
accor di ngl y. The pr i nci pal concer n i s t o avoi d a si t uat i on wher e i nt er f er ence
act i vi t i es t ake pl ace wi t h no, or i nsuf f i ci ent , knowl edge of t he exi st ence and
si gni f i cance of t he r eposi t or y so t hat t he consequences pr oceed unchecked.
3. Pr esent soci et y shoul d make al l r easonabl e ef f or t s t o t r ansmi t t o
f ut ur e soci et i es i nf or mat i on about t he r eposi t or y, i t s cont ent s, and t he r i sks
of i nt er f er ence. A vi rt ual ' l y endl ess r ange of f ut ur e condi t i ons on ear t h,
f ut ur e cust oms and l evel s of t echnol ogy, and f ut ur e r esour ce needs can be
post ul at ed. Because r eposi t or y desi gn cannot wi t h cer t ai nt y pr event human
i nt er f er ence nor can t he pot ent i al mot i vat i ons f or i nt er f er ence act i ons be
known wi t h cer t ai nt y, al l r easonabl e ef f or t s shoul d be made t o devel op and
i mpl ement l ong- l ast i ng mechani sms f or t r ansmi t t i ng t o f ut ur e gener at i ons
i nf or mat i on about t he r eposi t or y, i t s cont ent s, and t he pr esent l y per cei ved
danger s of i nt er f er ence. The mechani sm f or t r ansmi t t i ng such i nf or mat i on
shoul d be desi gned t o per si st f or as l ong as possi bl e i n or der t o cont i nuousl y
pr event i nt r usi ons i nt o t he r eposi t or y, i .e., i nt r usi ons t hat woul d not have
occurred had the existence and location of the repository been known. This
gr ound r ul e i s consi st ent wi t h t he phi l osophy adopt ed by t he NRC i n 10 CFR 60
(NRC, 1983) and pr epar ed by t he EPA i n 40 CFR 191 (EPA, 1982a).
The f ocus of t hi s r epor t i s on f ut ur e soci et i es havi nq t he t echnol ogy
r equi r ed t o di sr upt a r eposi t or y.
t echnol ogy ar e i mpor t ant i n devel opi ng measur es t o i nhi bi t human i nt er f er ence.
These i ncl ude: t he gener al l evel of soci et al knowl edge and t echnol ogy, and
t he speci f i c l evel of knowl edge or awar eness of t he r eposi t or y and i t s
cont ent s.
Thi s soci et y' s obl i gat i on shoul d be di schar ged by pr ovi di ng a secur e
4.
Two aspect s of l evel of knowl edge/
Pot ent i al st at es of f ut ur e soci et al knowl edge/ t echnol ogy r epr esent a
cont i nuumt hat r anges f r omi nf er i or t o f ar advanced. I f t echnol ogy
si gni f i cant l y r egr esses, t he abi l i t y t o penet r at e t hr ough l ayer s of
sat ur at ed* r ock t o t he dept h of t he r eposi t or y wi l l not exi st , maki ng i t
unl i kel y t hat a r eposi t or y coul d be si gni f i cant l y af f ect ed. Consequent l y, of
maj or concer n i n t hi s st udy i s a gener al l evel of soci et al knowl edge and
t echnol ogy suf f i ci ent t o di sr upt a mi ned geol ogi c r eposi t or y.
l evel of knowl edge and t echnol ogy may var y dependi ng on t he met hod of
i nt er f er ence ( see gr ound r ul e 5).
i nf er i or l evel of knowl edge woul d r equi r e t he t echnol ogy necessar y t o
successf ul l y penet r at e sever al hundr ed met er s of over l yi ng st r at a, i ncl udi ng
aqui f er s, t o r each t he r eposi t or y. However , i ndi r ect i nt er f er ence act i vi t i es
may be possi bl e by a soci et y wi t h knowl edge and t echnol ogy i nf er i or t o t hat
r equi r ed f or di r ect i nt er f er ence.
exampl e, t hr ough l ar ge- scal e i r r i gat i on or r eser voi r pr oj ect s i n t he
r eposi t or y vi ci ni t y whi ch adver sel y af f ect gr ound- wat er f l ow pat t er ns over
ext ended per i ods of t i me.
soci et i es wi t h advanced knowl edge and t echnol ogy i s l i mi t l ess.
Thi s mi ni mum
Di r ect i nt er f er ence by a soci et y wi t h an
I ndi r ect i nt er f er ence coul d occur , f or
The r ange of possi bl e i nt er f er ence act i vi t i es, di r ect and i ndi r ect , f or
As f or ecast s
penet r at e f ar t her i nt o t he f ut ur e, t he r ange of pot ent i al i nt er f er ence
act i vi t i es i ncr eases as knowl edge and t echnol ogy advance. For t unat el y, t he
knowl edge of how t o pr ot ect agai nst t he r el ease or i mpact s of bur i ed wast es,
r adi oact i ve or ot her wi se, shoul d l i kewi se i ncr ease. Fi nal l y, one cannot
compl et el y di scount t he pr obabi l i t y of an hi st or i cal cont i nui t y wi t h pr esent
soci et y ( and i t s l evel of knowl edge and t echnol ogy) and cont i nued knowl edge of
t he r eposi t or y, wi t h or wi t hout t he measur es di scussed i n t hi s r epor t .
t he conduct of t he i nt er f er ence i n sever al ways. For exampl e, any act i on i n
whi ch mat er i al s coul d be br ought t o t he sur f ace f r omt he r eposi t or y i s l i kel y
t o be moni t or ed mor e cl osel y, i f t he pr esence of t he r eposi t or y i s known.
Si mi l ar l y, act i ons l i kel y t o r el ease r adi oact i vi t y t o t he envi r onment woul d be
avoi ded. Thus, i n cases wher e communi cat i ons ar e ef f ect i ve i n r ai si ng t he
l evel of a f ut ur e soci et y' s awar eness of t he r eposi t or y or t he wast e, t he
pr event i on of a di sr upt i on of t he r eposi t or y coul d be enhanced, or t he conse-
quences of a di sr upt i on l essened.
The l evel of awar eness of t he r eposi t or y and/ or t he wast e mi ght al t er
The l i mi t i ng case woul d be one i n whi ch
*The pr esence of gr ound wat er compl i cat es t he pr ocess of ver y deep mi ni ng.
Sever al
r eposi t or y concept s under eval uat i on woul d pl ace t he r eposi t or y bel ow -
one or mor e wat er - bear i ng st r at a, however , whi ch coul d hel p pr event human
i nt er f er ence.
t her e i s
I n t hi s
mi t i gat e
11
no awar eness of t he r eposi t or y and al l communi cat i ons have f ai l ed.
i mi t i ng case, onl y t he desi gn f eat ur es and si t e char act er i st i cs wou
t he ef f ect s of i nt er f er ence.
Thi s gr ound r ul e i s consi st ent wi t h t he NRC' s phi l osophy r egar di ng t he
cr edi bi l i t y of ant i ci pat ed pr ocesses and event s r el at ed t o human i nt r usi on
( NRC, 1983).
be ef f ect i ve f or bot h di r ect and i ndi r ect i nt er f er ence act i vi t i es. Ei t her
5. The met hod used t o communi cat e i nf or mat i on t o f ut ur e soci et i es must
d
di r ect or r emot e i nt er f er ence act i vi t i es coul d i nf l uence t he ef f ect i veness of
t he r eposi t or y.
on communi cat i on t echni ques t hat ar e appl i cabl e f or ei t her t ype of i nt er -
f er ence.
under t ake act i vi t i es t hat ar e pot ent i al l y di sr upt i ve ( dr i l l i ng, mi ni ng, et c. )
may t ake a var i et y of f or ms and cover a l ar ge r ange of t echnol ogi cal capabi l -
i t i es. The mechani sms f or al er t i ng such i ndi vi dual s shoul d be suf f i ci ent l y
di ver se t o cover a r easonabl e ar r ay of pr e- i nt er f er enee sur vey opt i ons (e. g. ,
gr ound sur veys, ai r bor ne sur veys, vi sual or geophysi cal sur vey t echni ques) .
10, 000 year s af t er r eposi t or y cl osur e.
decr easi ng degr ee of r i sk of r adi oact i ve exposur e over t i me and uncer t ai nt i es
due t o nat ur al phenomena. Fi r st , t he r adi oact i vi t y hazar d associ at ed wi t h t he
The means used t o t r ansmi t knowl edge, t her ef or e, must f ocus
For exampl e, t he sur vei l l ance met hods used by per sons pl anni ng t o
6. The emphasi s f or t r ansmi t t i ng i nf or mat i on wi l l f ocus on t he f i r st
Thi s per i od of t i me consi der s bot h t he
nucl ear wast e di mi ni shes over t i me.
uct s occur s dur i ng t he f i r st 1, 000 year s af t er cl osur e.
t r ansur ani c el ement s woul d r each l evel s t hat appr oxi mat e backgr ound r adi at i on
af t er t en t o t hi r t y t housand year s. Second, t he t i me f r ame consi der s t he
uncer t ai nt y i n eval uat i ons due t o cl i mat i c changes ( heat i ng, cool i ng, and
r ai nf al l ) on ear t h over per i ods of t housands of year s.
St at ement of Posi t i on on t he NRC Wast e Conf i dence Rul emaki ng (DOE, 1980).
i nt er est .
l anguages wi l l be r epl aced or si gni f i cant l y modi f i ed, maki ng any si ngl e
l anguage unr el i abl e by i t sel f as an ef f ect i ve devi ce f or communi cat i on.
Rel at i vel y r api d decay of f i ssi on pr od-
Sl ower decayi ng
Thi s per i od o f t i me i s consi st ent wi t h t he U. S. Depar t ment of Ener gy' s
7. Pr esent l anguaqes ar e l i kel y t o change over t he t i me f r ame of
One can r easonabl y post ul at e t hat over a 10, 000- year t i me f r ame,
8. A basi c knowl edge o f at omi c physi cs i s l i kel y t o be possessed by
ol ogy as known t oday f ut ur e soci et i es. Al t hough nucl ear t echno ogy and r ad
12
may not be used by di st ant f ut ur e gener at i ons, t he knowl edge of basi c at omi c
physi cs i s unl i kel y t o be l ost by a soci et y t hat has t he t echnol ogi cal
capabi l i t y t o di sr upt a r eposi t or y. Basi c at omi c physi cs (e. g. , at omi c
st r uct ur e, nucl ear i nt er act i ons wi t h mat t er ) i s an essent i al par t of many
sci ences and t echnol ogi es ( communi cat i on, chemi st r y, medi ci ne, el ect r oni cs,
etc. ) and i s l i kel y t o r emai n a basi c bui l di ng bl ock f or t echnol ogi es f ar i nt o
t he f ut ur e.
2.3 LOGI C FOR ANALYZI NG HUMAN I NTERFERENCE POTENTI AL
Wi t h t he gr ound r ul es i n mi nd, t he anal yt i c l ogi c st r uct ur e can be
di scussed. The anal yt i cal l ogi c shown i n Fi gur e 2-1, whi ch i s di scussed i n
det ai l t hr oughout t hi s document , i s t he f r amewor k o f pr emi ses, assumpt i ons,
and r equi r ement s f or t he st udy of human i nt er f er ence. Fi gur e 2-1 i ndi cat es
condi t i ons t hat woul d need t o be met t o pr ovi de l ong- t er mpr ot ect i on agai nst
human i nt er f er ence. The t wo most basi c el ement s i n t he l ogi c ar e t o pr ot ect
f ut ur e soci et i es by (1)
r educi ng t he l i kel i hood of human i nt er f er ence, and (2)
r educi ng t he consequences of human i nt er f er ence. The l i kel i hood can be
r educed by consi der i ng human i nt er f er ence f act or s
i n si t i ng a r eposi t or y, by
ef f ect i vel y communi cat i ng war ni ng messages t o f ut ur e soci et i es, and by
desi gni ng r eposi t or y syst ems t o make physi cal access possi bl e onl y wi t h gr eat
di f f i cul t y.
can i ncor por at e nat ur al and engi neer ed bar r i er s, i ncl udi ng t he wast e package,
engi neer ed r eposi t or y backf i l l s and seal s, and nat ur al i sol at i on f eat ur es
pr ovi ded by t he sur r oundi ng geol ogi c envi r onment . For t he most par t , t he
measur es al r eady pl anned and document ed i n Ci vi l i an Radi oact i ve Wast e
Management ( CRWM) l i t er at ur e t o mi t i gat e t he ef f ect s of nat ur al phenomena
woul d be ef f ect i ve i n mi t i gat i ng t he consequences of phenomena i nduced by
human i nt er f er ence. Ampl e i nf or mat i on i s avai l abl e i n t he CRWM l i t er at ur e t o
eval uat e Box 7 i n Fi gur e 2-1:
i n mi t i gat i ng t he consequences of human i nt er f er ence.
To r educe t he consequences of human i nt er f er ence, t he r eposi t or y syst em
t he ef f i cacy of nat ur al and engi neer ed bar r i er s
i ssues of r educi ng t he
at ed consi der at i ons ( Box 4), l i ke1
he maj or par t of Fi gur e 2-1 addr esses t he
hood of human i nt er f er ence by (1) si t e- r e
13 .
L I
. I
c
. I
t t
A 9
f I
FIGURE 2-1. HUMAN INTERFERENCE LOGIC FLOW
? I
r t
r i
- 1
- 7
.I
P- l 1 i .
15
(2) ef f ect i ve communi cat i on ( Box 5), and (3) i mpedi ng access ( Box 6). Si t i ng
and l and use consi der at i ons and r eposi t or y desi gn f act or s t o r educe i ncent i ves
f or i nt er f er ence and t o i mpede access ar e di scussed i n Sect i on 3 and have been
document ed i n ot her CRWM l i t er at ur e. Thi s r epor t emphasi zes l ong- t er m
communi cat i on ( as expanded i n Fi gur e 2-1) as a pr i mar y met hod t o r educe t he
pot ent i al f or human i nt er f er ence.
Thi s r epor t i ndi cat es how t he communi cat i on el ement s i n t he l ogi c di agr am
( Fi gur e 2-1) can be achi eved by appl yi ng an under st andi ng of l i ngui st i cs, psy-
chol ogy, mat er i al s sci ences, ar chaeol ogy, and ot her appr opr i at e di sci pl i nes.
The opt i ons di scussed f or achi evi ng t he el ement s of t he l ogi c di agr ams ar e
used as t he basi s f or one possi bl e r ef er ence communi cat i on syst emat a hypo-
t het i cal si t e ( Sect i on 7) t o i l l ust r at e one possi bl e combi nat i on. Some of t he
measur es descr i bed ar e ext ensi ve and coul d, per haps, be consi der ed excessi ve.
Whet her measur es t o r educe t he l i kel i hood of human i nt er f er ence need be as
ext ensi ve as opt i ons descr i bed i n t hi s r epor t al l ow, i s a mat t er of r egul at or y
di scr et i on, si t e- speci f i c condi t i ons, and f ur t her r esear ch. I n pr act i ce, t he
communi cat i on syst emchosen woul d var y wi t h si t e- speci f i c condi t i ons and
r egul at or y r equi r ement s.
2.4 HUMAN I NTERFERENCE TASK FORCE FI NDI NGS
On t he basi s of i t s st udi es, whi ch have been car r i ed on over a per i od of
appr oxi mat el y t wo year s and whi ch have cul mi nat ed i n t hi s r epor t and sever al
r epor t s pr epar ed by consul t ant s t o t he t ask f or ce, t he t ask f or ce makes t he
f ol l owi ng f i ndi ngs, cat egor i zed i nt o t he ar eas of (1) si t i ng, (2) r eposi t or y
desi gn, (3) communi cat i ons, (4) syst emef f ect i veness, and (5) appl i cabi l i t y.
2.4.1 Si t i ng
Human i nt er f er ence shoul d be consi der ed i n t he si t i ng of r eposi t or i es
f r omt he per spect i ve of i ndi genous nat ur al r esour ces, t he exi st ence of nat ur al
f eat ur es whi ch coul d be used i n mar ki ng t he r eposi t or y, t he pot ent i al f or
f ut ur e l and uses, and t he dept h and geohydr ol ogi cal r egi me whi ch char act er i ze
t he r eposi t or y. Thi s i s consi st ent wi t h pr oposed DOE Si t i ng Gui del i nes ( DOE,
1983) and t he NRC' s hi gh- l evel wast e management r egul at i on, 10 CFR Par t 60
( NRC, 1983).
16
Resour ces
A r eposi t or y shoul d be si t ed t o avoi d necessar y and va uabl e r esour ces
t hat mi ght become at t r act i ve t ar get s f or f ut ur e expl or at i on or r ecover y.
t o uncer t ai nt y r egar di ng t he economi cs of r ecover y and t he r esour ce r equi r e-
ment s of f ut ur e t echnol ogi es, t ot al r el i ance cannot be pl aced on t he avoi dance
of pr esent l y i dent i f i ed r esour ces as a means of pr event i ng human i nt er f er ence.
Si mi l ar l y, t he exi st ence of mar gi nal l y r ecover abl e r esour ces or of r esour ces
t hat ar e wi del y avai l abl e i n ot her l ocat i ons shoul d not be used t o decl ar e a
si t e unsui t abl e; ot her measur es descr i bed i n t hi s r epor t , i n par t i cul ar , t he
communi cat i on measur es, ar e bel i eved by t he t ask f or ce t o pr ove mor e i mpor t ant
t o pr ot ect i ng agai nst human i nt er f er ence t han wi l l t he avoi dance of r esour ces.
Due
Nat ur al Feat ur es
Based on i t s st udi es, t he t ask f or ce pl aces ver y heavy emphasi s on t he
use of l ong- t er mmar ker s t o communi cat e t he exi st ence of a r eposi t or y. As
di scussed i n t he r epor t , mar ker s car ved i nt o exi st i ng r ock out cr oppi ngs or
cl i f f f aces have sur vi ved f or ver y l ong per i ods of t i me. Ot her t hi ngs bei ng
equal , a si t e of f er i ng sur f ace f eat ur es whi ch ar e amenabl e t o t r ansf or mat i on
i nt o l ong- t er mmar ker s shoul d be consi der ed as an advant age.
Land Usage
Fut ur e l and use shoul d be consi der ed f r omt he per spect i ve of avoi di ng
ar eas t hat may l ead t o i ndi r ect i nt er f er ence act i vi t i es such as t he cr eat i on
of r eser voi r s t hat coul d adver sel y af f ect gr ound- wat er f l ow r egi mes.
ver sel y, cer t ai n l and uses coul d hel p pr omot e t he cont i nued knowl edge of t he
r eposi t or y and/ or pr ot ect i on of a r eposi t or y f r omi nt er f er ence. For exampl e,
i f t he r eposi t or y wer e t o be subsequent l y i ncl uded wi t hi n l ands under f eder al
pr ot ect i on f or ot her pur poses (e. g. , nat i onal par k l and*), advant ages mi ght be
Con-
*The pr oposed DOE Si t i ng Gui del i nes (DOE, 1983) woul d consi der si t i ng adj acent
t o an exi st i ng nat i onal park t o be pot ent i al l y adver se.
r eposi t or y i nt o a nat i onal park at some f ut ur e dat e, however , woul d not
vi ol at e t he gui del i nes.
Maki ng an exi st i ng
n
17
r eal i zed r el at i ve t o t he l ong- t er mpr ot ect i on of t he r eposi t or y f r omhuman
i nt er f er ence.
Dept h and Geohydr ol ogi c Regi me
Pr ot ect i on f r omt he ef f ect s o f war , sabat oge, and t er r or i smar e der i ved
l ar gel y by t he di f f i cul t y i n obt ai ni ng access t o t he r eposi t or y, e. g. , pr o-
t ect i on by over bur dens. Si mi l ar l y, i nt er f er ence scenar i os i nvol vi ng t ech-
ni cal l y i nf er i or soci et i es show t hat a mi ni mum l evel of knowl edge i s r equi r ed
t o over come t he pr obl emof gai ni ng access t o t he r eposi t or y hor i zon when
mi ni ng t hr ough wat er - bear i ng st r at a. Ther ef or e, a dept h of sever al hundr ed
met er s and a l ocat i on under wat er - bear i ng st r at a ar e consi der ed advant ageous.
2.4.2 Reposi t or y Desi gn
The r eposi t or y desi gn may be hi ghl y ef f ect i ve i n mi t i gat i ng t he i mpact s
o f human i nt er f er ence act i vi t i es.
i ncor por at ed t o pr ot ect agai nst nat ur al pr ocesses and event s coul d be equal l y
ef f ect i ve agai nst human- i nduced event s.
For exampl e, mul t i pl e bar r i er syst ems
Reposi t or y syst ems shoul d be assessed
on a si t e- speci f i c basi s t o det er mi ne t he t ypes of i nt er f er ence act i vi t i es
t hat coul d be encount er ed and t o ascer t ai n t hat t he r eposi t or y desi gn i ncl udes
f eat ur es t o pr event such scenar i os.
2.4.3 Communi cat i ons
The l i kel i hood of human i nt er f er ence can be r educed by communi cat i ng
knowl edge of t he r eposi t or y t hr ough a mul t i pl i ci t y of communi cat i on
mechani sms.
communi cat i on syst ems.
and abl e t o el i ci t t he desi r ed r esponse.
The capabi l i t y exi st s t o devel op and i mpl ement l ong- t er m
Messages must be dur abl e, det ect abl e, compr ehensi ve,
Message Dur abi 1 i ty
Message dur abi l i t y depends on t he ab
t t he message t o wi t hst and t he env
0 t r ansm
l i t y of t he mat er i al used t o
r onment i n whi ch i t i s pl aced and
1
18
t he mal i ci ous act s of humans.
( si ngl e pi ece) desi gns have been f ound t o be mor e dur abl e t han j oi nt ed
const r uct i on mar ker s due t o t hei r abi l i t y t o wi t hst and t he ef f ect s o f
weat her i ng.
f or r ecycl i ng shoul d r educe economi c i ncent i ves l eadi ng t o human i nt er f er ence
wi t h t he mar ker syst em. Si mi l ar l y, ver y l ar ge mar ker s whi ch ar e di f f i cul t t o
r emove, def ace, or dest r oy ar e consi der ed t o be advant ageous.
Wi t h r egar d t o wr i t t en r ecor ds, l i nen, papyr us, cer ami c mat er i al s,
met al l i c pl at es, and aci d- f r ee paper can be used t o r ecor d messages t oo
compl ex f or i ncl usi on on sur f ace mar ker s.
but may r equi r e a cont r ol l ed envi r onment t o ensur e l ongevi t y.
For per manent onsi t e mar ker s, monol i t hi c
Mar ker mat er i al s havi ng l ow economi c val ue and a poor pot ent i al
Such mat er i al s may be l ong- l i ved
- Det ect abi 1 i t y
Bot h onsi t e and offsite communi cat i on channel s ar e r ecommended t o i n-
cr ease t he l i kel i hood of message sur vi val .
t o be easi l y di st i ngui shabl e wi t h di f f er ent desi gns used f or det ect i on f r om
l and or f r oman el evat ed posi t i on, by di r ect vi sual means or by i nst r ument s.
Of f si t e r ecor ds shoul d be r et ai ned i n a var i et y of f or ms and l ocat i ons t o
pr omot e t hei r con
cal l y l ooki ng f or
Compr ehensi on
Onsi t e mar ker s shoul d be desi gned
ued exi st ence and t hei r det ect i on by per sons not speci f i -
I .
Because t he knowl edge l evel s, backgr ounds, and pur poses of f ut ur e r eader s
ar e unknown, r eposi t or y messages shoul d be desi gned t o convey var yi ng l evel s
of meani ng, f r omr udi ment ar y t o compl ex, and f r omgener al t o speci f i c.
Sever al l evel s of messages ar e r ecommended, r angi ng f r omsymbol i c caut i on
messages t o r easonabl y det ai l ed descr i pt i ons o f what shoul d be avoi ded.
account f or changes i n l anguages over l ong per i ods of t i me, i dent i cal messages
To
Q
shoul d be r epeat ed i n sever al wi del y used l anguages as wel l as i n pi ct ogr aphi c
f orm.
message, t he desi r ed r esponse bei ng one o f t aki ng caut i on pr i or t o engagi ng i n
pot ent i al l y di sr upt i ve act i vi t i es r at her t han f ear of t he r eposi t or y si t e. Of
par t i cul ar use woul d be a message st r uct ur ed t o cause f ut ur e gener at i ons t o
Consi der at i on shoul d be gi ven t o t he r esponse of t he r eader t o t he
19
0 (1) t ake i t upon t hemsel ves t o pr ot ect t he r eposi t or y, usi ng what ever means
ar e most appl i cabl e t o t hei r t i mes, and (2) t o r e- encode t he message t o
account f or f ut ur e l anguage changes whenever necessar y (e. g. , est abl i sh a
message re1 ay system).
Mul t i pl i ci t y
A var i et y of channel s ( t echni ques) shoul d be used f or message t r ans-
mi ssi on t o pr ot ect agai nst dest r uct i on and t o pr omot e det ect i on.
message channel s, opt i ons wor t h consi der i ng i ncl ude:
For onsi t e
0
0 Cent r al mar ker s
0 Ear t hwor ks
0 Messages car ved i nt o nat ur al r ock out cr oppi ngs.
0 Recor d ar chi ves
0 Li br ar i es
0
Per i pher al mar ker s spaced t o be wi t hi n eyesi ght of one anot her
For of f si t e messages, opt i ons wor t h consi der i ng i ncl ude:
I ncl usi on i n r ef er ence books and maps.
2.4.4 Syst emEf f ect i veness
The ef f ect i veness of syst ems and measur es t o pr ot ect agai nst f ut ur e human
i nt er f er ence must be consi der ed on a si t e- speci f i c basi s.
desi gned to wi t hst and a vari et y of ant i ci pat ed condi t i ons and t o r each a
var i et y of pot ent i al r eader s. Det er mi nat i ons of syst emef f ect i veness shoul d
be based on eval uat i ons of t he mul t i pl i ci t y of communi cat i on met hods used and
of t he pr obabl e ef f ect i veness of each measur e as a f unct i on of t i me.
t he use of st ochast i c ( pr obabi l i st i c) t echni ques t o eval uat e syst emef f ec-
t i veness may ent ai l a number of di f f i cul t i es, such t echni ques woul d l i kel y
pr esent a mor e compr ehensi ve and r eal i st i c anal ysi s of syst emef f ect i veness
t han coul d be obt ai ned on a st r i ct l y det er mi ni st i c basi s. The use of f aul t
and event t r ees t o descr i be t he occur r ence of human i nt er f er ence scenar i os
encount er i ng a hi ghl y r edundant communi cat i on syst emwoul d show t he cont i nued
ef f ect i veness of such a syst emeven t hough some el ement s may f ai l .
Syst ems must be
Al t hough
20
2.4.5 Appl i cabi l i t y
Al t hough t he st udi es by t he Human I nt er f er ence Task For ce wer e per f or med
under t he auspi ces of t he f or mer Nat i onal Wast e Ter mi nal St or age pr ogr am,
si gni f i cant i nf er ences can be dr awn r el at i ve t o ot her t ypes of wast e di sposal
act i vi t i es, bot h nucl ear and non- nucl ear .
most i mpor t ant i t emf or pr ot ect i ng agai nst f ut ur e uni nf or med human i nt er -
f er ence act i vi t i es wi t h any t ype of bur i ed bi ohazar dous wast e t o be t he
t r ansmi t t al of an unambi guous, easi l y under st ood message st at i ng, "CAUTI ON -
BI OHAZARDOUS WASTE BURI ED HERE" ( see Sect i on 5).
r ecei ved and under st ood, f ut ur e humans shoul d ( f or r easons o f sel f -
pr eser vat i on) , be encour aged t o ei t her avoi d ar eas so mar ked or t ake st eps t o
l ear n suf f i ci ent addi t i onal i nf or mat i on about t he ar eas so t hat t hey may
saf el y engage i n what ever act i vi t i es t hey deempr udent .
Nucl ear wast e i s but a ver y smal l par t of t he bi ohazar dous wast es bur i ed
t hr oughout t he wor l d.
deemed necessar y f or nucl ear wast e ar e no gr eat er , and per haps l ess, t han t he
pr obl ems t hat need t o be consi der ed f or ot her mor e shal l owl y and r eadi l y
accessi bl e bur i ed wast es havi ng i nf i ni t e l i f et i mes and hi gh bi ol ogi cal r i sk
f act or s.
The gl obal adopt i on of a symbol uni quel y st r uct ur ed t o mean "CAUTI ON -
ar ge number s of t i mes
ghest possi bl e assur ance
r egar dl ess of changes i n
The t ask f or ce consi der s t he si ngl e
Wi t h t hi s si mpl e message,
The pr obl emi nvol ved i n communi cat i ng t he messages
BI OHAZARDOUS WASTE BURI ED HERE" wi l l , because of t he
and l ocat i ons t he symbol woul d be used, pr ovi de t he h
t hat t hi s basi c caut i onar y message wi l l be r emember ed
l anguages, cust oms, and pol i t i cal boundar i es.
The channel s descr i bed i n t hi s r epor t f or t r ansmt t i ng messages wer e
desi gned t o be excessi vel y compr ehensi ve due t o t he hi gh per cei ved r i sk
associ at ed wi t h hi gh- l evel wast e di sposal . The i ncor por at i on of ext r emel y
l ar ge mar ker s and monument s f or ot her bi ohazar dous wast e di sposal gr ounds i s
not r ecommended ( even t hough t he act ual r i sk at t r i but abl e t o t hose wast es may
f ar exceed t he r i sk associ at ed wi t h hi gh- l evel wast e di sposal ) due t o t he ver y
l ar ge economi c i mpact associ at ed wi t h est abl i shi ng such ext ensi ve war ni ng
syst ems. The t ask f or ce bel i eves t hat adequat el y dur abl e mar ker syst ems can
be devel oped t o convey l ong- l ast i ng caut i onar y messages wi t hout unr easonabl e
economi c penal t i es. The syner gi st i c ef f ect of usi ng a uni ver sal caut i onar y
21
0 symbol for all biohazardous waste would provide the needed assurance that
future societies will be aware of the existence of such waste and adopt the
measures they deem necessary to protect themselves and their descendants from
harm.
22
t
3 SI TI NG, LAND USE, AND I NSTI TUTI ONAL CONTROLS
I
f
Var i ous met hods ar e avai l abl e f or r educi ng t he l i kel i hood of human
i nt er f er ence wi t h hi gh- l evel wast e r eposi t or i es. f i gur e 3- 1 i dent i f i es t hr ee
appr oaches t hat have t he pot ent i al f or pr event i ng such di sr upt i on over a l ong
per i od of t i me.
cont r ol s r egar di ng t hei r abi l i t y t o pr event human i nt er f er ence, and i dent i f i es
t he l i mi t at i ons of t hese met hods.
Thi s sect i on exami nes si t i ng, l and use, and i nst i t ut i onal
Li kel i hood can be reduced
by site related considera-
tions t o reduce incentives
Li kel i hood can be reduced
by effective communication
over a long t i me period
Li kel i hood can be reduced
by impeding access t o the
repository
FIGURE 3-1. REDUCING THE LIKELIHOOD OF HUMAN INTERFERENCE
3. 1 SI TI NG CONSI DERATI ONS
Var i ous si t i ng cr i t er i a have been pr oposed by f eder al agenci es and i nt er -
est ed or gani zat i ons (U.S. Nucl ear Regul at or y Commi ssi on (NRC], 1983; U.S.
Envi r onment al Pr ot ect i on Agency [ EPA] , 1982a; U.S. Depar t ment of Ener gy [ DOE] ,
1981; DOE, 1983) t o assi st i n det er mi ni ng accept abl e si t es f or a hi gh- l evel
wast e r eposi t or y.
r adi onucl i de mi gr at i on, di sr upt i on by nat ur al f or ces, and mi ni mi zat i on o f
human exposur e.
t he pr obabi l i t y of human i nt er f er ence.
These cr i t er i a wer e devel oped t o meet t he pr obl ems of
Some of t he cr i t er i a al so di r ect l y and i ndi r ect l y i nf l uence
. . . . . . . -~. -. . - ..~
23
The U. S. Nucl ear Regul at or y Commi ssi on r ul e, 10 CFR 60 ( NRC, 1983)
r equi r es t hat t he r eposi t or y be si t ed on l ands under t he j ur i sdi ct i on and
cont r ol of t he Depar t ment of Ener gy or on l ands per manent l y set asi de f or
r eposi t or y pur poses. I n addi t i on, a cont r ol zone sur r oundi ng t he geol ogi c
oper at i ons ar ea i s t o be est abl i shed. J ur i sdi ct i on and cont r ol of sur f ace and
subsur f ace uses ar e t o be mai nt ai ned t o pr event adver se human act i ons.
r ul es r equi r e i nst i t ut i onal cont r ol s, whi ch wi l l be di scussed i n t hi s chapt er .
f r omar eas t hat cont ai n val uabl e or uni que nat ur al r esour ces, as t he pr esence
of pot ent i al l y val uabl e or expl oi t abl e mi ner al s, wat er , or ener gy r esour ces
(e. g. , geot her mal ) mi ght at t r act adver se human act i vi t i es, e. g. , ext r act i ng
r esour ces or dr i l l i ng t hr ough t he r eposi t or y t o r each t he r esour ces i n a
manner t hat woul d af f ect t he i nt egr i t y of t he host r ock f or mat i ons.
cr i t er i a ar e di r ect ed at r educi ng i ncent i ves f or , and t her ef or e t he l i kel i hood
of , human i nt er f er ence.
human i nt er f er ence appear s qui t e r easonabl e, t he f act or s' ef f ect i veness r el i es
on pr edi ct i ng r esour ce needs of soci et i es f ar i nt o t he f ut ur e. Such pr edi c-
t i ons over l ong t i me per i ods ar e of doubt f ul val i di t y.
advances, t he economi cs of r ecover y change, as do t he nat ur e/ char act er i st i cs
of mat er i al s consi der ed t o be r esour ces. For exampl e, t he change i n t he
r esour ce val ue of ur ani umj ust wi t hi n t hi s cent ur y cl ear l y i l l ust r at es t hat
t he val ue of , and need f or , nat ur al r esour ces depends upon economi c and
t echnol ogi cal condi t i ons ( Mer r i t t , 1978). Due t o our l i mi t ed abi l i t y t o
cor r ect l y pr edi ct demand and need f or par t i cul ar r esour ces, r esour ce- r el at ed
si t i ng cr i t er i a appear pr udent but not suf f i ci ent t o adequat el y pr ot ect
agai nst i nt er f er ence.
t o r eposi t or y si t i ng.
si gni f i cance i n pr ot ect i ng agai nst post - cl osur e human i nt er f er ence.
These
Pr oposed cr i t er i a ( EPA, 1982a) woul d r equi r e si t i ng a r eposi t or y away
Such
Whi l e t he use of such si t e sel ect i on f act or s t o r educe t he l i kel i hood of
As t echnol ogy
Popul at i on densi t y cr i t er i a have been consi der ed by DOE and NRC r el at i ve
Such pot ent i al cr i t er i a do not appear t o have any
3. 2 LAND USE
Af t er cl osur e of t he r eposi t or y, t he pr obl emof human i nt er f er ence
begi ns. Two appr oaches ar e avai l abl e f or ut i l i zi ng t he si t e t o mi ni mi ze t hi s
24
pr obl em.
di scour age di r ect and i ndi r ect i nt er f er ence.
pr omot e t he use of t he si t e f or ot her pur poses t hat woul d enhance t he
l i kel i hood of successf ul i sol at i on.
Fi r st , t he use of t he si t e and i t s vi ci ni t y can be devel oped t o
The second appr oach woul d
The f i r st appr oach coul d be i mpl ement ed by devel opi ng a new communi t y
( r at her t han si t i ng near an exi st i ng town).
t o per pet uat e knowl edge of a r eposi t or y and pr event al l but t he most mi nor
di st ur bances t o t he l and. Vi ol at i ons under or near a ci t y woul d be mor e
subj ect t o r ecogni t i on and pr event i on t han t hose i n r emot e ar eas. Such
consi der at i ons woul d need t o be bal anced agai nst t he pot ent i al f or i ncr eased
real or per cei ved r i sks due t o havi ng a r eposi t or y near a popul at i on cent er .
I f such r i sks ar e accept abl e, t he devel opment of a communi t y near t he si t e may
pr ove t o be a usef ul measur e.
conduci ve to l ong- t er mr ecor dkeepi ng but not det r i ment al t o t he r eposi t or y' s
f unct i on, a f avor abl e syner gi smcoul d be est abl i shed as suggest ed by t he
second appr oach. An exampl e woul d be t o co- l ocat e nucl ear r eposi t or i es wi t h
ot her wast e mat er i al st or age/ di sposal syst ems (e. g. , si mi l ar si t e but di st i nct
di sposal ar eas) t o pr ovi de addi t i onal i ncent i ves f or knowl edge r et ent i on.
Desi gnat i ng such ar eas as sour ces f or mat er i al s f or whi ch t her e i s no pr esent
need, but f or whi ch a f ut ur e need may ar i se, may r esul t i n t hei r vol unt ar y
i ncl usi on on t he f ut ur e equi val ent of U.S. Geol ogi cal Ser vi ce or Bur eau of
Economi c Resour ces maps.
by our pr ogeny f r omt hei r ancest or s wi l l i ncl ude t he f act t hat cer t ai n ar eas
have been used f or pur poses whi ch r equi r e car ef ul consi der at i on.
sal t domes ar e used f or a number of pur poses such as sal t mi ni ng, pet r ol eum
st or age, and nat ur al gas st or age ( Gr i swol d, 1981). Gi ven t hat a l ar ge number
o f domes have been al r eady expl oi t ed f or such pur poses, ent r epr eneur s
scr ut i ni ze exi st i ng r ecor ds t o det er mi ne past commer ci al uses of t he dome
pr i or t o i nvest i ng t he l ar ge amount s of capi t al r equi r ed f or t he commer ci al
use of a sal t dome. Pr ospect i ve user s wi l l cont i nue t hi s pr act i ce and wi l l be
f or ewar ned i f t he ar ea has been used as a r eposi t or y. Thus, t he use of uni que
geol ogi c f or mat i ons whi ch have compet i ng commer ci al uses may enhance t he
l i kel i hood of an i nt er f er ence- f r ee r eposi t or y.
Adj acent communi t i es woul d t end
I f t he r eposi t or y si t e coul d be co- l ocat ed wi t h act i vi t i es whi ch ar e
\
A f i nal poi nt t o be made r el at i ve t o l and use i s t hat t he l essons l ear ned
For exampl e,
25
3. 3 I NSTI TUTI ONAL CONTROLS
The t hi r d f act or t hat of f er s an al t er nat i ve met hod f or r educi ng t he
l i kel i hood of human i nt er f er ence i s gener i cal l y r ef er r ed t o as "i nst i t ut i onal
cont r ol s". I n t hi s r epor t , "i nst i t ut i onal cont r ol s" r ef er s t o act i ve and
passi ve measur es under t aken by or gani zat i ons and gr oups t hat ar e di r ect ed
t owar d pr ot ect i ng or i nf or mi ng ot her peopl e about t he wast e and r eposi t or y.
t hat r el y on di f f er ent
one i nst i t ut i onal met hod
i nst i t ut i on. The dynami c
nst i t ut i on may change i t s
Thi s met hod i s composed of a var i et y of t echni ques
i nst i t ut i ons f or i mpl ement at i on. The exi st ence of
does not pr ecl ude cont r ol bei ng exer t ed by anot her
qual i t y of t hi s met hod i s al so evi dent i n t hat an
met hod of aut hor i t y over t i me.
Act i ve i nst i t ut i onal measur es ar e gover nment a act i ons pr i mar i l y ai med at
pr event i ng or i mpedi ng access and unaut hor i zed act i vi t i es at t he r eposi t or y
si t e and sur r oundi ng ar eas. These measur es ar e of t en associ at ed wi t h t he
oper at i on and decommi ssi oni ng of t he si t e when access t o t he si t e must be
r est r i ct ed f or heal t h and saf et y r easons. Act i ve cont r ol s ar e consi der ed t o
be cost l y and a di f f i cul t met hod t o cont i nue over l ong per i ods of t i me. The
U.S. Envi r onment al Pr ot ect i on Agency at one t i me suggest ed t hat a 100- year
per i od be est abl i shed as t he maxi mum t i me per i od af t er cl osur e upon whi ch
act i ve i nst i t ut i onal cont r ol s may be r el i ed ( EPA, 1982a) . Under t hose
pr oposed f eder al gui del i nes, DOE woul d be t he gover nment al agency r esponsi bl e
f or guar di ng and pr ot ect i ng t he si t e dur i ng t he devel opment , oper at i on, and
t he f i r st 100 or mor e year s af t er cl osur e.
Act i ve cont r ol s coul d i ncl ude f ences, guar ds, sur vei l l ance t echni ques and
l i censes t o cont r ol act i vi t i es at t he si t e. These i nst i t ut i onal measur es wi l l
change over t i me as pr evi ousl y suggest ed; e. g. , j ur i sdi ct i on over t he si t e may
f al l under t he aut hor i t y of anot her f eder al agency [f or i nst ance, t he U.S.
Depar t ment of I nt er i or , whi ch i s cur r ent l y t he l ead agency f or publ i c l ands) ,
st at e agency, or pr i vat e cor por at i on af t er cl osur e of t he r eposi t or y.
Passi ve i nst i t ut i onal measur es, i .e., i nst i t ut i onal measur es whi ch ar e a
by- pr oduct of ot her act i vi t i es t aki ng pl ace, wi l l al so be ef f ect i ve i n pr o-
t ect i ng t he r eposi t or y f r omhuman i nt er f er ence. Such cont r ol s coul d be
gover nment al , soci et al ( or al t r adi t i on) , or or gani zat i onal ( uni ver si t y or
f r at er nal groups). For exampl e, t he f eder al gover nment wi l l f or some per i od
26
of t i me cont r ol t he sur f ace and subsur f ace l and r i ght s ( NRC, 1983). Recor di ng
of t he f eder al owner shi p wi l l occur at t he f eder al , st at e, and l oca l evel s.
The count y cour t houses wi l l pr obabl y pr ovi de t he most accessi bl e and compl et e
l and r ecor ds of t he si t e. The deeds of t he si t e wi l l not i f y subsequent
pr oper t y owner s of adj oi ni ng l ands about t he r eposi t or y and i nf or mf ut ur e
devel oper s of subsur f ace mi ner al s about t he l ocat i on of t he wast e. The
r et ent i on of such r ecor ds wi l l occur i ndependent of t he r eposi t or y; however ,
t he r eposi t or y wi l l be pr ot ect ed as a secondar y benef i t of such r ecor ds.
Addi t i onal exampl es of passi ve i nst i t ut i onal measur es i ncl ude:
0 Feder al , st at e, l ocal , and pr i vat e company maps wi l l i dent i f y t he
0 The nat ur e of t he r eposi t or y wi l l r esul t i n t he sci ent i f i c
l ocat i on of t he r eposi t or y.
communi t y conduct i ng r esear ch and publ i shi ng i t s r esul t s.
Such r ecor ds ar e l i kel y t o i nvoke a mor e passi ve t ype of i nst i t ut i onal cont r ol
based on each succeedi ng gener at i on' s sel f - i nt er est s.
The ef f ect i veness of i nst i t ut i onal measur es depends upon t he t ype of
i nst i t ut i onal cont r ol , t he i ncent i ves f or usi ng t he cont r ol s, and t he dur a-
bi l i t y of t he i nst i t ut i ons.
ment agency t hat i s f unded t o i mpl ement t he cont r ol s.
i nt er est ed i n cont i nui ng t hese cont r ol s dur i ng t he near t er mbecause of t he
pr esence of hi gher l evel s of r adi oact i vi t y.
asser t ed i n a dr af t r egul at i on ( EPA, 1982a) t hat t he maxi mumt i me per i od t hat
act i ve i nst i t ut i onal cont r ol s can be r el i ed upon t o i sol at e wast es f r om
pot ent i al human act i ons i s 100 year s, t her e seems t o be l i t t l e evi dence t o
l i mi t t he i nf l uence of act i ve i nst i t ut i onal measur es t o one cent ur y. As l ong
as t he wast e i s consi der ed t o have t he pot ent i al o f bei ng har mf ul , t he l i ke-
l i hood exi st s t hat st at e and f eder al agenci es wi l l pr ovi de act i ve i nst i t u-
t i onal cont r ol s t o pr ot ect t he publ i c heal t h and saf et y. Many l aws, r ul es,
and cour t deci si ons pl ace a heavy bur den upon gover nment agenci es t o saf eguar d
t he publ i c wel f ar e.
I nst i t ut i ons ar e l i kel y t o appl y passi ve measur es as l ong as t hey do not
conf l i ct wi t h t hei r pr i mar y goal s, and as l ong as t he secondar y goal s of
pr ot ect i ng t he wast e and educat i ng peopl e about t he r eposi t or y ar e consi der ed
t o be i mpor t ant . An exampl e of t hi s si t uat i on i s t hat t he r ecor di ng of deeds
wi l l cont i nue f or t he l ong t er msi nce our economi c syst emi s cl osel y t i ed t o
Act i ve i nst i t ut i onal measur es r equi r e a gover n-
The gover nment wi l l be
Al t hough t he PA at one t i me
n
27
l and owner shi p.
r ecor ds wi l l exi st f or as l ong as t hi s i nf or mat i on i s consi der ed r el evant t o
t he buyi ng and sel l i ng of l and.
per cei ved need f or t hemand t he exi st ence of a gover nment or or gani zat i on.
Successi ve gener at i ons wi l l i nst i t ut e appr opr i at e cont r ol s i f t went i et h
cent ur y concer ns r el at i ve t o r adi at i on per si st .
quest i on t hen cent er s ar ound t he sur vi vabi l i t y of i nst i t ut i ons.
cont i nuous hi st or y of ci vi l i zat i ons, i ncl udi ng t hei r i nst i t ut i ons and gover n-
ment s.
(2, 600 year s) , and t he Near East (5, 200 year s) , whi l e t he Gr eek and Roman
hi st or i es cover over 2, 000 year s. Cont empor ar y r el i gi ons of f er ot her exampl es
of i nst i t ut i ons t hat have exi st ed f or t housands of year s. Thus, i nst i t ut i ons,
i ncl udi ng gover nment s, have t he pot ent i al f or sur vi vi ng l ong per i ods of t i me.
The st r uct ur e f or act i ve and passi ve measur es wi l l be avai l abl e i f soci et y
det er mi nes t hat t hey ar e needed t o pr ot ect t he wast e and t o educat e peopl e
about t he r eposi t or y.
Acknowl edgi ng t he pr esence of a r eposi t or y i n t he l and
I n summar y, t he cont i nuat i on of i nst i t ut i onal cont r ol s depends upon t he
Assumi ng t he need exi st s, t he
Hi st or i ans ( Dur ant , 1954) have t r aced over 5, 000 year s of mor e or l ess
The ol dest i ncl ude Egypt (5, 500 year s) , I ndi a (3, 000 year s) , J apan
28
4 COMMUNI CATI ON AS A MEANS OF REDUCI NG THE
LI KELI HOOD OF HUMAN I NTERFERENCE
Communi cat i ng i nf or mat i on about t he r eposi t or y and i t s cont ent s i s t he
pr i mar y means of r educi ng t he l i kel i hood of human i nt er f er ence.
i n devel opi ng t he i nf or mat i on communi cat i on syst emi s mai nt ai ni ng i t s ef f ec-
t i veness f or up t o 10, 000 year s.
wi l l be mai nt ai ned over such a l ong t i me per i od ( one- t hi r d l onger t han t he
span of our 7, 000- year r ecor ded past ) i s t he pr i mar y r equi r ement i n desi gni ng
a communi cat i on syst emand i n det er mi ni ng f act or s i mpor t ant f or i t s ef f ec-
t i veness.
10, 000- year per i od by usi ng a var i et y of medi a and met hods t o convey t he same
message at di f f er ent l evel s of sophi st i cat i on and i n di f f er ent f or ms.
Thi s chapt er di scusses basi c message el ement s and t he r equi r ement s
( Fi gur e 4- 1) necessar y f or ef f ect i ve l ong- t er mcommuni cat i on.
A maj or i ssue
Ensur i ng t hat r eposi t or y r el at ed i nf or mat i on
The obj ect i ve i s t o pr ovi de cont i nuous communi cat i on t hr oughout t he
Li kel i hood can be reduced
by effective communication
over a long t i me period
L
.t(
5
4
Communication must
continue over long Communication system
t i me periods must be easily detected
(durabi l i t y)
Effective communication The communication system
requires message
comprehension the desired response
must be designed t o elicit
1
8 9 10 11
FIGURE 4-1. ELEMENTS OF EFFECTIVE LONG-TERM COMMUNICATIONS
4.1 BASI C ELEMENTS OF MESSAGE COMMUNI CATI ON
The basi c communi cat i on el ement s, shown i n Fi gur e 4- 2, consi st of a
sour ce ( message sender) , a channel ( t he medi umt hr ough whi ch a message i s
29
t r ansmi t t ed) , and a dest i nat i on ( message recei ver) .
f or mul at es and encodes t he message and t hen t r ansmi t s t he message t o a
r ecei ver who decodes and i nt er pr et s t he message. Sur r oundi ng t hi s message
t r ansact i on i s t he "cont ext " i n whi ch t he t r ansact i on occur s. Cont ext i s
of t en cr uci al t o i nt er pr et i ng and r esol vi ng t he si gni f i cance of a message,
even t o t he ext ent of det er mi ni ng whet her t he r ecei ver ( dest i nat i on) wi l l
bel i eve a message ( Sebeok, 1984).
Fi gur e 4- 2 i ndi cat es t he i nt er r el at i onshi p and i nt er act i on t hat occur s
bet ween t he communi cat i ons el ement s.
messages and i n sel ect i ng channel s t hr ough whi ch t o t r ansmi t such messages,
t hese r el at i onshi ps must be consi der ed and at t ent i on be gi ven t o det er mi ni ng
t he r equi r ement s necessar y f or t he r ecei ver t o act ual l y r ecei ve, under st and,
The message sender *
I n f or mul at i ng r eposi t or y- r el at ed
CONTEXT
--------------
-\
\
SOURCE CHANNEL DESTI NATI ON
Formulates \
\
MESSAGE 1
I
Interprets /
I
\-
/
/
Encodes - -
21 CODE
-
/
- --- - -- - -- - ---/
\
\
FIGURE 4-2. BASIC ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
(Adapted from Sebeok, 1984)
*I n t he case of hi gh- l evel wast e di sposal , t he U. S. Depar t ment of Ener gy
( DOE) , as t he sender or sour ce of t he message, i s r esponsi bl e f or f or mul at i ng
and encodi ng t he message and t r ansmi t t i ng t hat message t o unknown r ecei ver s
( dest i nat i ons) i n t he i mmedi at e and t he di st ant f ut ur e.
30
and f avor abl y act on t he message.
i ncl ude:
These r equi r ement s shown i n Fi gur e 4- 1
1. The message must cont i nue t o exi st ( Box 10); t hat i s, i t must be on
or of dur abl e mat er i al .
2. The message must be obser ved ( Box 11); t hat i s, i t must be
3.
accessi bl e and det ect abl e by t he r ecei ver .
The message must be compr ehensi bl e t o t he r ecei ver ( Box 8); t hat i s,
t he r ecei ver must know and under st and t he Code* used t o t r ansmi t t he
message.
The message must el i ci t f r omt he r ecei ver an appr opr i at e r esponse
( Box 9).
war ni ng message and avoi di ng any di sr upt i on of t he r eposi t or y.
4.
I n t hi s case, t he r ecei ver shoul d r espond by heedi ng t he
4. 2 MESSAGE DURABI LI TY AND DETECTABI LI TY
The most i mpor t ant r equi r ement s i n t r ansmi t t i ng i nf or mat i on over l ong
per i ods o f t i me ar e ensur i ng t hat t he messages (1) cont i nue t o exi st i n
accessi bl e l ocat i ons and (2) ar e det ect abl e by peopl e wi t h t he pot ent i al or
oppor t uni t y t o i nt er f er e wi t h t he wast e r eposi t or y.
4. 2. 1 Dur abi l i t y
Dur abi l i t y i s t he physi cal abi l i t y of t he message medi umor mat er i al t o
l ast over t i me. For t hi s st udy, i t i s def i ned as t he abi l i t y t o wi t hst and or
be pr ot ect ed f r omnat ur al or engi neer ed pr ocesses f or up t o 10, 000 year s.
Fi gur e 4- 3, a par t o f t he l ogi c di agr amof Fi gur e 1- 1, shows t he el ement s i n
t er ms of t he mat er i al s used t o car r y messages ( Box 17) and t he met hods by
whi ch messages ar e t r ansmi t t ed ( Box 19). Message r edundancy ( Box 18), as i t
r el at es t o t he ef f ect i veness of t he ent i r e communi cat i on syst em, i s di scussed
i n Sect i on 4.5.
*The t er m "code" r ef er s t o t he l anguage or symbol s used t o communi cat e t he
meani ng of t he message.
I
Redundancy in individual
techniques must be used
I
Long-lasting techniques
must be used
17
31
A vari ety of transmission
techniques must be used
*
19
~
18
FIGURE 4-3. MESSAGE DURABILITY
The dur abi l i t y of mat er i al s has been exami ned t hr ough r evi ews of ar chae-
ol ogi cal and hi st or i cal dat a ( Kapl an, 1982a) and t hr ough cont r ol l ed det er i or a-
t i on t est s on a number of mat er i al s ( Ber r y, 1983). Bot h per spect i ves cl ear l y
demonst r at e t hat dur abi l i t y depends on t he envi r onment al weat her i ng t o whi ch
mat er i al s ar e exposed and on t hei r pot ent i al t o be r emoved by peopl e f or
r ecycl i ng or di r ect use.
The envi r onment al f act or s consi der ed t o be i mpor t ant t o t he weat her i ng
pr ocess ar e cl i mat e, ai r qual i t y, soi l t ype, and t he degr ee of pr ot ect i on f r om
exposur e. Moi st ur e appear s t o be t he most cr i t i cal el ement i n t he degr adat i on
pr ocess ( Ber r y, 1983).
message may be exposed, i t i s necessar y t o consi der pot ent i al cl i mat i c changes
over t he per i od of i nt er est . Accor di ng t o cer t ai n t heor i es, f or exampl e, t he
cl i mat e i n t he next 10,000 year s may shi f t f r omi nt er gl aci al t o gl aci al , wi t h
i ncr eases i n f l oods, f l ash f l oods, sl ope er osi on, and l andsl i des; t he accumu-
l at i on of wi nd- bl own l oess and sand; and i ncr eased ar eas subj ect t o f r eezi ng
and t hawi ng ( Kukl a, 1977, 1981). Hence, possi bl e l ong- t er mcl i mat i c changes
I n det er mi ni ng t he envi r onment al condi t i ons t o whi ch t he r eposi t or y
32
and t hei r ef f ect s must be consi der ed i n sel ect i ng message medi a, desi gns, and
mat er i al s.
The const r uct i on of message medi a can af f ect t hei r abi l i t y t o wi t hst and
unf avor abl e envi r onment al condi t i ons. Si ngl e- pi ece ( mono1 i t hi c) const r uct i on
i s mor e dur abl e t han j oi nt ed const r uct i on, si nce j oi ned sur f aces ar e mor e
af f ect ed by f r eeze- t hawcycl es.
The economi c r esour ce val ue and t he pot ent i al f or r ecycl i ng of mat er i al s
used f or message t r ansmi ssi on al so af f ect dur abi l i t y. Among t he mat er i al s
t hat ar e l i kel y t o sur vi ve 10,000 year s of sur f ace or subsur f ace exposur e ar e
pr eci ous met al s ( such as gol d and si l ver) . However , t hei r hi gh economi c val ue
gi ves t hema l ow ef f ect i ve dur abi l i t y because t hese mat er i al s ar e l i kel y t o be
sought and r emoved ( Ber r y, 1983; Kapl an, 1982a). Hi st or i cal l y, even non-
pr eci ous met al s ( such as copper and br onze [ Muhl y, 19801) and st one bui l di ng
mat er i al s ( such as l i mest one) have been r emoved because t hey coul d be r eused
( Thompson, 1981). Monol i thi c and megal i t hi c mar ker s and engr aved messages
have been mor e dur abl e ( Kapl an, 1982a) because t hey ar e di f f i cul t t o r emove
and ar e r esi st ant t o t amper i ng.
Cer ami c mat er i al s, met ai s, and synt het i c st one have al so been i nvest i -
gat ed f or dur abi l i t y.
B. C. , r espect i vel y ( Kapl an, 1980) ar e mor e suscept i bl e t o weat her i ng. Li ke
met al l i c obj ect s, many of t he anci ent gl ass and pot t er y obj ect s t hat have
sur vi ved di d so because of f avor abl e envi r onment al condi t i ons ( Ber r y, 1983).
Because oxi des ar e al r eady t he end pr oduct of met al det er i or at i on, t hey gen-
er al l y cannot det er i or at e any f ur t her . Si nt er ed st abl e oxi des have been onl y
r ecent l y devel oped, and no weat her i ng dat a ar e avai l abl e; however , some accel -
er at ed t est s i ndi cat e good per f or mance f or t hese mat er i al s.
r ocks t hat ar e st r uct ur al anal ogs of Synr oc ( a synt het i c r ock) have been known
t o sur vi ve 20, 000 t o 2 mi l l i on year s i n a var i et y of geochemi cal envi r onment s
( Ber r y, 1983).
Concr et es and pl ast i cs can al so wi t hst and weat her i ng.
concr et e, however , depends on i t s composi t i on and pr epar at i on, and t he pl as-
t i cs t hat have sur vi ved weat her i ng have been used i n r el at i vel y undemandi ng
ci r cumst ances ( Ber r y, 1983; Ri ngwood, et al , 1979).
sur vi ve a mi l l enni um under r easonabl e condi t i ons ( Fi sher Sci ent i f i c, 1964).
Gl ass and pot t er y, whi l e dat i ng t o 1,500 B. C. and 6,000
I n f act , nat ur al
The per f or mance of
St udi es o f l i br ar y mat er i al s i nd cat e t hat cer t ai n aci d- f r ee paper s may
33
0 Paper f r omcot t on or l i nen f i ber s has l ast ed up t o 1, 000 year s, whi l e papyr us
has sur vi ved f r omEgypt i an t i mes.
has been under f avor abl e envi r onment al condi t i ons ( Ber r y, 1983), mat er i al s
sui t abl e f or det ai l ed wr i t t en messages woul d pr obabl y r equi r e st or age i n
pr ot ect ed envi r onment s.
Consi der i ng t hat such l ong- t er msur vi val
4. 2. 2 Det ect abi l i t y
Message det ect abi l i t y r ef l ect s t he ease wi t h whi ch r eposi t or y i nf or mat i on
can be per cei ved, sensed, obser ved, and/ or obt ai ned. Fi gur e 4- 4 shows t he
l ogi c el ement s necessar y t o ensur e t hat messages ar e det ect ed by r eader s over
ver y l ong t i me per i ods. Bot h t he l ocat i on of messages and t he met hod by whi ch
t hey ar e t r ansmi t t ed af f ect t hei r accessi bi l i t y and det ect abi l i t y.
must be l ocat ed wher e pot ent i al r eposi t or y i nt er f er ence act i ons ar e most
l i kel y t o occur , and wher e messages ar e most l i kel y t o be encount er ed dur i ng a
sur vey pr ocess t hat may pr ecede an i nt er f er ence act i on.
si t e message l ocat i ons ar e desi r abl e i n or der t o r each si t e vi si t or s and t o
pr omot e gener al r egi onal knowl edge of t he exi st ence of t he si t e.
Messages
Bot h onsi t e and of f -
Communication system
must be easily detected
Messages must be perceived
by several sensory techniques
(human/instrument)
20
Remote and lacal
perception must be
possible
22
Redundancy i n techniques
t o enhance observation/
21
FIGURE 4-4. MESSAGE DETECTION
34
To i ncr ease t he pr obabi l i t y of det ect i on, messages shoul d be si mul t an-
eousl y t r ansmi t t ed by a var i et y of medi a, some capabl e of bei ng det ect ed by
human senses and some by i nst r ument sensor s.
an exampl e of t he f or mer ; a magnet i c or t her mal si gn i s an exampl e of t he
l at t er. Wr i t t en mar ker s ar e easi l y
det ect ed by a casual sur vey; magnet i c and t her mal si gns can be made t o be
hi ghl y i mmune t o sur f ace condi t i ons.
dur abi l i t y and det ect abi l i t y of t he over al l communi cat i on syst emand enhance
t he quant i t y and t he qual i t y of i nf or mat i on t r ansf er r ed ( see al so Sect i on
4.5). A syst emof sur f ace ( vi si bl e and i nst r ument al l y sensed) and subsur f ace
( i nst r ument al l y sensed) mar ker s on and near t he si t e coul d, f or exampl e,
i ndi cat e t he exi st ence and nat ur e of a r eposi t or y si t e, def i ne t he boundar i es
of t he r eposi t or y, and pr ovi de det ai l ed i nf or mat i on about t he r eposi t or y.
A wr i t t en message on a mar ker i s
Bot h t ypes of medi a have advant ages.
A mul t i t ude of car ef ul l y chosen l ocat i ons and medi a woul d i ncr ease t he
4.3 MESSAGE COMP REHENSI BI LI TY
The message must be pr esent ed i n such a way t hat i t can be under st ood f or
up t o 10, 000 year s.
compr ehensi on ( see Fi gur e 4-5).
t i on occur s bet ween any t wo par t i es.
Thi s sect i on di scusses t he el ement s needed f or message
I n gener al , t he f ol l owi ng sequence of event s t akes pl ace when communi ca-
Effective communication
requires message
comprehension
+
8
Messages must be inter-
pretable over long t i me
periods
Messages must be wi t hi n
the readers level of
understanding
12 13
FIGURE 4-5. EFFECTIVE MESSAGE COMPREHENSION
n
35
1.
2.
3.
The message sender f or mul at es a message and encodes i t f or
t r ansmi ssi on (e. g. , put s an i dea i nt o wor ds, t he wor ds bei ng t he
code; al t er nat i vel y, a per son coul d concei ve of a gest ur e or act i on
t o convey t he message) .
The message sender t r ansmi t s t he message (e. g. , speaks t he wor ds or
makes t he gest ure) .
The message r ecei ver r ecei ves and decodes t he messaqe (e. g. , hear s or
sees t he message and uses knowl edge of t he code t o i nt er pr et t he
meani ng of t he message) .
The compr ehensi on of such messages t hus depends on t he ext ent t o whi ch
Thi s soci et y cannot pr edi ct what cul t ur es or soci et i es wi l l exi st
t he sender and t he r ecei ver shar e a common code, such as an al phabet and a
l anguage.
sever al hundr ed or sever al t housand year s f r omnow, t he l evel of knowl edge or
t echnol ogy t hose soci et i es may possess, or t he speci f i c codes t hat t hey wi l l
use. Ther ef or e, t he i nf or mat i on syst emmust possess t he f ol l owi ng
char act er i st i cs ( Fi gur e 4-5):
0 The message must be i nt er pr et abl e over l ong t i me per i ods; t hat
i s, i t must , t o t he ext ent pr act i cal , be cr osscul t ur al and
amenabl e t o a var i et y of decodi ng devi ces.
i t must addr ess r ecei ver s wi t h t he mi ni mum l evel of knowl edge or
t echnol ogy needed f or di sr upt i ve act i vi t i es.
0 The message must be wi t hi n t he r ecei ver ' s l evel of under st andi ng;
Messages can be t r ansmi t t ed as i coni c, i ndexi cal , symbol i c si gns ( Sebeok,
1984), or combi nat i ons t her eof . An i coni c s i g n r esembl es some segment of t he
r eal wor l d t o whi ch i t r ef er s. Dr awi ngs and phot ogr aphs ar e commonl y used
i cons i n our cul t ur e; t her e i s a cor r espondence i n f or m( i somor phi sm) bet ween
t he pi ct or i al r epr esent at i on and t he t hi ng r epr esent ed*. An i ndexi cal si gn
"poi nt s t o" an obj ect or i s a sampl e of i t. A ver bal exampl e i s t he wor d "I ",
whi ch r ef er s t o t he per son sayi ng i t. A symbol i c si gn i s one whose r el at i on-
shi p t o t he i t emi t r epr esent s i s l ar gel y ar bi t r ar y, but whose message
*Car e must be exer ci sed i n choosi ng i cons t o st r i ve f or cr osscul t ur al
under st andi ng as, i n some cases, an assumed i somor phi smmay be onl y f u
gr asped by t hose al r eady i nf or med of t he code or convent i on bei ng used
( Sebeok, 1984).
S
1Y
36
under st andabl e because soci al convent i ons assi gn a speci f i c meani ng t o t he
symbol . For exampl e, t he skul l and cr ossbones i s a commonl y used symbol i n
t he Uni t ed St at es t o war n of poi sonous subst ances.
ni zed as r epr esent i ng pi r at es. Hi ghl y f or mal i zed vi sual symbol s ar e t er med
"embl ems".
St at es.
Vogel her d cave, and t he Spani sh Levant i ne pi ct ogr aphs of hunt i ng scenes, have
been deci pher ed.
soci al , pol i t i cal , and agr i cul t ur al act i vi t i es i n pi ct ogr aphi c sequences i s
under st ood ( Gi vens, 1981; Smi t h, 1965; Hal l o and Si mpson, 1971). The key t o
accur at e deci pher i ng appear s t o be vi sual r eal i smas wel l as t he absence of
det ai l s unnecessar y f or compr ehensi on.
I t i s al so a symbol r ecog-
An exampl e of an embl emi s t he seal of t he Pr esi dent of t he Uni t ed
Hi st or i cal l y, i coni c r epr esent at i ons l i ke t he car ved ani mal s i n Ger many' s
Even t he mor e compl ex Egypt i an f uner ar y ar t t hat det ai l s
Each message t ype, i coni c, i ndexi cal , symbol i c, has advant ages and di s-
advant ages f or l ong- t er mcommuni cat i on. One pot ent i al l y i mpor t ant f act or i n
cor r ect message i nt er pr et at i on i s t he cont ext i n whi ch t he message i s si t uat ed
and per cei ved. For exampl e, a hand- dr awn map of an i sl and, r ecogni zabl e by
shape, wi t h an " X " at t he base of a r ecogni zabl e nat ur al f eat ur e, woul d be de-
coded as a possi bl e "bur i ed- t r easur e" map i f f ound among some r ecent l y di scov-
er ed possessi ons of a l ong- deceased pi r at e. Conver sel y, t he map woul d
pr obabl y be meani ngl ess i f f ound on a st r eet cor ner i n a di st ant par t of t he
wor l d wher e i t s meani ng woul d not be ai ded by t he cont ext of i t s sur r oundi ngs.
To i ncr ease t he l i kel i hood of accur at e decodi ng by t he r ecei ver , messages
coul d consi st of al l t hr ee t ypes t o t he ext ent possi bl e. I n t he exampl e
gi ven, had t he map i ncl uded t he name of t he pi r at e, a pi ct ur e of pr eci ous gems
and met al s, wor ds t o t he ef f ect t hat i t was a t r easur e map, and been wr i t t en
on an obvi ousl y anci ent par chment , i t woul d be l i kel y t o at t r act suf f i ci ent
at t ent i on so t hat t he f i nder woul d seek f ur t her i nf or mat i on, even i f t he
condi t i ons sur r oundi ng i t s di scover y di d not make i t s pur pose obvi ous. For
r eposi t or y communi cat i ons, t hi s di scussi on woul d suggest usi ng a combi nat i on
of message t ypes ar r anged i n a manner t hat woul d r eadi l y suggest a r el at i on-
shi p bet ween t he message and what l i es bel ow t he r eposi t or ; l and sur f ace.
An i mpor t ant consi der at i on i n l ong- t er mcommuni cat i ons i s t he ef f ect of
l anguage changes. The abi l i t y t o i nt er pr et ext i nct l anguages i s di r ect l y
r el at ed t o t he degr ee of r el at i onshi p bet ween t he l anguage t o be r ecover ed and
0 compar abl e known
r ead Ol d and Mi dd
anguages ( Gel b,
e Engl i sh, scho
37
1973). Thus, al t hough many
ar s have l i t t l e di f f i cul t y
peopl e cannot
n t r ans1 at i ng
t hembecause of t he cl ose r el at i onshi p t o Moder n Engl i sh. Communi cat i on wi t h
f ut ur e gener at i ons was pr obabl y not t he pur pose of t he Egypt i ans who made t he
Roset t a St one*, but t he t abl et was, never t hel ess, t he key t o deci pher i ng
anci ent hi er ogl yphi cs ( Budge, 1929). Because t he Gr eek ver si on was i mme-
di at el y t r ansl at abl e, i t was used as a "code br eaker " f or t he Egypt i an
hi er ogl yphs. The sender s, t he Egypt i ans, had no way of knowi ng t hat Gr eek
woul d sur vi ve l onger t han t hei r own l anguage. The i mpor t ant l esson i s t hat
t he r epet i t i on of t he message cont ent i n sever al l anguages al l owed t he message
t o be under st ood t housands of year s l at er. Ther ef or e, t he abi l i t y t o deci pher
wr i t t en r ecor ds shoul d be enhanced ( see Sect i on 4. 5) by r epeat i ng t he message
i n sever al l anguages, some of whi ch may per si st f or a l ong t i me.
Ther e i s a quest i on of whi ch l anguages, i f any, wi l l per si st over t he
t i me f r ame of i nt er est .
and t he number s of books and r ecor ds i n cer t ai n l anguages i ncr ease t he l i kel i -
hood t hat wi del y used l anguages wi l l be t r ansl at abl e by f ut ur e gener at i ons.
Hi st or y i ndi cat es t hat even t hough pr esent l anguages ar e l i kel y t o under go
maj or changes over t he t i me f r ame of i nt er est , most of t he l i t er at ur e and
i mpor t ant r ecor ds wi l l be r eencoded t o f aci l i t at e f ut ur e use. **
The Hebr ew Tor ah, f or exampl e, i s r ead and under st ood i n t he or i gi nal Hebr ew.
The sacr ed wr i t i ngs of Hi ndui smcont i nue t o be r ead by schol ar s and devout
Hi ndus i n t he or i gi nal Sanskr i t , a l anguage t hat has not been spoken f or
hundr eds of year s. I n t he west er n wor l d, si mi l ar exampl es can be seen i n
anci ent Gr eek and Lat i n. The use of t he l at t er by t he Roman Cat hol i c Chur ch
i s par t i cul ar l y i nt er est i ng because peopl e of many r aces, cul t ur es, and
The si ze of t he popul at i ons usi ng cer t ai n l anguages
Fur t her mor e, some anci ent l anguages r emai n wi del y r ead and under st ood.
*Al t hough many mar ker s have sur vi ved f r omour di st ant ancest or s, t hey do not
appear t o be det er mi ned at t empt s t o send messages t o peopl e i n t he di st ant
f ut ur e, but r at her , ar e i nt ended f or dest i nat i ons or r ecei ver s i n t he t i me
of t he encodi ng popul at i on. Thus, anci ent r ecor di ngs, chr oni cl i ng devi ces,
and commemor at i ons, such as t he l at e- Pal eol i t hi c cave pai nt i ngs (28,000
B.C.) Sumer i an cunei f or mr ecor ds (3, 000 B.C.), and St onehenge (2, 500 B.C.) ,
wer e pr obabl y desi gned f or t hei r cont empor ar y audi ences ( Gi vens, 1981).
**Hi st or i cal exampl es ar e anci ent Gr eek l i t er at ur e, Ol d Engl i sh Li t er at ur e,
t he Bi bl e, and numer ous ot her anci ent wor ks.
38
count r i es used i t as a l i t ur gi cal "code", al t hough t hey di d not speak or
under st and i t. The use of sever al wi del y used l anguages, pi ct ogr aphs, and
wi del y used symbol s shoul d pr ovi de a number of r easonabl y r el i abl e avenues f or
cor r ect l y r eadi ng and i nt er pr et i ng t he meani ng of r eposi t or y messages.
Because t he knowl edge l evel s, backgr ounds, and pur poses of f ut ur e r eader s
ar e unknown, r eposi t or y messages shoul d al so be desi gned t o convey var yi ng
l evel s of meani ng, f r omr udi ment ar y t o compl ex and f r omgener al t o speci f i c,
i n or der t o best expl oi t avai l abl e channel s and encour age r eadi ng. One
appr oach woul d be t o pr ovi de al l possi bl e i nf or mat i on about t he r eposi t or y.
However , t hi s i s not al ways physi cal l y possi bl e because of space l i mi t at i ons
i n a gi ven channel , nor i s i t necessar y; al l r eader s must r ecei ve an i nf or ma-
- t i ve message, but not al l wi l l be abl e t o under st and a t echni cal message. To
accommodat e var yi ng i nf or mat i on needs and message channel pr oper t i es, a syst em
t hat can pr ovi de messages wi t h di f f er ent t echni cal i nf or mat i on l evel s and
var yi ng det ai l s of i nf or mat i on i s pr ef er r ed. Messages t hat t r ansmi t sever al
l evel s of meani ng can enhance f ut ur e under st andi ng by t echnol ogy - f r oml ess
sophi st i cat ed knowl edge and t echnol ogy ( r udi ment ar y, gener al i nf or mat i on) t o
super i or knowl edge and t echnol ogy ( compl ex, speci f i c i nf ormat i on) .
4.4 RESPONSE TO MESSAGE
The f i nal r equi r ement f or ef f ect i ve communi cat i on i s r el at ed t o t he
ef f ect of t he message on decoder s.
not i ced, and cor r ect l y i nt er pr et ed, i t must t hen el i ci t a speci f i c r esponse -
t hat of heedi ng t he message by avoi di ng act i vi t i es t hat woul d compr omi se t he
i nt egr i t y of t he r eposi t or y. Fi gur e 4- 6 pr esent s t he par t of t he l ogi c di a-
gr amt hat i l l ust r at es t he el ement s necessar y t o el i ci t t he desi r ed r esponse,
t hat of heedi ng t he message. The message must i ncl ude suf f i ci ent i nf or mat i on
t o pr oduce t he desi r ed r esul t ( Box 15), be r el evant t o t he r eci pi ent and
appear t o have a f act ual basi s ( Box 14), and convey t he pot ent i al consequences
of i nt er f er ence act i ons ( Box 16).
Once t he message has sur vi ved, been
4. 4. 1 Message I nf or mat i on
I n sel ect i ng t he i nf or mat i on t o be i ncl uded i n t he messages, i mpor t ant
consi der at i ons ar e t he cl ar i t y of t he message and t he knowl edge necessar y t o
n
Messages must appear
relevant t o t he reader
The communi cati on system
must be designed t o induce
the desired response
The message must contai n
sufficient i nf ormat i on t o
produce the desired result
The communi cati on system
must warn of the conse-
quences of interference
activities
I I
9
L I L I I I
14 15 16
FIGURE 4-6. RESPONSE TO MESSAGES
under st and t he message.
ant i t het i cal :
suggest s a syst emof messages wi t h var yi ng l evel s of i nf or mat i on and
compl exi t y.
t he pr esence of t he wast e. Hi gher - l evel , mor e compl ex messages woul d al so
t r ansmi t i ncr easi ng amount s of per t i nent i nf or mat i on.
o f messages i s di scussed i n mor e det ai l i n Sect i on 5.
As i n al l communi cat i on, t he t wo r equi r ement s may be
Thi s t r ade- of f a si mpl e message may be cl ear but l ack det ai l .
Each l evel woul d denot e a mi ni mum message of war ni ng and connot e
The concept of l evel s
4.4.2 Message Rel evance
A per sonl s i ncl i nat i on t o heed a message i s i nf l uenced by t he appar ent
r el evance of t he message, t hat i s, t he r eader ' s per cept i on of a cause- and-
ef f ect r el at i onshi p bet ween t he message and t he r eader . Exper i ence i ndi cat es
t hat peopl e war ned of danger s gener al l y avoi d t hem. Ther e ar e except i ons,
because cer t ai n i ndi vi dual s ar e at t r act ed t o danger ( Tannenbaum, 1984) , par -
t i cul ar l y danger associ at ed wi t h chal l enge. Such except i ons, however , do not
r el at e t o r eposi t or i es because of t he dept h, desi gn, and t he t ype of hazar d
associ at ed wi t h r eposi t or i es. Ther ef or e, a war ni ng of danger coul d pr ovi de
t he r el evance r equi r ed. A consi der at i on of "danger " messages pr esent s t wo
i mpor t ant quest i ons:
40
1. Shoul d t he message expr ess "ext r eme danger " or mer el y mar k t he exi s-
t ence of a r eposi t or y?
Shoul d t he message be di r ect ed t owar d onl y t hose wi t h t he pot ent i al
t o dr i l l , mi ne, or excavat e t o t he dept h of t he r eposi t or y ( appr oxi -
mat el y 500 t o 1, 000 met ers) ?
2.
An "ext r eme- danger " message wi l l l i kel y el i ci t a st r onger r esponse f r om
However , as t i me goes on and t he pr esence of t he r eci pi ent because of f ear .
t he r eposi t or y becomes an hi st or i cal f act , peopl e may r eal i ze t hat t her e i s no
danger t o a per son on or near t he si t e at t he sur f ace, and t he message may
l ose i t s si gni f i cance. Fur t her mor e, mar ki ng t he r eposi t or y wi t h danger
messages may i nst i l l i n t he pr esent gener at i on a f ear of r eposi t or i es when, i n
f act , t her e i s no r eason t o f ear t hem. Peopl e may be bewi l der ed t o l ear n t hat
a r eposi t or y, f ound by t he gover nment t o be saf e, i s mar ked wi t h danger
war ni ngs.
"t her e i s a r eposi t or y at t hi s si t e". A message l i ke t hi s, one t hat car r i es
no connot at i on of hazar d but mer el y conveys i nf or mat i on, woul d be l ess ef f ec-
t i ve, and possi bl y not ef f ect i ve at al l , i f f ut ur e gener at i ons per cei ved no
r el evance and di smant l ed al l sur f ace mar ki ngs.
A pr udent mi ddl e gr ound bet ween t hese ext r emes appear s t o be a war ni ng
message syst emt hat advocat es caut i on and i ndi cat es t he possi bl e consequences
of di sr upt i ve act i ons. Such a message coul d at t r act t he at t ent i on of peopl e
encount er i ng t he mar ker s wi t hout conveyi ng a f al se not i on of i mmi nent danger .
Si nce t he danger wi l l exi st onl y i f i nt er f er ence act i ons di sr upt t he r eposi -
t or y, war ni ng messages shoul d al so denot e t he nat ur e of t he hazar d and t he
t ypes of act i vi t i es t hat shoul d be avoi ded.
The second quest i on i s whet her t he message shoul d be di r ect ed t owar d onl y
t hose who ar e capabl e of i nt er f er i ng wi t h t he r eposi t or y. Her e t he quest i on
deal s not wi t h t he l evel of knowl edge possessed by a soci et y ( gr ound r ul e 4,
Sect i on 2) but wi t h t he capabi l i t y of peopl e r ecei vi ng t he i nf or mat i on.
Shoul d t he message, f or exampl e, be keyed t o an engi neer or a sci ent i st con-
duct i ng a si t e sur vey?
i ng t o t he aver age adul t ( and i nscr i bed on dur abl e mat er i al ) ar e mor e l i kel y
t o succeed over l ong per i ods because of t he pot ent i al f or br oader di ssemi na-
t i on of message i nf or mat i on.
At t he ot her end of t he spect r umi s t he si mpl e i nf or mat i onal message that
--
Messages t hat ar e under st andabl e and per haps i nt er est -
I f mor e peopl e know and under st and t he message,
41
t he message i s mor e l i kel y t o r each t hose capabl e of i nt er f er ence and t hose
capabl e of pr event i ng i nt er f er ence; f ur t her mor e, t he message i s mor e l i kel y t o
be per pet uat ed. *
4. 4. 3 Fact ual Basi s
Because t he cont ext of a message i nf l uences t he i nt er pr et at i on and t he
r esponse t o t hat message, messages mar ki ng t he r eposi t or y shoul d appear t o
have a f act ual basi s and be i mpor t ant , qual i t i es essent i al t o maki ng t he
messages bel i evabl e ( Sebeok, 1984). The message wi l l i ndeed have a f act ual
basi s t o t he best of t hi s soci et y' s knowl edge.
i ng t he message i n such a way t hat t he f ut ur e r eci pi ent i s i mmedi at el y con-
vi nced of t he f act ual basi s or i s pr ompt ed t o ver i f y i t by checki ng. To
accompl i sh t hi s obj ect i ve, t he message shoul d be such t hat t he pot ent i al
r eci pi ent per cei ves t hat t he sender was knowl edgeabl e and consi der ed t he
message suf f i cent l y i mpor t ant t o t ake st eps t o ensur e i t s sur vi val .
The pr obl em l i es i n st r uct ur -
4.5 MESSAGE REDUNDANCY
I nf or mat i on t ends t o degener at e over t i me i n dur abi l i t y, det ect abi l i t y,
compr ehensi bi l i t y, and i mpact . I f a message i s r epeat ed i n a var i et y of
medi a, f or ms, and l evel s of sophi st i cat i on, i t i s mor e l i kel y t o per si st , be
not i ced, and be per cei ved and i nt er pr et ed cor r ect l y. A si ngl e message i s
of t en per cei ved by t he r ecei ver wi t h some di st or t i on because t he sender and
t he r ecei ver i nt er pr et al l or par t of a message i n di f f er ent ways. However , a
message r epeat ed i n many f or ms, t hr ough many medi a, and at many l ocat i ons i s
l i kel y t o be event ual l y under st ood wi t h mi ni mumdi st or t i on.
cussed i n Sect i ons 4. 2, 4. 3, and 4.4. The dur abi l i t y and det ect abi l i t y r e-
qui r ement s woul d be met by usi ng a var i et y of medi a f or message t r ansmi ssi on
(e. g. , st one, pr eser ved ar chi val mat er i al s) ; by di st r i but i ng messages i n a
Redundancy shoul d be i nt r oduced i nt o each communi cat i on r equi r ement di s-
*Each succeedi ng gener at i on shoul d be encour aged t o i nst i t ut e i t s own cont r ol s
over wast e si t es. Pr ot ect i on agai nst human i nt er f er ence woul d t hen be pr o-
vi ded by el i ci t i ng a r enewed r esponse f r omeach succeedi ng gener at i on, each
st r i vi ng t o pr ot ect i t s own wel f ar e f r omt hi s and ot her pot ent i al r i sks.
number of l ocat i ons, bot h at t he si t e ( above and bel ow t he sur f ace) and el se-
wher e; and by usi ng a var i et y of met hods t o t r ansmi t messages (e. g. , mar ker s,
wr i t t en r ecor ds, ar chi ves, or al communi cat i on) . Redundancy di r ect ed at com-
pr ehensi bi l i t y coul d be achi eved by usi ng a di ver si t y of message t ypes and a
di ver si t y of message codes.
Messages st r uct ur ed at sever al l evel s of det ai l , as di scussed i n
Sect i on 4. 3, r esul t i n r edundancy. Shoul d any par t i cul ar channel convey an
i ncor r ect i mpr essi on, t he cor r ect cont ent of t he message coul d be per cei ved
when t he r eci pi ent encount er s t he message i n anot her f or mor hear s about i t
f r omot her r eci pi ent s.
Anot her appr oach t o pr ovi di ng r edundancy woul d be a "r el ay syst em" f or
i nf or mat i on t r ansmi ssi on i n whi ch a message woul d be per i odi cal l y r eencoded as
necessar y t o account f or l anguage changes. *
r el ay concept coul d consi der t he 10, 000- year t i me t o be a ser i es of t i me uni t s
each of per haps a f ew hundr ed year s.
be desi gned t o t r ansmi t messages at l east t hr ough t he f i r st t i me uni t .
caut i on message woul d be suppl ement ed by a second "met a- message".
message woul d pr ovi de i nst r uct i ons f or r enewi ng and updat i ng t he message by
met hods most ef f i ci ent and ef f ect i ve at t he t i me of r ecei pt , f or t r ansmi ssi on
t o t he next t i me uni t . The r eencoded message woul d i ncl ude si mi l ar i nst r uc-
t i ons f or r enewi ng t he message f or t he next uni t , and so on t hr ough t he 10, 000
year s and beyond. Such a r el ay syst emof f er s t he possi bi l i t y f or cont i nuousl y
updat i ng r eposi t or y- r el at ed i nf or mat i on t hr ough t he best avai l abl e knowl edge
and t echnol ogy i f succeedi ng gener at i ons shar e our concer n about r adi oact i ve
wast e. The i mpor t ant f act or i s t hat t hi s met a- message woul d be added t o t he
message syst emr at her t han r epl aci ng t he exi st i ng one. Thus, as t he " codes"
of f ut ur e gener at i ons change, t he i nf or mat i on syst emwoul d expand t o i ncl ude
new codes, i f i nst r uct i ons t o do so ar e f ol l owed ( Sebeok, 1984).
I n t he case of r eposi t or i es, t he
Some onsi t e and of f si t e channel s woul d
The
The second
n
*For exampl e, r el i gi ous t ext s l i ke t he Bi bl e or t he Hebr ew Tor ah and Tal mud
have been t r ansl at ed many t i mes over i nt o cont empor ar y l anguages. Our
gener at i on' s under st andi ng of t hese cont empor ar y t ext s i s i mmedi at e.
However , i f t her e i s some quest i on as t o t he exact or or i gi nal meani ng of a
phr ase, ol d ver si ons of t he t ext s ar e avai l abl e f or schol ar s t o r evi ew.
43
Messages must be i nter-
pretabl e over l ong t i me
peri ods
5 MESSAGE STRUCTURE AND CONTENT
Messages must be wi thi n
the reader's level of
understandi ng
A s di scussed i n Chapt er 4, t he abi l i t y t o communi cat e t o peopl e i s
di r ect l y r el at ed t o message compr ehensi on. Successf ul communi cat i on of r epos-
i t or y r el at ed messages f ar i nt o t he f ut ur e r equi r es t hat t he messages be
i nt er pr et abl e by peopl e f r ommany cul t ur es and be wi t hi n t he l evel of under -
st andi ng of peopl e i n soci et i es havi ng t he capabi l i t y t o i nt er f er e wi t h t he
r eposi t or y.
of t i me usi ng r edundant message syst ems.
Fi gur e 5- 1 f ocuses on ef f ect i ve communi cat i ons over a l ong per i od
L i kel i hood can be reduced
by effective communi cati on
over a l ong ti me peri od
5
A
E ffecti ve communi cati on
requi res message
comprehensi on
- I
Mul ti pl e languages
increase the l i kel i hood
of i nterpretati on
12a
A mul ti pl i ci ty of messages
varyi ng in detai l and
techni cal sophi sti cati on
woul d reach a range o f
potenti al readers
~
13a
A rel ay system coul d
be used t o update
message transl ati ons
as language changes
occurred
12b
T he communi cati on system
mus t be designed t o el i ci t
the desi red response
Messages' factual basis
must be apparent
14a
I
9
T he communi cati on system
must war n of the conse-
quences o f i nterference
activities
16
I
Messages must contai n
suffi ci ent i nf ormati on t o
produce the desi red result
15
FIGURE 5-1. COMPREHENSION AND RESPONSE
44
Requi r ement s f or compr ehensi on ( Fi gur e 5- 1) must be met wi t hi n t he st r uc-
t ur e and cont ent l i mi t at i ons of t he message channel . Al t hough i t may be con-
si der ed i deal t o physi cal l y pr ovi de t he maxi mumamount of i nf or mat i on t o
f ut ur e r eader s about t he r eposi t or y, i t may not be possi bl e (e. g. , space
1 i mi t at i ons on markers) .
hi er ar chy of message l evel s can communi cat e r udi ment ar y t o compl ex i nf or mat i on
by var i ous met hods.
and ar e mor e amenabl e t o hi ghl y st abl e t r ansmi ssi on met hods. Compl ex messages
of f er mor e def i ni t i ve expl anat i ons and may r esul t i n mor e knowl edgeabl e
act i ons. Compl ex messages ar e mor e di f f i cul t t o accur at el y convey, however ,
and ar e mor e l i mi t ed r el at i ve t o l ong- l ast i ng mat er i al s of conveyance. A
combi nat i on of messages, var yi ng f r omsi mpl e t o compl ex and det ai l ed, coul d
addr ess a r ange of pot ent i al f ut ur e message r eci pi ent s.
mar ker but no message, t he most basi c ( r udi ment ar y) concl usi ons r eached by
f ut ur e vi si t or s t o i t , i n t he absence of any st r uct ur ed at t empt at l ong- t er m
communi cat i on, woul d be t hat "somet hi ng made by humans i s her e".
f ut ur e obser ver , some meani ng or pur pose mi ght be conveyed by t he obj ect , but
what t he meani ng of t he mar ker woul d be i nt er pr et ed t o be i s not cl ear .
message of t hi s si mpl i ci t y i s not l i kel y t o pr oduce t he desi r ed r esponse.
f act , i t mi ght pr ovoke i nqui si t i ve i nt er f er ence. *
t he r udi ment ar y l evel t hat may be used wi t h geol ogi c r eposi t or i es t o achi eve
r easonabl y accur at e, l ong- t er mcompr ehensi on of t he message and t o ef f ect t he
desi r ed r esponse t o t he message.
t i onal i nf or mat i on r el at i ve t o pr ecedi ng l evel s about t he r eposi t or y. The
A message can convey var yi ng l evel s of meani ng and i nf or mat i on. A
Si mpl e messages ar e mor e easi l y conveyed and under st ood,
I f t he onl y act i on t aken to mark a ' r eposi t or y si t e wer e t o pr ovi de a
To t he
A
I n
The f ol l owi ng sect i ons i dent i f y f our possi bl e l evel s of messages above
Each successi ve l evel woul d cont ai n addi -
message channel s ( Sect i on 7) ar e st r uct ur ed t o make i t ver y l i kel y t hat a
, meani ng beyond t he most r udi ment ar y l evel wi l l be i n evi dence over t he per i od
of concer n.
*Consequent l y, ' per manence of t he message i s const r ued as bei ng of equal
i mpor t ance t o per manance of t he mar ker i f each mar ker i s t aken as an i sol at ed
case. Wer e messages t o sur vi ve on some mar ker s, but not on al l , at t he same
si t e, t he bar e mar ker s coul d ser ve an addi t i onal pur pose r el at i ve t o boundar y
i dent i f i cat i on.
45
5.1 CAUTI ON MESSAGE ( FI RST LEVEL)
The si mpl est message t o be conveyed i s "CAUTI ON - BI OHAZARDOUS WASTE
BURI ED HERE" .
f ur t her i nvest i gat i on.
sever al message t ypes t o f aci l i t at e compr ehensi bi l i t y: i coni c, symbol i c, and
l i ngui st i c.
met hods as space and i nher ent channel pr oper t i es al l ow.
Thi s si mpl e message shoul d di scour age i nt er f er ence bef or e
The basi c war ni ng message coul d be t r ansmi t t ed usi ng
For each channel , t he message coul d be conveyed by as many
5. 1. 1 I coni c Message
Cer t ai n i coni c si gns can be so di r ect l y r el at ed t o an i mage or at t r i but e
t hat t hei r r ef er ent i al meani ng i s appar ent ; consequent l y t hey may not have t o
be l ear ned and woul d t her ef or e r equi r e a mi ni mumof pr ocessi ng f or compr e-
hensi bi l i t y ( Tannenbaum, 1984). I coni c f or ms can convey a message wi t hout
r el i ance on a l anguage; an ar r angement of such si gns ( a pi ct ogr aph) coul d be
used t o convey a r el at i vel y compl ex sequence of i deas. Thus, a pi ct ogr aph
depi ct i ng a ser i es of sequent i al event s or act i ons coul d be used t o convey
cer t ai n el ement s of t he message wi t hout dependence on exi st i ng or f ut ur e
l anguages. Pi ct or i al r epr esent at i ons can be desi gned t o use t he smal l est
number of uni t s needed t o convey t he gr eat est amount of i nf or mat i on by
st r i ct l y adher i ng t o vi sual r eal i smand, si mul t aneousl y, excl udi ng det ai l s
unnecessar y f or compl et e under st andi ng ( Gi vens, 1981). One suggest ed met hod
of presenting a pictograph repository warning message via iconic representa-
t i ons on t he r eposi t or y mar ker syst emi s shown i n Appendi x A.
5.1.2 Symbol i c Message
Devel opment of a r ecogni zed symbol t o t r ansmi t t he basi c war ni ng message
coul d enhance l ong- t er mcompr ehensi on. Si gns t hat ar e common wi t hi n a cul t ur e
become compr ehensi bl e due t o cont i nued exposur e and f ami l i ar i t y wi t hout t he
need f or f or mal l ear ni ng. Si gns t hat ar e i mpor t ant t o human heal t h and saf et y
(e. g. , t r af f i c si gns) ar e most l i kel y t o be per pet uat ed by speci al t r ai ni ng
beyond si mpl e knowl edge gai ned t hr ough exposur e t o t he si gns (e. g. , dr i ver
t r ai ni ng or l i cense exami nat i ons) . I n any case, f or a symbol t o gai n meani ng
46
and usage i n or di nar y communi cat i on, i t must be commonl y used and gr oup sanc-
ti oned ( Tannenbaum, 1984) .
Ther e ar e l i kel y t o be onl y t wo t o f i ve hi gh- l evel wast e r eposi t or i es i n
t he Uni t ed St at es, not a suf f i ci ent number f or "common usage" l ear ni ng. I f
t he caut i on symbol i s used f or ot her r adi oact i ve wast es as wel l ( l ow- l evel
wast es, ur ani ummi l l t ai l i ngs) , t he number of si t es di spl ayi ng i t coul d
i ncr ease t o, per haps, hundr eds, st i l l not l ar ge enough t o ensur e f ami l i ar i t y.
Ther e ar e pot ent i al l y many t housands of si t es f or al l bi ohazar dous wast e
di sposal i n t hi s count r y ( Pi shdadazar and Moghi ssi , 1980). A symbol used f or
al l bi ohazar dous wast e di sposal si t es* i n t hi s count r y woul d be qui t e common.
Two addi t i onal benef i t s woul d accr ue. Fi r st , t he symbol woul d be hi ghl y
unl i kel y t o be f or got t en because of i t s wi despr ead cont i nuous use; t her e ar e
t oo many per pet ual l y bi ohazar dous wast e di sposal si t es di st r i but ed t hr oughout
t he count r y. Second, a symbol woul d pr ovi de usef ul pr ot ect i on t o t he publ i c
f r omal l bi ohazar dous di sposal si t es, many of whi ch, by vi r t ue of t hei r pr ox-
i mi t y t o popul at ed ar eas and t he accessi bl e envi r onment , wi l l cont i nue t o pose
a mor e i mmedi at e hazar d t han r adi oact i ve wast e r eposi t or i es. The devel opment
of an i nt er nat i onal l y accept ed symbol t hat coul d be used f or al l bi ohazar dous
wast es woul d f ur t her i ncr ease i t s usage and f or t i f y i t s r ecogni t i on as a
war ni ng message.
coul d al so be per pet uat ed t hr ough educat i on.
Because of i t s r el evance t o heal t h and saf et y, t he symbol
I n devel opi ng t he symbol , t he pr i mar y concer ns are:
I t shoul d be noncont r over si al , so as t o be easi l y accept ed
( adopt i on of a pr esent l y accept ed i nt er nat i onal symbol shoul d
r esol ve t hi s concer n) .
0 I t shoul d be ar t i st i cal l y si mpl e t o avoi d t endenci es t o st yl i ze
0 I t shoul d be i coni c, t o t he ext ent pr act i cal , t o assi st i n com-
0
or si mpl i f y i t wi t h t i me and usage.
pr ehensi on.
I t shoul d be uni quel y appl i ed t o bi ohazar dous mat er i al s di sposed
of by bur i al .
0
*Thi s suggest i on r el at es onl y t o t he use of an i nt er nat i onal symbol t o
hel p of f set l anguage changes.
t hi s r epor t i s not i nt ended t o be uni ver sal l y appl i ed t o al l bi ohazar dous
wast e di sposal si t es.
The t ot al communi cat i on syst emdi scussed i n
47
0 I t shoul d at t r act at t ent i on.
0 I t shoul d be l egi bl e.
Such f act or s as si ze, col or , shape, cont r ast , and spat i al r el at i onshi ps
af f ect l egi bi l i t y. For pur poses of at t ent i on, a bol d, di st i nct i ve symbol
shoul d be used i n a var i et y of si t uat i ons, pr ef er abl y wi t h some degr ee of var -
i at i on i n f or mand wi t h t he abi l i t y t o st and out f r omi t s sur r oundi ngs as much
as possi bl e.
( Tannenbaum, 1984).
A pr oposed war ni ng symbol f or bi ohazar dous wast e bur i al i s shown i n
Fi gur e 5- 2. The symbol consi st s of a t r i angl e ar ound a l ar ge ar r ow poi nt i ng
downwar d; t he ar r ow cont ai ns t he i nt er nat i onal bi ohazar d symbol . * The
t r i angl e i s cur r ent l y used i nt er nat i onal l y i n a var i et y of si gns t o denot e
caut i on.
Cer t ai n shapes and col or s al so cl ai mmor e at t ent i on t han ot her s
Al t hough a di r ect i onal ar r ow i s nor mal l y used t o encour age movement
i n t hat di r ect i on, pl aci ng t he hazar d symbol wi t hi n t he ar r ow count er mands
t hat i mpl i cat i on. The caut i on message can be r ei nf or ced by usi ng col or s.
Yel l ow, of t en used t o i ndi cat e caut i on, coul d pr ovi de t he backgr ound f or t he
symbol .
ar r ow.
( Tannenbaum, 1984).
can be pl aced on mar ker s and monument s, const r uct ed as a l ar ge ear t hwor k, be
out l i ned i n mat er i al s sui t abl e f or det ect i on by sur vey i nst r ument s, and be
used on document s. The si ze of t he symbol wi l l be gover ned by t he abi l i t y of
t he vi ewer t o compr ehend it. For exampl e, a ver y l ar ge symbol coul d be used
f or det ect i on by ai r r econnai ssance.
The bl ack bi ohazar d symbol woul d st and out f r omt he backgr ound of t he
Yel l ow and bl ack ar e pr ef er r ed col or s f or enhanci ng vi si bi l i t y
A symbol can be used wi t h a number of channel s. For i nst ance, t he symbol
..
5. 1. 3 Ver bal Message
I nf or mat i on t r ansmi t t ed at t he f i r st l evel al so announces t he need f or
caut i on i n ver bal f or m. The message cont ent at t hi s l evel , "CAUTI ON -
BI OHAZAROOUS WASTE BURI ED HERE" , i s i dent i cal wi t h t he desi r ed connot at i on of
*The basi c symbol i c message coul d be suppl ement ed wi t h ot her symbol s commonl y
used f or spec f i c t ypes of hazar dous mat er i al s, such as t he t r ef oi l f or
r adi at i on, t o pr ovi de mor e speci f i c i nf or mat i on r egar di ng t he t ype of wast e
mat er i al s bur ed.
48
n
49
t he symbol . Thi s cont ent , whi l e st i l l pr ovi di ng onl y mi ni mal i nf or mat i on,
t r ansmi t s. a war ni ng and i ndi cat es t he r eason f or caut i on.
message coul d be t r ansmi t t ed i n sever al l anguages t o pr ovi de r edundancy, as
di scussed i n Sect i on 4.
Thi s basi c caut i on
5.2 WARNI NG MESSAGE ( SECOND LEVEL)
The pr evi ous l evel i s di r ect ed sol el y t owar d communi cat i ng caut i on about t he
pr esence of bi ohazar dous wast e bur i ed by peopl e, whi l e t he second l evel
message woul d convey bot h a war ni ng t hat t he wast e i s r adi oact i ve and t he
l ocat i on wher e t he wast e i s bur i ed at t he si t e.
and t he wast e woul d be di r ect ed t owar d peopl e at t he si t e.
Bot h messages about t he si t e
The amount of dat a woul d be l i mi t ed t o t he space avai l abl e i n t he message
channel . The f ol l owi ng f act ual i nf or mat i on woul d be pr esent ed:
0 War ni ng message
0 Type of wast e
0 Dept h o f wast e
0 Reposi t or y boundar i es.
Thi s amount of dat a need not al l be t r ansmi t t ed ei t her symbol i cal l y,
i coni cal l y, or ver bal l y; t he message coul d r el y on a combi nat i on of t hese
met hods. I n addi t i on t o t he war ni ng symbol and t he ver bal caut i on st at ement ,
t he message shoul d st at e t hat t he wast e i s r adi oact i ve. Dat a about t he dept h
of wast e, si ze of r eposi t or y, and how t he r eposi t or y i s mar ked coul d be com-
muni cat ed by wor ds and dr awi ngs. A map of si t e mar ker s and a dr awi ng of t he
wast e bel ow- t he sur f ace coul d be pr ovi ded t o l i mi t t he need f or wor ds.
message woul d al so di r ect t he r eader t o a l ocat i on wher e f ur t her i nf or mat i on
can be f ound.
wor ds such as t hese:
The
I n summar y, t he second l evel message woul d i ncl ude t he war ni ng symbol and
CAUTI ON - BI OHAZARDOUS WASTE BURI ED HERE.
met er s
Radi oact i ve wast es ar e bur i ed -
bel ow t he sur f ace wi t hi n a -
hect ar e
ar ea bounded by - mar ker s.
i nf or mat i on l ocat ed - ,
Fur t her
al ong wi t h a map of t he mar ker ar eas and, per haps, a cr oss- sect i ona
of t he wast e bur i ed bel ow t he sur f ace.
dr awi ng
50
To ensur ehhat t he message can be i nt er pr et ed, t he wr i t t en i nf or mat i on
shoul d be gi ven i n a mul t i pl i ci t y of l anguages, such as t he si x l anguages
of f i ci al l y used i n t he Uni t ed Nat i ons. *
5.3 DETAI LED MESSAGE ( THI RD LEVEL)
The pr evi ous t wo l evel s of meani ng at t empt t o convey nont echni cal i nf or m-
at i on about t he si t e and t he wast e. The t hi r d l evel woul d pr ovi de addi t i onal
det ai l about t he t ype and t he amount of wast e and t he char act er i st i cs of t he
i nf or mat i on:
number of packages
si t e. The message woul d pr ovi de at l east t he f ol l owi ng
0 Reposi t or y di mensi ons and dept h
0 The cont ent s of each wast e package and t he
0 Char act er i st i cs of t he wast e
0 Type and st r uct ur e of engi neer ed bar r i er s
0 Act i ons t o be avoi ded to ensur e saf et y.
The wr i t t en ver si on of t hi s i nf or mat i on woul d be equi va
t ext .
ent t o a f ew pages of
One of t he l i mi t i ng f act or s r egar di ng t hi s l evel i s t he uncer t ai nt y con-
cer ni ng t echni cal knowl edge of t he audi ence r ecei vi ng t he message. Because
t he pur pose o f t hi s l evel i s t o t r ansmi t dat a f or publ i c i nf or mat i on, t he
message must be compr ehensi bl e t o adul t s wi t h l i t t l e or no knowl edge of t he
si t e and t he wast e and no speci al backgr ound i n physi cs and chemi st r y. The
i nf or mat i on must be at l east t echni cal enough t o convey t he nat ur e of t he
pot ent i al wast e hazar d yet si mpl e enough t o be under st ood by an aver age adul t .
An exampl e of such a message i s pr esent ed i n Fi gur e 5-3.
i n Fi gur e 5-3 i l l ust r at es an exampl e of t he " r el ay" message di scussed i n
Sect i on 4.
second l evel messages, woul d al so be par t of t he t hi r d l evel message.
addi t i on, pi ct ogr aphs and di agr ams of t he r eposi t or y l ayout , wast e package
desi gn, r adi oact i ve decay chai ns, and ot her mat t er sui t abl e f or pi ct ogr aphi c
or di agr ammat i c pr esent at i on coul d be used t o enhance compr ehensi on of t he
message.
The l ast par agr aph
I coni c r epr esent at i ons, whi ch wer e used i n t r ansmi t t i ng f i r st and
I n
*The deci si on on l anguages woul d be made at t he t i me of r eposi t or y
decommi ssi oni ng.
51
The Uni t ed St t es of Amer i ca, i n t he year , bur i ed met r i c t ons of
r adi oact i ve wast e bel ow t hi s ar ea.
bur i ed mat er i al coul d be danger ous i f i t wer e i mpr oper l y moved or i f t he
r eposi t or y i s damaged.
The bur i ed r adi oact i ve wast e was pr oduced by t he f i ssi on of ur ani umt o gener -
at e el ect r i ci t y. The wast e i ncl udes r adi oact i ve el ement s, such as pl ut oni um,
ur ani um, and cesi um.
t hat has been packaged i n met al cani st er s.
The sur f ace of t he l and i s saf e, but t he
The r adi oact i ve wast e was st abi l i zed i n a gl ass mat er i al
Ther e ar e wast e cani st er s, bur i ed met er s bel ow t he sur f ace. These
cani st er s have been empl aced i n a ( t =of r ock f or mat i on i n r ows met er s
apar t ,
cani st er sar e l ocat ed over an area- met er s l ong and - met er s wi de.
The r adi oact i ve wast e has been bur i ed at t hi s l ocat i on and i n t hi s manner t o
ensur e t hat t he wast e does not become di ssol ved i n ci r cul at i ng gr ound wat er .
I f gr ound wat er cont ami nat ed by t he wast e wer e t o r each t he out si de envi r on-
ment and ent er a f ood chai n, i t coul d possi bl y har ml i vi ng cr eat ur es.
pot ent i al f or har mdecr eases si gni f i cant l y over t he f i r st 500 year s, but t he
wast e shoul d cont i nue t o be l ef t undi st ur bed i f possi bl e. Pr oper i nst r uct i ons
f or movi ng t he wast e or usi ng t he l and above i t wi t hout af f ect i ng t hese wast es
can be f ound,
l i br ar i es and ar chi ves.
cani st er s per r ow, and w m adj oi ni ng cani st er s. The
The
Mor e det ai l ed i nf or mat i on has been pl aced at ot her maj or
These messages shoul d be t r ansl at ed i nt o l anguages common t o your t i me.
t ur e r eader s wi l l be bet t er abl e t o under st and and f ol l ow t hese messages i f
t hey ar e changed t o t he cur r ent l anguage.
Fu-
FIGURE 53. EXAMPLE OF THIRD LEVEL MESSAGE
52
5.4 DETAI LED TECHNI CAL I NFORMATI ON ( FOURTH LEVEL)
The f our t h l evel message woul d be a wr i t t en, compr ehensi ve di scussi on
about t he r eposi t or y t hat woul d be wi del y di ssemi nat ed.
wr i t t en i nf or mat i on, mat hemat i cal dat a, t abl es, f i gur es, maps, and di agr ams
woul d pr ovi de cur r ent l y known i mpor t ant i nf or mat i on about t he r eposi t or y and
t he wast e. Thi s l evel of i nf or mat i on woul d al so i ncl ude a r epr oduct i on of t he
si gns or symbol s di spl ayed on t he si t e mar ker s and monument . Compl et e r el ay
and cr oss- r ef er enci ng i nst r uct i ons and t he pr eci se geogr aphi cal l ocat i ons of
t he r eposi t or i es woul d be i ncl uded.
t hat i n t he pr evi ous l evel s, shoul d be di ssemi nat ed wi del y t o i ncr ease t he
l i kel i hood o f sur vi val . Repet i t i on o f t he det ai l ed t echni cal i nf or mat i on i n
many l anguages and l ocat i ons t hr oughout t he wor l d woul d pr omot e sur vi val and
compr ehensi on of t he message.
Two versions of the fourth level information are envisioned: complete
and compr ehensi ve di scussi on i n Engl i sh, * cont ai ned i n t echni cal l y or i ent ed
document s of appr oxi mat el y 500 t o 1, 500 pages, and a mor e condensed ver si on
( about 200 pages) avai l abl e i n mul t i pl e l anguages.
Besi des det ai l ed
Such i nf or mat i on, bei ng l ess dur abl e t han
SUMMARY
A summar y t abl e of t he message l evel s di scussed
ded i n Tabl e 5- 1. The l i kel i hood of ef f ect i ve
i n t hi s chapt er i s
ong- t er mcomi nuni cat i on
woul d be enhanced by usi ng a mul t i pl i ci t y of bot h communi cat i on codes ( wr i t t en
l anguages, pi ct ogr aphs, and a symbol ) , and message cont ent s keyed t o t he
r eader and t he channel of communi cat i on, and by encour agi ng a r et r ansl at i on
re1 ay syst em.
*Engl i sh i s t he pr edomi nant wr i t t en and spoken l anguage of t he i nt er nat i onal
Q
nucl ear communi t y.
53
Tabl e 5- 1. Summar y of Message Level s
Message Level Descr i pt i on
Rudi ment ar y Si mpl e connot at i on t hat somet hi ng made by humans
i s at t he si t e.
1
2
Caut i on message:
BURI ED HERE. "
"CAUTI ON - BI OHAZARDOUS WASTES
Si mpl e wr i t t en message:
WASTES BURI ED HERE. Radi oact i ve wast es ar e bur i ed
ar ea bounded by - mar ker s.
l ocat ed - ( I .
"CAUTI ON - BI OHAZARDOUS
hect ar e
Fur t her i nf or mat i on
- met er s bel ow t he sur f ace wi t hi n a -
Det ai l ed message: nat ur e, l ocat i on, and empl ace-
ment t i me of wast es al ong wi t h i nf or mat i on r egar d-
i ng why act i ons ar e t o be avoi ded ( Fi gur e 5-3).
Det ai l ed t echni cal i nf or mat i on: appr oxi mat el y 500
t o 1, 500- page t echni cal descr i pt i on of t he r eposi -
t or y and t he r i sk of pot ent i al human i nt er f er ence.
54
6 MESSAGE TRANSMI SSI ON
For successf ul t r ansmi ssi on of messages over ver y l ong t i me per i ods, t he
message channel s must be dur abl e and det ect abl e by f ut ur e soci et i es.
bi l i t y r equi r es a car ef ul mat chi ng of mat er i al s and desi gns t o envi r onment al
and usage condi t i ons. Det ect abi l i t y r equi r es desi gns and l ocat i ons t hat wi l l
be obser ved by peopl e who coul d i nf l uence t he l i kel i hood of human i nt er -
f er ence .
Dur a-
Det ect abi l i t y and dur abi l i t y ar e cl osel y r el at ed. The opt i ons avai l abl e
f or cr eat i ng det ect abl e syst ems ar e l i mi t ed t o t hose t hat have t he r equi r ed
dur abi l i t y. Si mi l ar l y, t he desi gns and l ocat i ons chosen f or det ect abi l i t y
est abl i sh t he envi r onment al and usage condi t i ons consi der ed i n desi gni ng f or
dur abi l i t y.
det ect abi l i t y.
channel s i s t o i nvest i gat e sever al anci ent monument s. Thi s sect i on
begi ns wi t h a descr i pt i on of var i ous mar ker s t hat have l ast ed at l east one
t housand year s.
i mpor t ant t o, and t he pot ent i al opt i ons avai l abl e f or , desi gni ng dur abl e and
det ect abl e message channel s t hat wer e l ear ned f r omt hese mar ker s and ot her
ar chaeol ogi cal si t es, as wel l as f r omcur r ent r esear ch. The di scussi on i s
keyed t o t wo gener al message- channel t ypes; mar ker syst ems desi gned t o t r ans-
mi t f i r st , second, and t hi r d l evel messages ( Tabl e 5- 1) and wr i t t en messages,
whi ch coul d convey any l evel of message but woul d be of par t i cul ar i mpor t ance
t o f our t h l evel messages. The f or mer wer e consi der ed t he most l i kel y t o be
used at t he si t e, * wher eas t he l at t er coul d be used at or away f r omt he si t e.
I n addi t i on, t he oral t r ansmi ssi on of i nf or mat i on i s di scussed.
Fi gur e 6-1 shows t he l ogi c f l owf or ensur i ng dur abi l i t y and
One met hod f or det er mi ni ng t he dur abi l i t y and det ect abi l i t y of message
The r emai nder of t hi s sect i on di scusses t he consi der at i ons
*The f i r st t hr ough t hi r d l evel messages f or whi ch t he mar ker s woul d be
desi gned woul d al l i ndi cat e ". . . waste bur i ed her e" , t hus i mpl yi ng onsi t e
mar ker l ocat i ons.
- - - - - . . ~ - ....
. . ~~ . - -
Communi cati on must
conti nue over long
m ?
Redundancy i n techniques
t o enhance observation/
percepti on must be used
i
Long-lasting techniques
must be used
17
A variety of transmission
I techniques must be used
19
1
Redundancy i n individual
techniques must be used
18
I
Communi cati on system
must be easily detected
I
t
11
A 4
C
FIGURE 6-1. DURABILITY AND DETECTABILITY
56
6.1 ARCHAEOLOGI CAL I NFORMATI ON
6.1.1 Anci ent Monument s
The abi l i t y t o communi cat e i deas' t o fi t ur e peopl e i s a SI i l l not l i mi t ed
t o cont empor ar y peopl e.
t empt i ng t o send messages i nt o t he f ut ur e, exampl es of t hei r wor k t o desi gnat e
si t es, pr ot ect t hemsel ves, or pr ay t o t hei r gods have l ast ed f or t housands of
year s and car r i ed messages t o us about t hei r i deas, bel i ef s, and val ues.
These monument s pr ovi de exi st i ng exampl es of how t o t r ansmi t messages t hat ar e
dur abl e and det ect abl e over l ong per i ods of t i me. Sel ect ed mar ker s, chosen t o
r epr esent a var i et y of cul t ur es and cl i mat es, ar e descr i bed t o pr ovi de i nf or -
mat i on and backgr ound t hat can be used i n desi gni ng a r eposi t or y communi cat i on
syst em.
Whi l e ear l i er ci vi l i zat i ons may not have been at -
The Pyr ami ds, Egypt
The t hr ee ver y l ar ge pyr ami ds at Gi za near Cai r o ar e t ombs f or t he t hr ee
r ul er s of t he Four t h Dynast y of Egypt ( appr oxi mat el y 2,600-2,500 B.C.). They
st and f r om450 f eet t al l and 750 f eet on a si de t o 218 f eet t al l and 356 f eet
on a si de. These pyr ami ds wer e made of a l ocal l i mest one cor e and f i ni shed
wi t h a whi t e l i mest one or gr ani t e l ayer ( Fakhr y, 1969; Br at t on, 1968).
Whi l e t he cont ent s of t he t ombs have been l oot ed i n ant i qui t y ( Smi t h,
1965) and near l y al l t he casi ng of f i ner st ones and par t of t he cor es have
been quar r i ed, t hese act i ons have onl y had a mi nor ef f ect on t hei r i mmense
bul k ( Kapl an, 1982a). Knowl edge about t he pyr ami ds was t r ansmi t t ed t hr ough
Gr eek and Roman wr i t er s ( Br at t on, 1968) and Ar ab hi st or i ans ( Hassan, 1953).
St onehenge, Engl and
The gener al consensus i s t hat t he Br onze Age Br i t ons wer e t he peopl e who
bui l t St onehenge, a monument of l ar ge st andi ng st ones ar r anged i n a r i ng of
upr i ght st ones wi t h l i nt el s, an i nner r i ng wi t hout l i nt el s, and t wo hor sehoes
of upr i ght st ones ( Kapl an, 1982a).
pur pose of t he si t e i s st i l l bei ng debat ed, i ncl udi ng such suggest i ons as i t s
Due t o t he absence of wr i t t en r ecor ds, t he
n
57
FIGURE 6-2. STONEHENGE
58
havi ng some ast r onomi cal f unct i on or bei ng a r i t ual encl osur e f or meet i ngs
( Bur l , 1976).
used t o be al l owed t o chi p of f mement os ( Hawki ns, 1965). Two- t hi r ds of t he
upr i ght st ones sur vi ve and r emai n i n posi t i on ( Fi gur e 6- 2); sever al of t he
st ones have car ved f i gur es f r omt he Br onze Age on t hem.
St onehenge has wi t hst ood i nvasi ons i nt o Br i t ai n, war s, and vi si t or s who
Nazca Li nes, Per u
The Nazca Li nes ar e a col l ect i on of l i nes, geomet r i c f or ms, and semi -
nat ur al i st i c f i gur es cr eat ed by humans, and made possi bl e by a par t i cul ar set
of geol ogi c ci r cumst ances, i ncl udi ng t he decomposi t i on of r ocks and t he
deposi t i on of oxi des on t hei r sur f aces. The l i nes wer e cr eat ed on a l ar ge
scal e ( wi t h one f i gur e measur i ng 50C f eet i n l engt h and a si ngl e l i ne
ext endi ng mor e t han 6. 5 mi l es) by t ur ni ng cer t ai n pebbl es over t o t ake
advant age of t he col or cont r ast bet ween t he oxi di zed and t he nonoxi di zed si des
( Hawki ns, 1969).
Compar i son of f i gur es on pot t er y t o t he f i gur es on t he deser t f l oor and
car bon dat i ng have est abl i shed t he or i gi n of t he l i nes at 200 B. C. t o 600 A. D.
( I sbel l , 1978; Br oecker , et al , 1956; Ral ph, et al , 1973). The pur pose of
t hese l i nes i s unknown al t hough t her e have been some suggest i ons t hat t hey
coul d be ast r onomi cal si ght i ng l i nes, pi ct ur es t o be vi ewed by t he gods,
r el i gi ous or cer emoni al pat hways, or mechani sms t o bal ance t he r esour ces and
popul at i on.
Ser pent Mound, Ohi o
The Ser pent Mound, an embankment of ear t h i n t he f or mof a snake i n t he
act of uncoi l i ng, consi st s of t wo par t s, t he ser pent and an oval wal l ( f i gur e
6- 3). The ser pent i s 1, 254 f eet l ong, f i t t i ng wi t hi n an ar c of 737 f eet , wi t h
a hei ght of about 4 t o 5 f eet , t aper i ng t o 1 f oot hi gh at t he t er mi nat i on of
t he t ai l . The oval wal l has di amet er s of 125 and 60 f eet , r i si ng 4 f eet hi gh
( Gr eenman, 1970).
The f or mof t he ser pent and oval ar e cl ear but t he i nt er pr et at i on of t he
si t e i s st i l l uncer t ai n. Al t hough no ar t i f act s wer e f ound at t he monument ,
ar t i f act s at a bur i al mound wi t hi n 400 f eet of t he ser pent bel ong t o t he Adena
59
FIGURE 6-3. SERPENT MOUND
60
I ndi ans who l i ved i n Ohi o bet ween 1,000 B.C. and 700 A. D. The bur i al mound
and t he Ser pent Mound ar e consi der ed t o be bui l t by t he same peopl e ( Gr eenman,
1970; Put nam, 1890).
The Gr eat Wal l , Chi na
Begun i n 221 B.C., t he Gr eat Wal l or i gi nal l y spanned a di st ance of about
1,850 mi l es, but l at er addi t i ons, l oops, and i nner wal l s have near l y doubl ed
i t s l engt h.
mi l es of wal l s pr evi ousl y bui l t .
accor di ng t o t he l ocal bui l di ng mat er i al s (e. g. , dr y t amped ear t h, st one,
br i cks) ( Gei l , 1909; Si l ver ber g, 1965; Fr yer , 1975). The Gr eat Wal l has been
mai nt ai ned and r ebui l t over t he cent ur i es. Par t s ar e i n excel l ent condi t i on,
whi l e ot her sect i ons have det er i or at ed as a r esul t of t he const r uct i on t ech-
ni ques used ( Kapl an, 1982a). I n addi t i on t o t he wr i t t en hi st or y of t he Wal l ,
a vast l i t er at ur e has devel oped about t he Wal l , i ncl udi ng poems about i t s
beaut y and st or i es of t he har dshi ps of t he peopl e who bui l t i t.
Wal l i s an i nt egr al par t of Chi nese mi l i t ar y and cul t ur al hi st or y ( Si l ver ber g,
1965; Fr yer , 1975; Lum, 1960).
The Wal l was compl et ed i n 210 B. C. , i ncor por at i ng about 1,300
The mat er i al s used f or t he const r uct i on var y
The Gr eat
6.2 MESSAGE DURABI LI TY
6.2.1 Onsi t e Mar ker s
The dur abi l i t y of onsi t e mar ker s wi l l depend mai nl y on r esi st ance to
nat ur al f or ces ( weat her i ng, sei smi c gr ound mot i on) , r esi st ance t o t amper i ng
and vandal i sm, and t he l ack of i ncent i ves f or r emoval . The mar ker must t her e-
f or e be bui l t of ver y har d, st abl e mat er i al s t hat ar e r esi st ant t o cor r osi on,
oxi dat i on, and er osi on.
r emove and have l i t t l e r ecycl i ng val ue.
The mar ker must al so be di f f i cul t t o di smant l e and
A number of mat er i al and desi gn opt i ons wer e st udi ed f r omt he per spect i ve
o f hi st or i cal pr ecedent and moder n mat er i al s sci ence ( Kapl an, 1982a; Ber r y,
1983).
and have been f ound i n ar chaeol ogi cal excavat i ons ( Tyl ecot e, 1976). Some have
sur vi ved i n excel l ent condi t i on i n f avor abl e envi r onment s such as dr y t ombs or
The ear l i est copper ar t i f act s, f or exampl e, wer e made 7,000 year s ago
n
n
61
caves; e. g. , a col l ect i on of copper vessel s and a t abl e wer e f ound i n a 4,000-
year - ol d Egypt i an t omb ( Al dr ed, 1965). A s not ed i n Sect i on 4, however , most
met al s have hi st or i cal l y been r egar ded as usef ul commodi t i es and t he
hi st or i cal t r end t o r emove t hemf r ommar ker s r esul t s i n an over al l l ow
ef f ect i ve dur abi l i t y f or exposed met al s.
Gl ass and cer ami c mat er i al s wer e al so i nvest i gat ed. Gl ass and pot t er y,
whi l e dat i ng t o 1, 500 B. C. and 6, 000 B. C. , r espect i vel y, can sust ai n si gni f i -
cant damage f r omweat her i ng ( Kapl an, 1982b) and physi cal shock. The anci ent
ar t i f act s t hat have sur vi ved di d so under f avor abl e envi r onment al condi t i ons
( Ber r y, 1983).
and cer t ai n cer ami cs woul d need t o be pr ot ect ed f r omdi r ect exposur e t o t he
el ement s; t hus, t hey shoul d not be used on t he ext er i or sur f aces of mar ker s.
Ot her cer ami c mat er i al s, such as al umi numoxi de compounds, can be f or mul at ed
t o have pr oper t i es t hat woul d r esi st ext er nal weat her i ng over t he t i me per i od
of i nt er est ( Ber r y, 1983).
Concr et e and st eel const r uct i on of f er s hi gh st r engt h and desi gn f l exi -
bi l i t y. Cer t ai n concr et es can l ast mi l l enni a ( Mal i nowski , 1979). Concr et e
r ei nf or ced wi t h st ai nl ess st eel coul d, t her ef or e, be consi der ed f or mar ker
const r uct i on.
some ot her mat er i al s, however , and woul d not be expect ed t o sur vi ve 10, 000
year s of exposur e.
Ther e ar e many exampl es o f anci ent st one mar ker s and monument s t hat have
sur vi ved t o var yi ng degr ees wi t h l egi bl e messages.
r eveal s t hat hard cr yst al l i ne r ocks, such as gr ani t e and basal t , pr oved sui t-
abl e f or r esi st i ng bot h peopl e and t he el ement s.
damaged by er osi on, abr asi on, or i nt ent i onal di sf i gur ement t o make desi r abl e
mar ker s. Mar bl e and l i mest one wer e commonl y used and l ast ed r easonabl y wel l ,
but t hey have r ecent l y shown sever e det er i or at i on f r omi ndust r i al pol l ut i on,
especi al l y sul f ur i c aci d i n t he at mospher e ( Bour as, 1979). Mar ker s mi ght ,
t her ef or e, be cr eat ed f r omquar r i ed gr ani t e or basal t scul pt ur ed i nt o t he
desi r ed shape.
synt het i c r ock f or med i nt o t he desi r ed shape and si ze. One such mat er i al t hat
has r ecei ved consi der abl e at t ent i on as a pot ent i al wast e f or mmat r i x, and
To be of val ue as message- channel mat er i al s, t her ef or e, gl ass
Concr et e sur f aces ar e l ess r esi st ant t o di r ect weat her i ng t han
A r evi ew of ar chaeol ogy
Sof t er st ones ar e too easi l y
The dur abl e pr oper t i es of nat ur al r ocks coul d be al so obt ai ned f r om
62
mi ght al so be sui t abl e f or mar ker s, i s Synroc. * The advant age of a mat er i al
l i ke Synr oc i s t hat i t combi nes t he desi gn and f abr i cat i on f l exi bi l i t y of
engi neer ed mat er i al s wi t h t he pr oven l ong- t er mdur abi l i t y of nat ur al
mat er i al s.
vi val .
of t he smal l er st ones have been r emoved, t he l ar ger st ones r emai n ( At ki nson,
1956). some of t he smal l er f aci ng st ones
have been r emoved whi l e most of t he l ar ger ones have been undi st ur bed.
t he number of st ones i s so l ar ge t hat an at t empt t o di smant l e one of t he
pyr ami ds was hal t ed due t o t he expense ( Fakhr y, 1969).
st r uct i on.
t ages when compar ed t o a monol i t h.
agent bet ween t he component s set s up a mat er i al s i nt er f ace t hat i s mor e sus-
cept i bl e t o det er i or at i on i n f r eeze- t hawcycl es.
Gr eat Wal l of Chi na, mai nt enance i s r equi r ed f or l ong- t er mexi st ence. Second,
mar ker s bui l t of separ abl e par t s ar e easi er t o t ear down and r euse.
bl ocks f r omanci ent bui l di ngs and mar ker s wer e r emoved f or bui l di ng new st r uc-
t ur es ( Kapl an, 1982a).
One possi bl e cour se of act i on woul d be t o f or ma har d, dur abl e shel l of
nat ur al or synt het i c r ock t o car r y t he message and r esi st sur f ace damage, and
t o pour wi t hi n t he shel l a st r uct ur al l y sound r ei nf or ced- concr et e** cor e f or
mechani cal st r engt h and st abi l i t y. Long- l ast i ng quasi - monol i t hi c st r uct ur es
coul d be cr eat ed t hr ough pr esent desi gn and mat eri al s*** t echni ques, by
i nt er l ocki ng shel l component s t o each ot her and t o t he cor e. Compl ex j oi nt s
(e. g. , t ongue and gr oove) seal ed wi t h dur abl e bondi ng mat er i al s coul d be used
t o excl ude moi st ur e.
bondi ng t he shel l and t he cent r al cor e ar e shown i n Fi gur e 6- 4.
Si ze and t he t ype of const r uct i on appear t o be maj or f act or s f or sur -
The st ones used i n St onehenge wei gh 4 t o 50 t ons each.
The same i s t r ue of t he pyr ami ds:
Al t hough some
Al so,
Sur vi val al so appear s t o be enhanced by si ngl e- pi ece ( monol i t hi c) con-
A mar ker bui l t of component par t s appear s t o have t wo di sadvan-
Fi r st , t he use of a mor t ar or a bi ndi ng
Ther ef or e, as seen at t he
Many
A schemat i c di agr amof t wo possi bl e ar r angement s f or
*Synr oc i s a synt het i c r ock devel oped t o si mul at e t he l ong- t er mwear pr op-
er t i es of cer t ai n nat ur al r ocks. I t consi st s of a number of oxi des
( i ncl udi ng hol l andi t e, per ovski t e, and zi r conol i t e) f or med i n a hot -
si nt er i ng pr ocess at appr oxi mat el y 1, 300 C ( Ber r y, 1983; .
l i f et i mes of t housands of year s. Common st eel r ei nf or ci ng mat er i al s woul d
cause det er i or at i on.
f abr i cat i ng t he shel l component s f r omSynr oc.
**A chemi cal l y compat i bl e r ei nf or ci ng mat er i al woul d be r equi r ed f or mar ker
***Furt her wor k woul d be r equi r ed t o demonst r at e t he appar ent f easi bi l i t y of
n
. -
? ! I ! ! ! ?
H l I l O N O M I - I S V l n D V U O d S a O H 1 3 V U N 0 1 1 3 n U l S N 0 3 3 1 8 1 S S O d O M 1 3 - 9 3 U n E N d
E 9
64
I f condi t i ons per mi t , mar ker s coul d al so be cr eat ed f r omnat ur al f eat ur es
at t he si t e, such as r ock out cr oppi ngs or cl i f f f aces. Sever al ar chaeol ogi cal
exampl es - among t hemt he Egypt i an Sphi nx and t he Behi st un I nscr i pt i on of
Dar i us - demonst r at e t he dur abi l i t y of t hi s t echni que.
t ur ed f r omr ock out cr oppi ngs r emai ni ng af t er quar r yi ng had r emoved sur r oundi ng
r ocks mor e sui t abl e f or bui l di ng t he pyr ami ds. I n spi t e of bei ng cut f r oma
r el at i vel y sof t st one i t has sur vi ved sever al t housand year s wi t h onl y occa-
si onal mai nt enance ( Fakhr y, 1969).
t he si de of a cl i f f i n appr oxi mat el y 500 B.C. f or Ki ng Dar i us of Per si a.
i nscr i pt i ons have r emai ned l egi bl e f or 2, 500 year s ( Ol mst ead, 1951). The
f easi bi l i t y of usi ng i ndi genous mar ker s f or r eposi t or y pur poses woul d depend,
of cour se, on t he exi st ence of sui t abl e si t e f eat ur es. The pot ent i al advan-
t age of such mar ker s i s t hat , bei ng cr eat ed f r omnat ur al f eat ur es, t hey coul d
be of a l ar ge si ze and per haps have a soci et al val ue t hat woul d pr ot ect t hem
f r omhuman act i vi t i es.
The Sphi nx was scul p-
The Mar ker of Dar i us was const r uct ed on
I t s
Mar ker s coul d al so be cr eat ed f r omexcess mat er i al s mi ned dur i ng r eposi -
t or y const r uct i on* ( ear t hwor ks) or by i mpr egnat i ng t he si t e wi t h mat er i al s
t hat , bei ng anomal ous at t he si t e, coul d be det ect ed vi sual l y or by i nst r u-
ment s dur i ng t he cour se of a sur vey.
f or a l ong t i me.
have exi st ed sever al t housand year s ( Renf r ew, 1973).
Ohi o i s appr oxi mat el y 1,500 year s of age ( Gr eenman, 1970).
r eposi t or y excavat i ons coul d be used t o cr eat e ver y si zabl e ear t hwor ks i n t he
shape of a f i r st l evel symbol . St abi l i zat i on coul d be enhanced by est abl i sh-
i ng a veget at i ve cover on t he ear t hwor k sur f ace or by cover i ng t he ear t hwor k
wi t h hi ghl y dur abl e and st abl e asphal t compounds ( Asphal t I nst i t ut e, 1977).
The l ar ge si zes possi bl e ( sever al hundr ed met er s on a si de) and t he nat ur e of
t he message** woul d al l ow consi der abl e weat her i ng t o be t ol er at ed wi t hout
i mpai r i ng message t r ansmi ssi on. Al so, t he r el at i vel y gr and nat ur e of such an
Ther e ar e many ar chaeol ogi cal exampl es of ear t hwor ks t hat have sur vi ved
The ear t hwor ks at St onehenge ( banks and chal k- f i l l ed pi t s)
Excess r ock f r om
The Ser pent Mound i n
* Excess mat er i al s ar e mi ned r ock r emai ni ng af t er r eposi t or y backf i l l i ng.
Onl y about 50 t o 60 per cent of t he r ock r emoved can be used f or backf i l l
because of packi ng- densi t y l i mi t at i ons.
**The message woul d be t r ansmi t t ed by t he gener al shape of t he ear t hwor k, not
by i nscr i pt i ons on t he ear t hwor k.
65
ear t hwor k woul d pr obabl y gi ve t consi der abl e aest het i c appeal , whi ch mi ght
enhance sur vi vabi l i t y by cr eat ng a vi si t or at t r act i on t hat mi ght be suf f i -
ci ent l y val ued by f ut ur e gener at i ons t o become a pr ot ect ed ar ea.
The second met hod of t r ansmi t t i ng f i r st l evel messages i s t o cr eat e
anomal ous si t e condi t i ons i n t he shape of t he bi ohazar dous wast e symbol whi ch
woul d be det ect abl e by i nst r ument at i on. Anomal i es coul d i ncl ude sur f ace mat e-
r i al s wi t h di f f er ent heat absor pt i on pr oper t i es t han t hose of t he i ndi genous
gr ound cover and soi l , i n or der t o cr eat e i nf r ar ed i mages det ect abl e by
aer i al / sat el l i t e sur veys. Al so, t he gr ound coul d be i mpr egnat ed wi t h i r on or e
or magnet i t e i n t he shape of t he symbol t o pr ovi de a magnet i c anomal y. The
l at t er met hod coul d be used bel ow t he sur f ace t o af f or d pr ot ect i on f r omweat h-
er i ng and t o enhance l ong- t er mdur abi l i t y.
An addi t i onal r equi r ement f or mar ker s usi ng i nscr i pt i ons t o convey
messages i s l ong- t er mi nscr i pt i on dur abi l i t y. The pl anar sur f aces o f mar ker s
woul d be sui t abl e t o car r y messages i n symbol i c and/ or wr i t t en f or m. Messages
shoul d not be af f i xed t o t he mar ker (e. g. , pl aques) because t hey woul d be t oo
easi l y r emoved, nor shoul d t hey be appl i ed t o t he mar ker (e. g. , pai nt ) because
a sur f ace coat i ng can be t oo easi l y scr aped of f , pai nt ed over , or weat her ed
away.
message ( Kapl an, 1982a). A poi nt t o consi der her e i s whet her t he l et t er i ng or
symbol s shoul d be r ai sed f r om, or cut i nt o, t he sur f ace of t he mar ker . Most
anci ent i nscr i pt i ons wer e cut i nt o t he st one or met al . Rai sed f i gur es wer e
gener al l y r eser ved f or ar t i st i c wor ks. Cut t i ng t he message i nt o t he st one
cr eat ed cr evi ces subj ect t o weat her i ng ef f ect s. Conver sel y, r ai sed l et t er s
wer e mor e suscept i bl e t o vandal i sm- i t was easi er t o chi sel o f f an i nscr i p-
t i on t han t o hack i t out because l ess st one had t o be r emoved. I n gener al ,
engr aved r at her t han r ai sed l et t er s ar e consi der ed mor e sui t abl e f or l ong- t er m
dur abi l i t y, t he human f act or bei ng mor e di f f i cul t t o over come t han l ong- t er m
weat her i ng.
i nt o t he sur f ace by usi ng l et t er s of anot her mat er i al . For exampl e, l et t er s
of a dur abl e mat er i al , l i ke a si nt er ed al umi numoxi de cornpcund sever al cent i -
met er s t hi ck, coul d be cast i nt o a concr et e sur f ace or hot - pr essed i nt o Syvr oc
dur i ng f or mat i on.
mar ker .
A pr ef er abl e opt i on woul d be t o engr ave t he mar ker i t sel f wi t h t he
I f synt het i c mat er i al s ar e used f or mar ker s, t he message coul d be cast
Ei t her met hod woul d pr oduce a message as dur abl e as t he
Resi st ance t o movement by nat ur al or human f or ces i s i mpor t ant t o dur a-
The mar ker s can be made suf f i ci ent l y l ar ge and suf f i ci ent l y wel l bi l i t y.
anchor ed t o make r emoval di f f i cul t . A r easonabl e f r act i on of t he mar ker woul d
need t o be bel ow t he sur f ace, possi bl y anchor ed t o bedr ock. At a mi ni mum, a
r el at i vel y deep pour ed concr et e f oot i ng woul d be r equi r ed t o pr ot ect agai nst
set t l i ng and t o di scour age r emoval .
r emoval or dest r uct i on. Cont empor ar y soci et y, i n gener al , does not f ol l ow
past pr act i ces of r emovi ng or dest r oyi ng anci ent mar ker s even t hough i t i s
wi t hi n i t s power .
abi l i t y t o damage si t e mar ker s, but t hey may cont i nue cur r ent pr act i ces of
pr eser vat i on i f t hey consi der t he si t e monument s t o possess posi t i ve
aest het i c, cul t ur al , or hi st or i cal qual i t i es.
Desi gni ng mar ker s t o pr ovi de aest het i c appeal woul d f ur t her di scour age
Fut ur e t echni cal soci et i es ar e ant i ci pat ed t o have t he same
6.2.2 Wr i t t en Recor ds
n
The pr ecedi ng sect i on was concer ned wi t h t he dur abi l i t y of messages on
l ar ge monol i t hi c mar ker s l ocat ed at t he r eposi t or y si t e. Pr act i cal space l i m-
i t at i ons on mar ker s woul d r ender t hemunsui t abl e f or f our t h l evel messages.
Such messages woul d need t o be t r ansmi t t ed i n a wr i t t en f or mon a medi um
sui t ed f or sever al hundr ed pages of i nf or mat i on.
si t e must be wr i t t en t o expl ai n t he pur pose of t he si t e.
of wr i t t en r ecor ds about St onehenge, i t s pur pose i s obscur e, par t i cul ar l y t he
ast r onomi cal t heor i es associ at ed wi t h i t ( Bur l , 1976). I n cont r ast , t he hi s-
t or i cal r ecor ds about t he pyr ami ds expl ai ned t hei r pur pose ( Br at t on, 1968).
Such messages coul d be l ocat ed on or of f t he si t e. I f l ocat ed on t he si t e,
t he messages must be accessi bl e when needed but r emoved f r omunnecessar y expo-
sur e t o pot ent i al l y damagi ng nat ur al or human f or ces.
t he message woul d be r equi r ed f r omt i me t o t i me, her met i cal l y seal ed t i me-
capsul es* woul d not be sui t abl e f or pr ot ect i on.
(e. g. , magnet i c t apes) and mi cr of i l ms do not appear t o pr ovi de suf f i ci ent
Al so, messages about t he
Due t o t he absence
Because r ef er ence t o
Al so, r ecor ded messages
*Ti me capsul es ar e essent i al l y si ngl e use channel s. Once opened, a new or
r edundant capsul e woul d be r equi r ed f or subsequent r eader s.
67
l ongevi t y ( Ber r y, 1983). Ar chaeol ogy i ndi cat es t hat l i nens, papyr us, cl ay
t abl et s, and met al pl at es have sur vi ved f or t housands of year s, nor mal l y
because of f or t ui t ousl y f avor abl e envi r onment s t hat pr ot ect ed t hemf r omchem-
i cal and mechani cal f or ces ( Ber r y, 1983; Kapl an, 1982a) . Messages engr aved or
made part of cer ami c pl at es may l ast t housands of year s i f pr ot ect ed f r om
di r ect exposur e t o weat her i ng and mal i ci ous mi schi ef ; exampl es ar e cunei f or m
t abl et s ( Gel b, 1973). Met al l i c pl at es coul d of f er l ongevi t y wi t h mor e r esi s-
t ance t o br eakage t han cer ami c t abl et s, but t hey must be pr ot ect ed f r omr e-
cycl i ng. Moder n aci d- f r ee paper s may al so be chemi cal l y st abl e f or t housands
of year s i n pr ot ect ed envi r onment s ( Fi sher Sci ent i f i c, 1964). For exampl e, i f
sui t abl y seal ed i nt o t r anspar ent dur abl e pr ot ect i ve cases t hr ough whi ch t hey
coul d be r ead, and i f pr ot ect ed f r omdi r ect human cont act , aci d- f r ee paper s
coul d concei vabl y exi st f or t housands of year s.
The key t o t he sur vi val of onsi t e wr i t t en r ecor ds woul d appear t o be:
0 Tr anscr i bi ng t he message ont o a r easonabl y dur abl e mat er i al t hat
woul d be chemi cal l y and physi cal l y st abl e f or t housands of year s.
Pr ot ect i ng t he dur abl e message medi umf r omdi r ect envi r onment al
exposur e t o t he ext ent f easi bl e.
Al l owi ng human access t o t he message when necessar y, but onl y
wi t h si gni f i cant di f f i cul t y* so as t o avoi d whi msi cal or
mal i ci ous damage.
e
0
For of f si t e wr i t t en r ecor ds, t he above medi a may agai n be sui t abl e. I n
addi t i on, mi cr of i l m, t ape (e. g. , comput er , vi deo) , or ot her el ect r oni c i nf or -
mat i on st or age met hods may be of si gni f i cant val ue i f l ocat ed i n r ecor d
ar chi ves and mai nt ai ned or r epl aced per i odi cal l y. Al t hough t he l i kel i hood of
any gi ven document , t ape, or f i l msur vi vi ng woul d be l ow, gi ven a ver y wi de
di st r i but i on of document s and a wi de var i et y of f or ms i n whi ch t he mat er i al
was document ed, ** a st at i st i cal l y si gni f i cant number of r ef er ences t o t he
r eposi t or y may sur vi ve. One i mpor t ant f act or of document sur vi val i s t he
i mpor t ance post er i t y pl aces on pr ot ect i ng t he publ i c f r ombi ohazar dous wast es.
*Vandal i smor t hef t cannot be pr event ed, but pr udent desi gn ( Sect i on 7) may
r educe i t s l i kel i hood.
r eposi t or y ar e exampl es.
**Maps, t ext s, and r ef er ence wor ks i ncl udi ng r el evant i nf or mat i on about t he
68
6. 3 MESSAGE DETECTABI LI TY
Q
Message channel s need t o be desi gned t o at t r act at t ent i on and t o be
accessi bl e t o r eader s. Onsi t e channel s woul d most l i kel y ei t her be mar ker s
or be associ at ed wi t h mar ker s. Of f si t e channel s woul d most l i kel y be asso-
ci at ed wi t h ar chi vesb l i br ar i es, or ot her wr i t t en- r ecor d r eposi t or i es. Two
maj or l i mi t at i ons must be consi der ed i n desi gni ng f or det ect abi l i t y:
l i mi t at i ons i mposed by t he dur abi l i t y r equi r ement i n t he choi ce of mat er i al s,
met hods of const r uct i on, or envi r onment s; and (2) space r equi r ement s f or mes-
(1)
sage encodi ng i nt o t he channel . Thi s sect i on di scusses a number of pot ent i al
opt i ons f or onsi t e and of f si t e message channel s f or al l message l evel s.
l i st of opt i ons i s not compl et e, but i t i s i ndi cat i ve of t he measur es t hat
coul d be br ought t o bear. Each opt i on coul d be i mpl ement ed i n a number of
ways. Sect i on 7 suggest s one way t hat t he opt i ons consi der ed i n t hi s sect i on
coul d be devel oped f or a par t i cul ar si t e.
The
6. 3. 1 Per i pher al Mar ker s
For some di st ance ar ound t he ar ea wher e wast es ar e act ual l y empl aced,
t her e wi l l be an annul ar cont r ol zone wher e dr i l l i ng or deep excavat i ons
shoul d be pr ohi bi t ed because of t he pot ent i al f or di r ect i nt r usi on. The
r adi us of t he cont r ol zone wi l l be speci f i c t o t he si t e, dependi ng on (1)
r esi dual uncer t ai nt i es r el at ed t o geol ogi c char act er i st i cs; (2) t he l ocal
gr ound- wat er r egi me and i t s r eact i ons wi t h t he host r ock (e. g. , di ssol ut i on) ;
( 3) t he pot ent i al f or angul ar dr i l l i ng ( whi pst ocki ng) t o pi er ce t he r eposi -
t or y; and (4) t he nat ur e and l ocat i on of pot ent i al r esour ces.
One r easonabl e met hod of del i neat i ng t he ext ent of t he cont r ol zone woul d
be t o pl ace mar ker s ar ound i t s per i met er , t aki ng car e t hat :
0 The di sposal ar ea i s def i ned wi t h r easonabl e accur acy.
0 The spaci ng of mar ker s al l ows a per son at one mar ker t o see t he
next mar ker on ei t her si de.
0 A suf f i ci ent number of mar ker s ar e used so t hat t he pl acement
pat t er n can be i dent i f i ed even i f some mar ker s ar e dest r oyed.
The act ual pl acement o f t he mar ker s wi l l be det er mi ned by t he t er r ai n and
i ndi genous veget at i on at t he si t e because each mar ker must be vi si bl e f r om
anot her .
69
The opt i on of si mpl y usi ng f our mar ker s t o mar k t he car di nal poi nt s of
t he ar ea may not be accept abl e f or sever al r easons. For exampl e, t he di st ance
bEt ween mar ker s woul d pr obabl y be t oo l ar ge t o per mi t ot her mar ker s t o be
seen, and peopl e woul d, t her ef or e have di f f i cul t y i n vi sual i zi ng or r ecog-
ni zi ng t he pat t er n. Fur t her mor e, t he l oss of any one mar ker woul d dest r oy t he
pat t er n, pl aci ng a por t i on of t he r eposi t or y at r i sk. For exampl e, t he Sar sen
ci r cl e at St onehenge had 30 st and ng st ones ( Fi gur e 6- 2).
i ent number of mar ker s t o r econst r uct t he pat t er n, * even t hough some of t he
st ones wer e dest r oyed or car r i ed of f t o museums ( At ki nson, 1956; Hawki ns,
1965).
That was a suf f i c-
The mar ker s must be suf f i ci ent l y l ar ge t o car r y t he r equi r ed message and
be cl ear l y vi si bl e and di st i ngui shabl e on or near t he si t e. Cl ear l y, t he si ze
woul d be t ai l or ed t o t he si t e, but i n gener al , mar ker s woul d be 3 t o 10 met er s
hi gh and pr ovi de a sur f ace ar ea of appr oxi mat el y 5 t o 10 squar e met er s on each
si de f or t he message. The mar ker shoul d cont r ast wi t h t he backgr ound, and t he
message shoul d cl ear l y cont r ast wi t h t he mar ker sur f ace ( by col or or rel i ef ) .
The shape of t he mar ker shoul d al so pr ovi de cont r ast , but t ake aest het i c
val ues i nt o account wi t hi n r eason, t he pr i me mi ssi on bei ng vi si bi l i t y.
6. 3. 2 Cent r al Monument
Per i pher al mar ker s ar e most l i kel y l i mi t ed t o conveyi ng f i r st and second
l evel messages because of space l i mi t at i ons. Det ai l ed i nscr i pt i ons on sur -
f aces exposed to weat her i ng woul d be mor e pr one t o damage than t he l ar ge
coar se l et t er i ng used f or si mpl e messages. For t hi r d and f our t h l evel mes-
sages a cent r al monument woul d pr ovi de a r easonabl e channel .
woul d need t o be l ar ge enough t o convey t hi r d l evel messages on i t s sur f ace
and have pr ovi si ons f or cont ai ni ng f our t h l evel messages i n a pr ot ect ed
por t i on of t he monument .
t hi r d l evel messages on ei t her ext er nal or i nt er nal sur f aces. The l at t er
opt i on, whi ch i mpl i es a st r uct ur e t hat woul d be ent er ed or l ooked i nt o by
r eader s, woul d pr ot ect t he message f r omweat her i ng.
The monument
The monument coul d be const r uct ed t o accommodat e
*The pl an of St onehenge can be r econst r uct ed, even t hough mor e t han a t hi r d of
t he st ones have di sappear ed over t he l ast 5, 000 year s.
70
The monument woul d need t o be r eadi l y vi si bl e f romanywher e on t he si t e.
I t coul d al so pr ovi de a f i r st l evel symbol i c message by vi r t ue of i t s gener al
shape f r oman aer i al or di st ant vi ew, t her eby at t r act i ng at t ent i on and i nvi t -
i ng i nvest i gat i on.
t hen t hose wal l s coul d be above or bel ow gr ade. Bel ow gr ade wal l s have mor e
st abi l i t y and r esi st ance t o f r eeze- t haw ef f ect s, but ar e mor e subj ect t o wat er
damage.
t i cal wal l s and pi l l ar s; i t coul d be of a shape chosen f or dur abi l i t y, such as
a dome or a pyr ami d; or i t coul d be a bunker .
abl e i n a r ol l i ng t er r ai n si nce i t woul d bl end i nt o t he l andscape and sacr i -
f i ce vi si bi l i t y.
abl y be a st r ong consi der at i on.
occur r i ng geol ogi c shape t hat endur es f or l ong per i ods of t i me ( el - Baz, 1981).
f or sever al hundr ed pages of i nf or mat i on, woul d need t o be pr ot ect ed wi t hi n or
by t he monument .
t hus pr ovi di ng a number of di scr et e message t r ansmi ssi on possi bi l i t i es ( one
per capsul e) . Ther e woul d be a hi gh r i sk, however , t hat al l or many of t he
capsul es woul d be opened by one or a f ew r eader s t o cr oss- check cont ent s.
Ther e i s al so some r at i onal e t o maki ng access t o t he f our t h l evel message
r easonabl y di f f i cul t by usi ng a r ever si bl e* pr ocess so t hat access coul d be
gai ned wi t h di f f i cul t y, t he message r ead, and t he encl osur e hol di ng t he
message r eseal ed t o pr eser ve t he message f or t he next r eader .
i n ei t her case woul d be vandal i smor t hef t .
I f t he monument wer e t o have a t hi r d l evel message on i nt er i or wal l s,
The monument coul d be a convent i onal r ect angul ar st r uct ur e wi t h ver -
The l at t er woul d be l ess sui t -
The dur abi l i t y advant ages of domes and pyr ami ds woul d pr ob-
The pyr ami ds ar e si mi l ar t o a nat ur al l y
The f our t h l evel message, t r anscr i bed ont o some dur abl e medi umsui t abl e
Numer ous t i me capsul es coul d be used t o car r y t he message,
A pr i me concer n
For cent r al monument s, t he opt i ons f or r edundancy ar e l i mi t ed. I t woul d
be unr easonabl e, f or exampl e, t o pr ovi de mor e t han one l ar ge monument per
si t e. Redundancy coul d be pr ovi ded by mul t i pl e message l ocat i ons wi t hi n or on
t he monument (e. g. , i dent i cal messages on sever al wal l s or f r ee- st andi ng sur - .
f aces or by i ncl udi ng sever al seal ed encl osur es f or f our t h l evel messages) .
*For exampl e, seal i ng t he message wi t hi n a vaul t by means of an ext r emel y
heavy l i d t hat coul d be r emoved and r epl aced onl y wi t h heavy machi ner y.
71
Cont i nued awar eness of t he r eposi t or y coul d be enhanced i f t he monument
wer e desi gned f or a ut i l i t ar i an pur pose.
Nat i onal Geodet i c Sur vey mar ker or f or mount i ng sur veyor t r ansi t s.
monument i s r eser ved f or si mi l ar pur poses, i nt er nat i onal cont r ol and mai nt e-
nance may cont i nue even i f publ i c concer n f or t he wast e i s mi ni mal . Anot her
devi ce f or encour agi ng use and awar eness i s t o make t he si t e and t he monument
aest het i cal l y and/ or educat i onal l y at t r act i ve.
devel opi ng monument s wi t h secondar y ut i l i t ar i an pur poses may det r act f r omt he
si gni f i cance of t he war ni ng message.
The monument coul d be used as a U.S.
I f t he
Ther e i s some r i sk t hat
6. 3. 3 Ear t hwor ks and Anomal i es
As ment i oned pr evi ousl y, ear t hwor ks and anomal ous mat er i al s ar r anged i n
geomet r i c pat t er ns coul d pr ovi de a dur abl e and hi ghl y det ect abl e means f or
t r ansmi t t i ng f i r st l evel messages.
shape of t he symbol gi ven i n Fi gur e 5-2.
f ace, aer i al , or sat el l i t e- r econnai ssance - ear t hwor ks vi sual l y and anomal i es
by i nst r ument r eadi ngs.
t hei r det ect abi l i t y by of f si t e measur ement s, t he ear t hwor ks shoul d al so be
di scer ni bl e by si t e vi si t or s.
ai r , ar e di f f i cul t t o t r ack on t he gr ound because of t hei r si ze.
The Ser pent Mound i n Ohi o, t he ear t hwor ks sur r oundi ng St onehenge, and t he
Nazca Li nes i n Per u ar e al l exampl es of ear t hwor ks t hat f or mpat t er ns and have
sur vi ved mor e t han 1, 500 year s ( Gr eenman, 1970; At ki nson, 1956; I sbel l , 1978).
The anomal i es have no ar chaeol ogi cal anal ogs ( t he i nst r ument s f or det ect i ng
such anomal i es ar e moder n i nvent i ons) ; however , anomal i es appear t o be a
r easonabl e ext r apol at i on f r omt he ear t hwor k concept .
Ei t her coul d be ar r anged i n t he gener al
Bot h woul d be r ecogni zabl e by sur -
Whi l e l ar ge st r uct ur es may be desi r abl e t o i ncr ease
The Nazca Li nes, whi l e cl ear l y vi si bl e f r omt he
6. 3. 4 Of f si t e Wr i t t en Messaqe
Reposi t or y messages and i nf or mat i on coul d be st or ed o f f t he si t e i n a
var i et y of nat i onal and i nt er nat i onal ar chi ves, l i br ar i es, and muni ci pal
r ecor d r eposi t or i es ( e. g. , t own hal l s, st at e and f eder al r ecor d ar chi ves) , and
i ncor por at ed i nt o mappi ng syst ems. Mat er i al s f or scch r ecor ds woul d be
72
n
pr i nt ed on convent i onal mat er i al s* and on speci al l ong- l i ved mat er i al s l i ke
aci d- f r ee paper.
r ef er ence t o t hei r exact l ocat i on woul d be necessar y.
such r ecor ds woul d be t o r each per sons r esear chi ng an ar ea f or some per sonal
or busi ness r eason (e. g. , hi st or i ans, r esour ce ent r epr eneur s, and l and
devel opers) . Wi der publ i c di ssemi nat i on woul d be possi bl e near t he t i me of
r eposi t or y cl osur e but woul d not be sust ai ned over ver y l ong t i me per i ods.
Nonet hel ess, knowl edge of t he r eposi t or y coul d be per pet uat ed by r ef er ences i n
car ef ul l y chosen r ecor ds or t ext s associ at ed wi t h t he geogr aphi c ar ea wher e
t he r eposi t or y was l ocat ed.
Such r ef er ences woul d be desi gned t o l ead t he r esear cher t o t he f our t h
l evel message.
Lar ge number s of l i br ar i es and ar chi ves have been est abl i shed i n t he
Uni t ed St at es and abr oad f or the use and pr eser vat i on of document s, and t he
mai nt enance of t he accumul at ed knowl edge of ci vi l i zat i on r ecei ves consi der abl e
at t ent i on.
t ant i nf or mat i on pr ovi des assur ance t hat knowl edge of t he r eposi t or i es can
sur vi ve f or a ver y l ong t i me.
t ai ni ng and addi ng t o exi st i ng col l ect i ons i s subst ant i al and has been a maj or
They woul d be st or ed i n cont r ol l ed envi r onment s.
Because t hese wr i t t en mat er i al s woul d not be at t he si t e, an unambi guous
The pr i mar y pur pose of
The r edundancy i nher ent bot h i n di st r i but i ng and ar chi vi ng i mpor -
The ef f or t and car e t hat i s expended on mai n-
soci et al act i vi t y, cer t ai nl y f or t he past 500 year s.
By st r i vi ng f or i nt er nat i onal di st r i but i on, pot ent i al per i odi c l osses of
r eposi t or y i nf or mat i on wi t hi n cer t ai n pol i t i cal boundar i es coul d be of f set by
t he i nf or mat i on bei ng pr eser ved and r eent er ed i nt o t he r ecor ds of t he af f ect ed
r egi on f r oman unaf f ect ed pol i t i cal r egi on.
dest r uct i on o f r ecor ds by act s of war , ci vi l vi ol ence, or nat ur al cat as-
t r ophes.
wi despr ead i nt er nat i onal di st r i but i on and pur posef ul i ncor por at i on i nt o
r ecor ds/ t ext s t hat have a hi gh l i kel i hood of cont i nual r epr oduct i on and
t r ansl at i on.
The same l ogi c woul d hol d f or
The det ect abi l i t y of of f si t e messages can be made ext r emel y hi gh by
I ncor por at i ng t he l ocat i on of a r eposi t or y on wi del y di st r i but ed maps i s
a met hod of t r ansmi t t i ng messages f or of f si t e per cept i on. The cr eat i on and
*Convent i onal paper woul d be sui t abl e f or r ecor ds t hat ar e per i odi cal l y
updat ed or mai nt ai ned.
73
Q use of maps has a l ong, document ed hi st or y i n human soci et i es and has, wi t h
moder n t echnol ogy and communi cat i on met hods, become ver y wi despr ead and
commonpl ace.
uni que means of conveyi ng t he r eposi t or y l ocat i ons t o many peopl e, bot h i n t he
pr esent and i n t he f ut ur e.
f aci l i t at e any r eposi t or y mappi ng pr ogr amt hat may be chosen.
char t i ng, geodesy, and sur veyi ng act i vi t i es i n t he Uni t ed St at es t oday, bot h
publ i c and pr i vat e, r epr esent a ver y l ar ge commi t ment of peopl e and f i nanci al
r esour ces. Combi ni ng t he publ i c and pr i vat e annual map pr oduct i on wi t h a con-
ser vat i ve est i mat e f or t he f r act i on r et ai ned woul d yi el d a number on t he or der
of 100 bi l l i on f or t he quant i t y of maps i n exi st ence i n t he Uni t ed St at es at a
gi ven t i me ( Wei t zber g, 1982). The physi cal l i f et i mes of t he maps woul d r ange
up t o sever al hundr ed year s, dependi ng on t hei r use and t he car e af f or ded
t hem.
Maps ar e used by l ar ge por t i ons of soci et y and r epr esent a
Pr i vat e or gani zat i ons and publ i c i nst i t ut i ons can
The mappi ng,
I n addi t i on t o devel opi ng geol ogi c and car t ogr aphi c dat a and pr oduci ng
maps and char t s, t he U. S. Geol ogi cal Sur vey has est abl i shed t he Nat i onal
Car t ogr aphi c I nf or mat i on Cent er t o col l ect and di ssemi nat e i nf or mat i on about
maps and t he dat a and mat er i al s used t o compi l e them. * Map i nf or mat i on f r om
180 di f f er ent sour ces, i ncl udi ng f eder al , st at e, and l ocal gover nment agenci es
and pr i vat e compani es, i s accessed, i ndexed, and st or ed i n comput er i zed dat a
bases.
pr i nt map pr oduct s. Mor eover , t her e i s al so a l ar ge di st r i but i on of pr i vat e
maps t hr ough aut omobi l e cl ubs, oi l compani es, and ot her channel s. Speci al
The Cent er al so pr ovi des i nf or mat i on about many cur r ent and out - of -
maps, such as i nf r ar ed
Ear t h Resour ces Techno
t or y l ocat i on. Fol l ow
maps of t he r eposi t or y
r esponsi bl e f or mai nt a
or ot her col or - enhanced composi t es pr oduced f r omt he
ogy Sat el l i t e pr ogr am, coul d uni quel y show t he r eposi -
ng r eposi t or y cl osur e, det ai l ed sur f ace and under gr ound
woul d be appr opr i at el y sent t o t he f eder al r eposi t or y
ni ng maps of abandoned mi nes ( Edger t on, 1974).
*The U. S. Geol ogi cal Sur vey has al so est abl i shed t he EROS ( Ear t h Resour ces
Obser vat i on Sat el l i t es) Dat a Cent er near Si oux Fal l s, Sout h Dakot a, t o
r ecei ve, pr ocess, and f i l e t he l ar ge amount s of dat a gener at ed by sat el l i t e
mi ssi ons over t he Uni t ed St at es. Thi s pr ovi des anot her i ndependent l ar ge
dat a base i n whi ch di gi t al and vi sual r ecor ds of r eposi t or y l ocat i ons coul d
be r ecor ded. Onl y a smal l per cent age of sat el l i t e dat a may ul t i mat el y be
conver t ed i nt o maps, but phot omosai cs, or t hophot omaps, and di gi t al dat a t apes
wi l l add anot her di mensi on t o t he di ver si t y of r eposi t or y l ocat or s.
74
I n addi t i on' t o t he convent i onal st or age of document s i n ar chi ves and
l i br ar i es, t he r el at i vel y r ecent devel opment of comput er s has l ed t o a pr ol i f -
er at i on of machi ne- r eadabl e dat a bases, many of whi ch cont ai n i nf or mat i on t hat
coul d ai d i n pr eser vi ng knowl edge about wast e r eposi t or i es.
of 1979, t he USGS mai nt ai ned over 200 separ at e dat a bases ( USGS, 1980), cover -
i ng a var i et y of subj ect s r el at ed t o r esour ces.
exchanges such as t he f i t i onal Wat er Dat a EJ change ( NAWDEX) ( Edwar ds, 1979),
whi ch compi l es dat a on sur f ace and gr ound wat er and wat er qual i t y f or mor e
t han 600 or gani zat i ons nat i onal l y. I t s f i l es cont ai n i nf or mat i on on mor e t han
600, 000 wel l s, wi t h hundr eds of mi l l i ons of dai l y obser vat i ons of st r eamf l ow,
wat er qual i t y, and gr ound- wat er l evel . Ther e ar e al so si mi l ar dat a f i l es
mai nt ai ned by t he U.S. Envi r onment al Pr ot ect i on Agency, t he U.S. Nat i onal
Oceani c and At mospher i c Admi ni st r at i on, and st at e and l ocal agenci es. These
i ndependent i nf or mat i on f i l es, whet her or not comput er i zed, coul d pr ovi de many
addi t i onal channel s f or pr eser vat i on of i nf or mat i on about wast e r eposi t or i es.
For exampl e, as
Ther e ar e i nf or mat i on
6.3.5 Oral Tr ansmi ssi on
Oral t r ansmi ssi on may be consi der ed a pot ent i al r eposi t or y message
channel . Ther e i s cont r over sy among hi st or i ans and f ol kl or i st s over t he
ef f i cacy of or al t r ansmi ssi on as a met hod f or accur at el y conveyi ng i nf or mat i on
over l ong t i me per i ods ( Mont el l , 1970).
as Hi st or i cal Fal l acy" t o "Fol k Tr adi t i on as Hi st or i cal Fact " , but even t hose
who di sput e t he accur acy of f ol k t r adi t i on usual l y agr ee t hat f ol kl or e does
have some basi s i n f act , al t hough i t must be r egar ded and used wi t h car e.
Exampl es, ci t ed by Mont el l , of t he many i nst ances wher e hi st or i cal i nf or mat i on
was pr eser ved or al l y f or many hundr eds of year s i ncl ude:
Opi ni ons r ange f r om"Fol k Tr adi t i on
1. The Sout her n Pai ut e I ndi ans of Ut ah r et ai ned knowl edge of hi st or y
consi st ent wi t h ar chaeol ogi cal evi dence 800 year s ol d.
Nat i ve t r adi t i ons f r om1,400 A. D. r egar di ng habi t abi l i t y i n t he ar ea
at Yakut at , Al aska, wer e conf i r med by r adi ocar bon dat i ng.
3. Ar chaeol ogi cal f i ndi ngs i n t he west of Engl and conf i r med l ocal
t r adi t i ons t hat a near by cave had been occupi ed by Sai nt Ni ni as
14 cent ur i es ear l i er .
2.
4. The r el i abi l i t y of I cel andi c f ami l y sagas dat i ng t o 930 A.D. was
conf i r med.
75
Or al t r ansmi ssi on may, t hr ough a syner gi st i c r el at i onshi p wi t h per manent
I t can be expect ed t hat
message bear i ng mar ker s and r ecor ds i n ar chi ves, of f er an addi t i onal channel
f or di ssemi nat i on of r eposi t or y- r el at ed i nf or mat i on.
st or i es, poems, and l egends wi l l devel op about t he si t e i n t he same manner
t hat or al t r adi t i on and hi st or y i s associ at ed wi t h t he Gr eat Wal l .
6.4 SUMMARY
Ther e ar e a number of opt i ons f or cr eat i ng dur abl e and det ect abl e
channel s, bot h on and of f t he si t e.
var y, but t he r edundancy and syner gi smr esul t i ng f r omusi ng a mul t i t ude of
The success of any gi ven channel may
i hood of successf ul communi cat i on. channe s shoul d cr eat e a hi gh l i ke
7 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS COMPONENTS AND
THEIR APPLICATIONS
Fact or s essent i al t o t he successf ul communi cat i on of r eposi t or y- r el at ed
i nf or mat i on - i ncl udi ng dur abi l i t y, accessi bi l i t y, det ect abi l i t y, compr ehensi -
bi l i t y, message cont ent , cont ext and r el evance, and message r edundancy - have
been di scussed i n pr ecedi ng sect i ons. The di f f er ent l evel s of messages devel -
oped i n Sect i on 5 and t he possi bl e met hods of t hei r t r ansmi ssi on di scussed i n
Sect i on 6, wer e devi sed speci f i cal l y t o meet as many of t hese r equi r ement s as
possi bl e, of t en i n sever al di f f er ent and r edundant ways.
cr i bes a r ef er ence communi cat i on syst emf or a hi gh- l evel wast e r eposi t or y.
The descr i pt i on cont ai ns suf f i ci ent det ai l t o est abl i sh t he pr el i mi nar y
f easi bi l i t y of t he concept ual desi gn of t he syst emand t o assess i t s ef f ec-
t i veness.
t he messages sent by t he communi cat i on syst emar e obser ved by t hei r ul t i mat e
r eci pi ent s.
For a si t e- speci f i c appl i cat i on, any chosen communi cat i on syst emwoul d be
t hor oughl y t est ed pr i or t o and dur i ng i t s ear l y phases of i mpl ement at i on.
Symbol s, messages, and pi ct ogr aphs woul d be t est ed f or t hei r compr ehensi bi l i t y
cont ent and r el evance; t he f easi bi l i t y of mar ker and monument const r uct i on
wi l l be demonst r at ed; and t he over al l awar eness of t he l ocal popul at i on of t he
cor r ect l ocat i on and hazar ds associ at ed wi t h t he bur i ed wast e waul d be
Thi s sect i on des-
The di scussi on speci f i cal l y addr esses t he quest i on of ensur i ng t hat
exami ned.
For t hi s st udy t he r eposi t or y si t e was assumed t o be i n a r emot e, non-
gl aci al * r egi on of t he Uni t ed St at es.
of maj or si gni f i cance or known val ue.
nat ur al l andmar ks (i . e. , r ock out cr oppi ngs and/ or cl i f f f aces t hat coul d be
used t o t r anscr i be messages ar e not assumed t o be present ) .
To maxi mi ze t he ef f ect i veness of any communi cat i on syst emand i ncr ease
The i mmedi at e vi ci ni t y cont ai ns not hi ng
The l and i s f l at , wi t h no domi nant
of communi cat i on met hods
pt or s, and ( 2) i nf or mat i on
i t s l ong- t er m
coul d be ut i 1
di ssemi nat i on
sur vi vabi l i t y, t wo maj or cl asses
zed: ( 1) si t e l ocat or s and descr
and r et ent i on of f t he si t e.
*No gl aci er s woul d be expect ed wi t hi n a 10, 000- year per i od. Ar eas subj ect ed
t o si gni f i cant gl aci at i on pose a uni que pr obl emwi t h r egar d t o sur f ace mar ker
l ongevi t y.
77
The f ol l owi ng sect i ons descr i be how t hese t wo met hods can be used t o
communi cat e t he f our l evel s of message pr esent ed i n Sect i on 5.
t hi s di scussi on' i t must be r emember ed t hat par t i al l oss of t he hi gher l evel
message woul d st i l l l eave r esi dual messages of l ower l evel s of cont ent .
Thr oughout
7. 1 SITE LOCATORS AND DESCRI PTORS
7. 1. 1 Per i pher al Mar ker s
One maj or communi cat i on syst emcomponent coul d be per manent mar ker s
i nst al l ed at t he per i pher y of t he r eposi t or y.
r eposi t or y coul d be as hi gh as 7 met er s* and woul d be spaced r egul ar l y wi t hi n
vi ew of each ot her ( a maxi mumsepar at i on of about 1, 000 met ers) .
bi l i t y as wel l as symbol i sm, t hey woul d be shaped as t r i angul ar pyr ami ds and
woul d be const r uct ed of gr ani t e. One pot ent i al mar ker l ayout , desi gn, and
const r uct i on scheme i s shown i n Fi gur e 7- 1.
each mar ker woul d be secur ed t o a pi l i ng anchor ed i n bedr ock.
was not wi t hi n 30 met er s of t he sur f ace, f r i ct i on pi l i ngs of 30 met er s coul d
be used. The base o f each mar ker woul d have a bor ed hol e, whi ch woul d f i t
cl osel y over t he t op of t he pi l i ng.
Per i pher al mar ker s woul d cont ai n f i r st and second l evel messages as
descr i bed i n Sect i on 5. Thr ee f aces on each of about 10 mar ker s woul d pr ovi de
30 r edundant message l ocat i ons.
symbol f or bi ohazar dous bur i ed wast e ( Fi gur e 5 - Z ) , and a di agr amof t he
r eposi t or y si t e showi ng mar ker l ocat i ons and t he l ocat i on of t hat speci f i c
mar ker ( i ndi cat ed by an arrow) . Each mar ker f ace shoul d al so have a message
i nscr i bed i n Engl i sh, anot her of f i ci al Uni t ed Nat i on' s l anguage, or a pi ct o-
gr aphi c message.
Mar ker s f or a nucl ear wast e
For st a-
To avoi d set t l i ng and t o i ncr ease t he di f f i cul t y of r emoval or t oppl i ng,
I f bedr ock
Each mar ker f ace woul d show t he uni ver sal
The messages woul d be engr aved i nt o t he sur f ace of t he
*Based on l i mi t at i ons i n quar r yi ng cont i nuous ( monol i t hi c) r ock sl abs and
assumi ng appr oxi mat el y one- t hi r d o f t he mar ker l engt h t o be bel ow gr ade f or
st abi l i t y.
Typical 1 of Ten
78
TOP
VIEW
Level
Messages
Each Face
1 & 2 -~
SIDE
VIEW
Below Grade
Base ~
-ro7
SITE
FIGURE 7-1. ' PERIPHERAL MARKERS
91
79
mar ker s. An exampl e of
messages i s depi ct ed i n
7. 1. 2 Cent r al Monument
A cent r al monument
t he r eposi t or y si t e cou
a per i pher al mar ker wi t h f i r st and second l evel
Fi gur e 7- 2. *
composed of a gr oupi ng of l ar ge mar ker s cent er ed on
d be used t o car r y mor e ext ensi ve messages descr i bi ng
t he use of t he si t e as a r adi oact i ve wast e r eposi t or y. The ar r angement shown
i n Fi gur e 7- 3 woul d consi st of t hr ee l ar ger mar ker s and t hr ee document vaul t s
pl aced t o f or ma t r i angl e. Pr esent i nt er nat i onal symbol i smuses t r i angl es as
war ni ng symbol s ( Dr eyf us, 1972).
Wi t hi n t he l i mi t at i ons** i mposed by t he geol ogy of gr ani t e, t he si ze of
t he cent r al mar ker s has been sel ect ed f or l ongevi t y (i . e. , di f f i cul t t o move
or dest r oy) , vi si bi l i t y, and abi l i t y t o car r y t hi r d l evel messages. A r ei n-
f or ced concr et e base mat , 50 met er s on each si de and 5 met er s t hi ck, woul d be
i ncl uded f or st abi l i t y and t o enhance vi si bi l i t y f r omabove. The shape of t he
base mat , as shown i n Fi gur e 7- 3, i s si mi l ar t o t he out l i ne of t he bi ohaz-
ar dous wast e symbol .
2 x 4 met er s i n cr oss sect i on. They woul d ext end 7 met er s above gr ade and
3 met er s bel ow.
gr ani t e bl ocks havi ng 1.5 x 1. 5 x 4 met er s out si de di mensi ons wi t h 30 cmt hi ck
bot t omand si des and a r ect angul ar l i d al so 30 cmt hi ck. The t ops o f t he si de
wal l s woul d be r i dged t o f i t i nt o a gr oove i n t he l i d, and t hese woul d be
seal ed wi t h asphal t or anot her l ong- l ast i ng seal ant . The l i d woul d wei gh
about 5 met r i c t ons and t hus woul d pr ecl ude easy l i f t i ng and r emoval .
per i pher al mar ker s. Pi l i ngs woul d be dr i ven t o bedr ock or , i f bedr ock was
The l ar ge mar ker s woul d be sl i ght l y t aper ed r ect angul ar pr i sms r oughl y
The document vaul t s ( as shown i n Fi gur e 7- 4) woul d be hol l ow
The const r uct i on of t he cent r al mar ker s woul d be si mi l ar t o t hat of t he
*I n addi t i on t o t he second l evel message descr i bi ng t he wast e r eposi t or y and
t he pot ent i al hazar ds, t he mar ker s t hemsel ves, by vi r t ue of t hei r t r i angul ar
shape, woul d convey a caut i onar y message.
St at es measur e appr oxi mat el y 2 x 2 x 10 met er s and wei gh about 100 met r i c
t ons. Long hor i zont al f r act ur es or j oi nt s 2 met er s apar t wi t h l ess f r equent
ver t i cal f r act ur es ar e l i mi t i ng f act or s i n quar r yi ng l ar ge monol i t hi c
gr ani t e bl ocks.
be pr oduced but t hese woul d be di f f i cul t t o t r anspor t .
**The l ar gest monol i t hi c gr ani t e bl ocks now bei ng quar r i ed i n t he Uni t ed
Monol i t hs up t o 2 x 4 x 10 met er s (200 met r i c t ons) coul d
80
CAUTION-BIOHAZARDOUS
WASTE BURIED HERE
REPEATED IN
UNITED NATIONS LANGUAGES
AND PICTOGRAPHS ON OTHER
RADIOACTIVE WASTES ARE BURIED 700 METERS
BELOW THE SURFACE IN GRANITE WITHIN AN 800
HECTARE AREA BOUNDED BY 10 STONE MARKERS.
FURTHER INFORMATION I S AT THE CENTRAL
MONUMENT.
MESSAGE REPEATED IN OTHER
UNITED NATIONS LANGUAGES
AND I N PICTOGRAPHIC FORM
I-
T
0
FIGURE 7-2. PERIPHERAL MARKER MESSAGE
.- ..
8
1

n

I

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u
p
!

I
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
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l
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J

FIGURE 74. VAULT DETAIL
83
not wi t hi n 30 met er s of t he sur f ace, f r i ct i on pi l i ngs of 30 met er s woul d be
used. The st ai nl ess st eel r ei nf or ci ng bar f or t he base mat woul d be t i ed i nt o
t he t op caps of t he pi l i ngs and t he mar ker s woul d have t wo bor ed hol es i n
t hei r bases, t o f i t over t he pi l i ngs.
si ngl e monol i t h.
ser ved a usef ul soci et al pur pose i n addi t i on t o i t s wast e annuni cat i on
f unct i on. Accor di ngl y, a gr ani t e cube has al so been i ncl uded t o pr ovi de a
l ocat i on f or a U.S. Nat i onal Geodet i c Sur vey ( NGS) mar ker as wel l as a base
pl ane f or mount i ng sur veyor t r ansi t s or t heodol i t es i n usi ng t he mar ker .
NGS mar ker woul d be a sol i d gr ani t e cube, 2 met er s on a si de, al so pl aced on a
pi l i ng.
The cent r al monument gr oup woul d cont ai n messages at sever al l evel s of
meani ng. The sur f aces of t he mar ker s woul d have f i r st , second, and t hi r d
l evel messages ( Sect i on 5. 1, Fi gur es 5- 2, and 3) engr aved i n mul t i pl e
l anguages.
pur pose.
coul d col l ect . The vaul t cont ent s, t he f our t h l evel message, woul d be i n
pr i nt ed f or mdoubl y seal ed t o pr ot ect agai nst at mospher i c ef f ect s.
as shown i n Fi gur es 7- 5 and 7- 6 coul d be const r uct ed of r ei nf or ced concr et e
cl ad wi t h Synr oc. The i nt er i or wal l s woul d pr ovi de ampl e space f or Level 2
and 3 messages and Level 4 messages coul d be pl aced i n t he t hr ee document
vaul t s. The l ar ger si ze woul d i ncr ease t he vi si bi l i t y o f t he monument , but
wi t hout f ur t her r esear ch i t s l ongevi t y i s l ess cer t ai n t han t hat of t he
gr ani t e monol i t hs. Ul t i mat el y t he choi ce must be made based on t he cost of
t he al t er nat i ves and t he desi r ed per f or mance.
The base mat woul d be pour ed as a
As di scussed i n Sect i on 6 , l ongevi t y mi ght be enhanced i f t he monument
The
The si des of t he document vaul t s woul d be mar ked t o i dent i f y t hei r
The vaul t l i ds woul d be unmar ked t o el i mi nat e pl aces wher e wat er
Wer e a l ar ger cent r al monument deemed mor e appr opr i at e, a st r uct ur e such
7. 1. 3 Ot her Si t e Mar ker s
To enhance t he pr ospect s of f ut ur e i dent i f i cat i on of t he si t e, sever al
addi t i onal measur es coul d be t aken to t r ansmi t f i r st l evel messages. For
exampl e, subst ant i al ear t hwor ks coul d be const r uct ed, and anomal i es det ect abl e
by r emot e- sensi ng t echni ques coul d be cr eat ed i n t he shape of t he war ni ng
symbol .
Reinforced
Concrete Base Mat
Slope of 1 cm Per Met er
Light Shafts
(9)
03
P
FIGURE 7-5. ALTERNATE CENTRAL MONUMENT
85
20 M
Outer Sheath
A a
FIGURE 7-6. ALTERNATE CENTRAL MONUMENT DETAIL
86
Ear t hwor ks
The si t e l ayout woul d i ncl ude subst ant i al ar eas f or t he st or age of mi ned
rock. These ar eas, i ni t i al l y del i neat ed by di kes, woul d be used t o st or e t he
over bur den and mi ned r ock dur i ng r eposi t or y oper at i on. Dur i ng backf i l l i ng and
r eposi t or y cl osur e, about hal f of t hi s mat er i al woul d be r et ur ned t o t he
r eposi t or y, l eavi ng about 4 mi l l i on met r i c t ons ( about 2.5 x lo5 cubi c met er s)
f or di sposal .
t he si t e t o pr event damage t o t he envi r onment . For ot her medi a, however , sub-
st ant i aJ amount s of mat er i al may be avai l abl e f or use as a per manent ear t hwor k
t o mar k t he si t e.
For a t ypi cal communi cat i on syst em, t he st or age di ki ng coul d be shaped t o
si mul at e t he ar r ow f or mof t he bi ohazar dous wast e symbol desi gned ( appr oxi -
mat el y 100 met er s acr oss) t o l eave a l evel pl aza sever al met er s hi gh af t er t he
r eposi t or y has been backf i l l ed and seal ed. Sur r oundi ng t he ar r ow shaped pl aza
at a di st ance of sever al hundr ed met er s coul d be a segment ed ear t hen ber m,
al so sever al met er s i n hei ght , f or mi ng t he out l i ne of an equi l at er al t r i angl e.
I f t he geol ogi c medi um i s sal t , much of i t mi ght be moved of f
The cent r al monument and base mat descr i bed pr evi ousl y woul d be cent er ed
on t he r ai sed pl aza, as shown i n Fi gur e 7- 7, whi ch woul d be f i r st est abl i shed
and compact ed.
ar r ow and t r i angul ar ber m, as vi ewed above, woul d f or mt he bi ohazar dous wast e
symbol ( Fi gur e 5-2).
seal ed wi t h a 15- t o 30- cent i met er l ayer of aggr egat e asphal t mi xt ur e, si mi l ar
t o t hat used f or hi ghway pavi ng.
ant i qui t y ( Asphal t I nst i t ut e, 1977) wi t h r esi dual evi dence r emai ni ng t o t hi s
day ( Rosenf i el d, 1965; Hodges, 1971; Mar schner and Wr i ght , 1978). The asphal t
mi xt ur e woul d be subj ect onl y t o sur f ace oxi dat i on and weat her i ng ef f ect s; i t
woul d t her ef or e be expect ed t o r emai n l ar gel y i n pl ace f or sever al t housands
of year s wi t hout mai nt enance.
f ai l ed, subst ant i al amount s of asphal t and aggr egat e woul d r emai n t o mar k t he
sur f ace of t he pl aza and woul d al so hi nder t he gr owt h of veget at i on f or a l ong
t i me.
Fi gur e 7- 7 shows t hat t he concr et e base mat pl us t he ear t hen
To add t o t he dur abi l i t y o f t he pl aza and ber m, t hei r sur f aces coul d be
Nat ur al asphal t s have been used si nce
Even i f t he seal i ng of t he ear t hwor k sur f ace
I
Periphery i s Stabilized W -
FIGURE 7-7. TYPICAL CENTRAL MONUMENT PLAZA
Anomal i es
88
The si ze of t he cent r al monument and ear t hwor k pl aza woul d hel p ensur e
t hei r vi si bi l i t y even t o r emot e sensor s car r i ed by sat el l i t es.
t echnol ogy ( Fost er and Hal 1, 1981; Wat ki ns, 1981) of f er s r esol ut i ons r angi ng
f r om10 t o 30 met er s, whi ch i s mor e t han adequat e t o di scer n t he monument and
t he sur r oundi ng ear t hwor ks.
const r uct ed of mat er i al s wi t h di f f er ent sur f ace t ext ur es and hence di f f er ent
absor pt i on and emi ssi vi t y char act er i st i cs, t hey woul d be appar ent t o vi si bl e,
near - i nf ar ed (I R), t her mal I R, and cer t ai n t ypes of r adar det ect or s. I n
addi t i on, t he di f f er ence i n t her mal absor pt i on bet ween t he aggr egat e asphal t
sur f ace of t he pl aza and t he sur r oundi ng nat ur al veget at i on shoul d r esul t i n
subst ant i al l y di f f er ent r adi ant t emper at ur es, di scer ni bl e by pr esent r emot e-
measur ement t echni ques.
t o announce t he pr esence of t he wast e r eposi t or y, coul d al so add anomal i es
r ecogni zabl e by sever al r emot e- sensi ng t echni ques.
f ur t her enhanced dur i ng t he f i nal desi gn of t he st r uct ur es.
Cur r ent
Because t he monument , base mat , pl aza, and per i pher al ear t hwor ks woul d be
Thus, t he cent r al monument , t he pl aza, and t he ear t hwor ks al r eady pl anned
These anomal i es coul d be
7.2 I NFORMATI ON AND RECORDS DI SSEMI NATI ON AND RETENTI ON OFF THE SI TE
I n addi t i on t o t he physi cal mar ker s and messages at t he r eposi t or y si t e,
i nf or mat i on about r eposi t or i es coul d al so be wi del y di ssemi nat ed and pl aced i n
ar chi ves of f t he si t e. Mechani sms pr esent l y i n exi st ence f or pr oduci ng and
di st r i but i ng r epor t s, document s, and maps woul d aut omat i cal l y cause t hei r
r et ent i on i n ar chi ves i n many l ocat i ons. Si mi l ar mechani sms wi l l be avai l abl e
and coul d be used at t he t i me of r eposi t or y oper at i on and decommi ssi oni ng.
Ot her met hods t hat coul d be used i ncl ude publ i c r el at i ons act i vi t i es and t he
i ncl usi on of wast e- management knowl edge i n educat i onal pr ogr ams.
knowl edge of bi ohazar dous wast e si t es and mar ki ng symbol s coul d become
Thus, t he
est abl i shed.
Any communi cat i on syst emas now env
t he el ement s of l and sur vey and l and use
hazar dous and l ow- l evel wast e si t es (U.S
si oned woul d, at t he l east , cont ai n
r ecor ds not i f i cat i on as pr act i ced f or
9
Envi r onment al Pr ot ect i on Agency
89
[ EPA] , 1982b).
al so ai d i n pr eci sel y mappi ng t he wast e l ocat i ons f or t he sur vey pl at s. Such
measur es woul d t end t o per pet uat e knowl edge about t he r eposi t or y.
The sect i ons t hat f ol l owpr esent a number of pot ent i al channel s f or
of f si t e r ecor d di ssemi nat i on and r et ent i on.
r eposi t or y- r el at ed i nf or mat i on wi t hout any addi t i onal pl anned act i vi t i es,
because of publ i c needs and i nt er est , educat i on, and cust om. The i nt ent of
t he di scussi on t hat f ol l ows i s not t o i ndi cat e how a del uge of pr opaganda
coul d be cr eat ed, but r at her t o acknowl edge t hat syst ems al r eady exi st f or
ot her pur poses t hat woul d assi st i n t he di ssemi nat i on, r et ent i on, and
cont i nued t r ansmi t t al of r eposi t or y- r el at ed knowl edge.
The use of t he cent r al monument as an NGS benchmar k woul d
Such channel s coul d convey
7. 2. 1 I dent i f i cat i on of Reposi t or y Locat i ons on Maps and Char t s
Pr ovi si ons coul d be made dur i ng t he devel opment of t he r eposi t or i es t o
accur at el y l ocat e t hemon t he base 7. 5- mi nut e- quadr angl e t opogr aphi cal maps of
t he U.S. Geol ogi cal Sur vey (USGS).
2, 000 f eet per i nch) woul d per mi t t he i dent i f i cat i on of maj or si t e f eat ur es
and bui l di ngs as t hey ar e changed dur i ng t he phases of r eposi t or y oper at i on
and decommi ssi oni ng.
woul d al so pr ovi de a separ at e r ecor d of si t e act i vi t i es.
decommi ssi oni ng and t he const r uct i on of t he per i pher al mar ker s, cent r al
monument , pl aza, and sur r oundi ng ear t hwor ks, t he ar ea woul d be r ephot ogr aphed
and t he maps updat ed t o r ef l ect t he f i nal r eposi t or y conf i gur at i on.
t i me t he hor i zont al l ocat i on and ver t i cal el evat i on of t he cent r al monument
woul d be pr eci sel y det er mi ned accor di ng t o t he st andar ds of t he U. S. Nat i onal
Geodet i c Sur vey ( NGS) ; t he monument woul d t hen be est abl i shed as an NGS
benchmar k and i ncor por at ed i nt o t he Sur vey' s maps and dat a bases.
r econnai ssance sat el l i t es wi t h t hei r var i ed r emot e sensi ng capabi l i t i es woul d
i ndependent l y r ecor d t he wast e r eposi t or y l ocat i ons and act i vi t i es many t i mes
over , wi t hout any speci al act i on bei ng needed.
next sect i on, t he exi st ence of USGS maps, NGS char t s and r ecor ds, as wel l as
t he aer i al phot ogr aphs and r emot e sensi ng dat a r ecor ds woul d pr ovi de t he
oppor t uni t y f or much wi der i nf or mat i on di ssemi nat i on and r et ent i on.
The scal e of t he maps (1:24,000, or about
The aer i al phot ogr aphs used t o gener at e t hese USGS maps
Af t er r eposi t or y
At t hat
Concur r ent l y wi t h t hese mappi ng act i vi t i es, t he cont i nui ng use of ear h
As wi l l be di scussed i n t he
I n
90
addi t i on, t he use. of t he bi ohazar dous wast e symbol t o i dent i f y t he r eposi t or y
l ocat i on and maps wi l l al so ai d i n pr omot i ng i t s r ecogni t i on.
7.2.2 Di st r i but i on and Ar chi vi ng of Document s and Maps
Pr esent l y est abl i shed or gani zat i ons i n t he U.S. annual l y pr oduce and di s-
t r i but e many mi l l i ons of maps ( Wei t zber g, 1982). Because most of t hese can be
t r aced back t o t he base t opogr aphi c maps pr oduced by t he USGS, t he l ocat i ons
of wast e r eposi t or i es coul d be r eadi l y i ncor por at ed i nt o many ot her map pr od-
uct s. The di st r i but i on of r eposi t or y- r el at ed i nf or mat i on i n t hi s manner coul d
t hus be r ei nf or ced dur i ng t he year s i mmedi at el y af t er r eposi t or y cl osur e, when
knowl edge of t he r eposi t or y i s wi despr ead.
t i on, par t i cul ar l y f our t h l evel t echni cal i nf or mat i on, woul d be r out i nel y di s-
t r i but ed by exi st i ng nat i onal and i nt er nat i onal agr eement s. The cust omar y
di st r i but i on t o t he 1,200 gover nment and pr i vat e l i br ar i es, as wel l as t o
f or ei gn l i br ar i es t hr ough exi st i ng exchange agr eement s, coul d be augment ed by
di st r i but i on t o l i br ar i es, school syst ems, uni ver si t i es, and gover nment al
ent i t i es i n t he st at es near t he wast e r eposi t or i es. Such l ocal di st r i but i on
coul d r ei nf or ce t he publ i c educat i on ef f or t descr i bed i n t he next sect i on.
For exampl e, t he same si t e pl at and descr i pt i on coul d be kept i n t he count y
cour t house as a l and use r ecor d, and be st or ed i n t he ar chi ves of t he U.S.
Feder al Bur eau of Land Management .
I mpor t ant maps and document s ar e now st or ed f or per manent use i n many
l ocat i ons. Speci al r equest s coul d be made t o al l maj or l i br ar i es and ar chi ves
t o access t he i mpor t ant r eposi t or y- r el at ed i nf or mat i on f or per manent r et ent i on
and t o ensur e t hat t he bi bl i ogr aphi c i nf or mat i on i s pl aced i n al l maj or
l i br ar y i nf or mat i on net wor ks, such as t he OCLC. *
t he wr i t t en mat er i al , speci al edi t i ons of t he maps and publ i cat i ons f or
st or i ng woul d be pr i nt ed on aci d- f r ee paper t hat can l ast very l ong per i ods of
Repor t s and publ i cat i ons about r eposi t or y l ocat i ons, desi gn, and oper a-
To ai d i n t he dur abi l i t y of
*The OCLC Onl i ne Comput er Li br ar y Cent er , I nc. l ocat ed i n Col umbus, Ohio, i s
I t s comput er dat a base cont ai ns
per haps t he l ar gest of t he U.S. l i br ar y i nf or mat i on net wor ks, cur r ent l y ser -
vi ci ng over 2, 600 par t i ci pat i ng l i br ar i es.
mor e t han 7 mi l l i on r ecor ds and adds about 25, 000 r ecor ds weekl y (OCLC,
1981).
91
t i me. I n addi t i on, r equest s coul d be made t o i nput i mpor t ant r eposi t or y-
r el at ed i nf or mat i on i nt o many di f f er ent comput er dat a bases, par t i cul ar l y
t hose deal i ng wi t h wat er and mi ner al r esour ces, l and use, and hazar dous
wast es.
7. 2. 3 Educat i onal and I nst i t ut i onal Act i vi t i es
Publ i c Rel at i ons and Educat i on
The di ssemi nat i on of r eposi t or y knowl edge i nt o t he publ i c sect or t hr ough
t he maps and document s descr i bed above, wi t h var i ed l evel s of i nf or mat i on pr e-
sent ed t o di f f er ent segment s of t he popul at i on, woul d occur dur i ng and i mme-
di at el y af t er r eposi t or y cl osur e. Ef f or t s coul d be concent r at ed on st at es
near r eposi t or y si t es, but coul d i ncl ude t o a l esser degr ee a nat i onal pr o-
gr am, pr ef er abl y coupl ed wi t h educat i on pr ogr ams r el at ed t o al l bi ohazar dous
wast e si t es. Concept ual l y, i nf or mat i on coul d be di st r i but ed t o school syst ems
and uni ver si t i es, wi t h r equest s f or i ncl usi on i nt o appr opr i at e sci ence cur -
r i cul a. I nf or mat i on coul d al so be di ssemi nat ed t hr ough wi del y ci r cul at ed
publ i cat i ons and t he news medi a. The pr esent and l i kel y f ut ur e concer n over
envi r onment al pr ot ect i on and t he heal t h and saf et y i mpact s of hazar dous sub-
st ances shoul d ser ve t o encour age t hi s t ype of publ i c educat i on. The i dent i -
f i cat i on of wast e si t es on gener al pur pose maps and on r oad maps coul d al so
ser ve t o r ei nf or ce t he awar eness of act ual r eposi t or y l ocat i ons as coul d t he
pl acement of i nf or mat i on si gns on hi ghways near t he r eposi t or i es. I n addi -
t i on, t he accur acy of t he l ocal popul at i on' s per cept i on of t he r eposi t or y as
t r ansmi t t ed by or al and wr i t t en means can be t est ed and, i f needed, t he
educat i onal act i vi t i es coul d be modi f i ed accor di ngl y.
"Cal l Bef or e Di g" I nst i t ut i ons
I n t he Uni t ed St at es, t her e ar e now mor e t han 100 pr i vat e ut i l i t y or gani -
zat i ons f or pr ot ect i ng under gr ound i nst al l at i ons f r omi nadver t ent damage by
t he publ i c. These "one- cal l " syst ems. ar e avai l abl e i n about 25 st at es and
ser vi ce mor e t han 1, 300 par t i ci pat i ng ut i l i t y compani es ( Moor e, 1978; Amer i can
Publ i c Wor ks Associ at i on, 1980; Ri f ki n, 1980). These and si mi l ar syst ems
92
t hat l ocat e under gr ound i nst al l at i ons bef or e any excavat i ng act i vi t i es ar e
under t aken coul d be used i n t wo ways t o pr ot ect wast e r eposi t or y si t es.
di r ect pr ot ect i on, f eder al , st at e, and l ocal agenci es wi t h r esponsi bi l i t es i n
t he ar eas adj acent t o t he si t es coul d j oi n exi st i ng " one- cal l " syst ems or
encour age t hei r f or mat i on i f none exi st . Pet r ol eumor gas- t r ansmi ssi on pi pe-
l i nes, as wel l as cr oss- count r y communi cat i ons i n t he gener al vi ci ni t y of
r eposi t or i es, woul d benef i t f r omt he "one- cal l " appr oach. Local or st at ewi de
or di nances coul d be amended to r equi r e t hat , bef or e any under gr ound const r uc-
t i on i s st ar t ed, t he per mi t i ssui ng pr ocess woul d check wi t h t he "one- cal l "
syst emt o see whet her any under gr ound i nst al l at i ons woul d be t hr eat ened,
i ncl udi ng t he wast e r eposi t or i es.
bef or e di g" t r adi t i on becomes mor e gener al l y accept ed. The si gni f i cant sav-
i ngs t o t he ut i l i t i es, i n money and l abor r equi r ed t o r epai r damaged i nst al -
l at i ons and t he r educt i on of r i sk and i nconveni ence t o t he publ i c at l ar ge,
shoul d per pet uat e t he use of "one- cal l " syst ems, i ndependent l y of any
r eposi t or y- r el at ed benef i t s.
i n many ar eas by appr opr i at e l egi sl at i on ( Cour t ney, et al , 1977) , i s st eadi l y
bui l di ng t he t r adi t i on t hat , i n gener al , some r i sk i s associ at ed wi t h any
di ggi ng oper at i on, and t hat i t i s pr udent t o check wi t h ot her s bef or e pr o-
ceedi ng. Whi l e t he r i sk i n ur ban ar eas i s appar ent , t he use of i nt er con-
t i nent al t r ansmi ssi on pi pel i nes has ext ended t hat r i sk even t o appar ent l y
t r ackl ess deser t s. By suppor t i ng t he "cal l bef or e di g" concept i n r egar d t o
bi ohazar dous wast e si t es, t he t r adi t i on can be r ei nf or ced.
Si nce i t i s l i kel y t hat under gr ound f aci l i t i es and wast e si t es wi l l gr ow
For
I ndi r ect pr ot ect i on of wast e r eposi t or i es wi l l be devel oped as t he "cal l
The gr owi ng use of "one- cal l " syst ems, suppor t ed
i n number wi t h t he passage of t i me, i t i s l i kel y t hat f ut ur e soci et i es wi l l
per pet uat e act i vi t i es and t r adi t i ons t hat wi l l r educe t he associ at ed r i sks.
n
7. 3 SUMMARY DI SCUSSI ON
7. 3. 1 Fi r st Level Channel s
The f i r st l evel messages ( see Sect i on 5. 1) woul d be t r ansmi t t ed bot h by
dur abl e si t e mar ker s, monument s, and ear t hwor ks, and by much l ess dur abl e or al
Q
communi cat i on, maps, and r ecor ds. However , t he cont i nued exi st ence of dur abl e
93
si t e f eat ur es wi l l gr eat l y enhance t he l i kel i hood of per pet uat i ng and mai n-
t ai ni ng t he or al t r ansmi ssi on and t he r ecor ds. When t he ef f ect s of al l of t he
met hods ar e eval uat ed t oget her , t he syner gi st i c ef f ect s make each channel mor e
ef f ect i ve t han when consi der ed i ndi vi dual l y. For exampl e, possi bl e ambi gu-
i t i es about si t e l ocat i on ar e r educed by onsi t e mar ker s cont ai ni ng t he same
symbol s and messages as t he of f si t e or or al messages, and t he or al t r ansmi s-
si on i s r ei nf or ced by havi ng a physi cal pl ace i dent i f i ed as t he ar ea of
concer n.
Oral Tr ansmi ssi on
Act i ve publ i c r el at i ons and educat i ona ef f or t s made whi l e t he r eposi t or y
i s act i vel y oper at i ng, and i mmedi at el y t her eaf t er , coul d pr omot e a gener al
awar eness and pr omot e or al communi cat i on r egar di ng t he r eposi t or y si t e and t he
associ at ed hazar ds. The pr esence of l ong- l ast i ng physi cal si t e mar ker s
gr eat l y i ncr eases t he l i kel i hood t hat l ong- t er mor al communi cat i on woul d be
per pet uat ed i f i t i s i ndeed est abl i shed. Fol l owi ng hi st or i cal t r ends, t her e
wi l l pr obabl y be per i odi c r esur gences of gener al publ i c knowl edge and or al
communi cat i on about t he r eposi t or y, f ol l owed by per i ods of l i t t l e or al
communi cat i on. *
Al t hough t her e ar e hi st or i cal exampl es of or al t r ansmi ssi ons l ast i ng con-
si der abl y l onger t han 500 year s ( Mont el l , 1970), t he need f or cont i nui t y of
t r ansmi ssi on i s t he week poi nt of t he or al communi cat i on f or l ong- t er mr el i -
ance. Al so, t he t r ansmi ssi on woul d not be appar ent t o any vi si t or s t o t he
si t e, unl ess t hey wer e i nf or med of t hemby t he i ndi genous popul at i on.
Oral t r anmi ssi on of t he f i r st l evel i nf or mat i on** coul d t ake pl ace by t wo
pr i mar y means: knowl edgeabl e i ndi vi dual s coul d i nf or mt he gener al popul at i on
or t he popul at i on coul d spr ead t he i nf or mat i on by wor d of mout h.
under st ood, t he message coul d be expect ed t o event ual l y cont ai n i naccur aci es.
Al t hough
*Thi s pr emi se i s based on t he assumpt i on t hat t he causes t hat woul d pr omot e
oral communi cat i on r egar di ng t he r eposi t or y woul d var y, bot h r i si ng and
f al l i ng i n soci et al i mpor t ance.
**I n addi t i on t o t he caut i on message, t hi s coul d al so i ncl ude per pet uat i on of
knowl edge about a "speci al " pl ace.
94
These may be mi ni mi zed by t he r ei nf or ci ng ef f ect s of t he per manent si t e
mar ker s and messages.
t hough t he speci f i c r easons f or t he caut i on may not be cl ear , si nce an
i ndi vi dual ' s gener al awar eness woul d be i ncr eased when war ned. Or al t r ans-
mi ssi on, i n and of i t sel f , may have l i t t l e mer i t but i t s ef f ect i veness woul d
be subst ant i al l y enhanced by t he posi t i ve r ei nf or ci ng ef f ect s of t he si t e
mar ker s and ot her message channel s.
I ncl usi on of a caut i on message i s i mpor t ant , even
Maps
As descr i bed pr evi ousl y, mechani sms ar e avai l abl e f or pl aci ng i mpor t ant
geogr aphi cal i nf or mat i on, i ncl udi ng such dat a as wast e r eposi t or y l ocat i ons
and hazar ds, on many map pr oduct s and di st r i but i ng t hemwi del y. Si nce sur -
veyi ng and mapmaki ng go back many t housands of year s ( I ngr am, 1911;
Ri cheson, 1966), si mi l ar act i vi t i es wi l l pr obabl y cont i nue f ar i nt o t he
f ut ur e. Mapmaki ng, i n gener al , i s l i kel y t o be a cont i nui ng endeavor , wi t h
i nf or mat i on t r ansmi t t ed and updat ed f r omone gener at i on t o anot her . *
I ndi vi dual l y, maps ar e l ess det ect abl e and accessi bl e t han si t e mar ker s, but
col l ect i vel y t hey woul d pr ovi de an ef f ect i ve message- t r ansmi ssi on channel .
Fur t her mor e, t he syner gi smbet ween t he maps and t he use of t he cent r al
monument as a U.S. Nat i onal Geodet i c Sur vey benchmar k woul d ai d i n
per pet uat i ng knowl edge of t he r eposi t or y, r ei nf or ced whenever any accur at e
sur veyi ng i s per f or med i n t he ar ea.
l anguage, and al t hough easi l y under st ood, t he si mpl e message woul d r esul t i n
some uncer t ai nt y because of t he absence of det ai l s and expl anat i ons.
ef f ect i veness of wi del y di st r i but ed maps l i es i n t hei r l ar ge number s spr eadi ng
t he gener al communi cat i on t hat cer t ai n i dent i f i ed geogr aphi cal ar eas cont ai n
buri ed wast e. The t echni cal i nf or mat i on cont ent of t he maps woul d be
negl i gi bl e.
The i nf or mat i on pl aced on maps woul d be ver y si mpl e and onl y i n one
The
*Ther e i s an i mpl i ci t assumpt i on of i nf or mat i on r el ay. However , t her e i s a
r easonabl e l i kel i hood t hat some maps pr oduced on moder n aci d- f r ee paper coul d
sur vi ve f or t housands of year s wi t hout t he r el ay.
95
Of f si t e Ar chi ves
The pl aci ng of document s and maps i n ar chi ves was descr i bed i n Sec-
The l ar ge number of ar chi ves, t he car e pr esent l y and pr evi ousl y shown
t i on 7. 2. 2, wi t h mor e det ai l ed i nf or mat i on cont ai ned el sewher e ( Wei t zber g,
1982).*
f or val uabl e document s, and t he hi st or i cal pr ecedent s of document s al r eady
sur vi vi ng mor e t han 1, 000 year s st r ongl y suggest t he l ong- t er mendur ance of
ar chi ves f or al l l evel s o f message. Ther e i s al so no l i kel y scenar i o by whi ch
i ndi vi dual document s i mpor t ant t o soci et y, pr i nt ed on l ong- l ast i ng mat er i al s
and pl aced i n hundr eds of ar chi ves t hr oughout t he wor l d, can be post ul at ed t o
be al l dest r oyed.
However , t he mechani smof di sper si ng t he i nf or mat i on, whi l e ensur i ng i t s
cont i nued exi st ence, al so r educes i t s det ect abi l i t y t o per sons t o whomt he
i nf or mat i on woul d be r el evant .
Ear t hwor ks and Anomal i es
The cent r al pl aza and ear t hwor ks, as shown i n Fi gur e 7- 7 and descr i bed i n
Sect i on 7. 1. 3, woul d be massi ve, cont ai ni ng sever al hundr ed t housand cubi c
met er s of ear t h and r ock. Thei r si ze al one, whi ch i s l ar ger t han anal ogous
anci ent ear t hwor ks l i ke t he Ser pent Mound ( Kapl an, 1982a) , woul d suggest t hei r
sur vi val f or t housands of year s. Sur f ace st abi l i zat i on wi t h aggr egat e asphal t
woul d pr ovi de f ur t her r esi st ance t o weat her i ng.
f or t he obl i t er at i on o f t he ear t hwor ks wi t hi n t he t i me f r ame o f i nt er est woul d
be a massi ve pl anned human i nt er f er ence or t he ef f ect s of gl aci at i on. Si nce
most of t he cont i guous Uni t ed St at es wi l l not exper i ence gl aci er s dur i ng t he
next 10, 000 year s ( Kukl a, et al , 1981), t he dur abi l i t y of t he ear t hwor ks,
t oget her wi t h any anomal i es, i s r at ed hi gh. The det ect abi l i t y of t he ear t h-
wor ks i s al so r at ed hi gh because t hei r ar r angement and si ze woul d make t hem
The onl y possi bl e mechani sms
*A di st i nct i on i s dr awn her e bet ween l and use r ecor ds, whi ch woul d be st or ed
and mai nt ai ned by t he l ocal l and aut hor i t y, and r ecor ds i n ar chi ves mai n-
t ai ned as par t of a l ar ger , mul t i pur pose i nf or mat i on st or age syst em. For
exampl e, t he same si t e pl at and descr i pt i on woul d be consi der ed a l and use
r ecor d when kept i n t he count y cour t house and an ar chi ve r ecor d when st or ed
by t he U.S. Bur eau o f Land Management .
96
r eadi l y vi si bl e f r omt he r eposi t or y si t e and f r omt he ai r.
woul d be det ect abl e by t her mal , i nf r ar ed, and r adar sensor s.
symbol wi t hout any accompanyi ng t ext . Al t hough t he symbol coul d be per cei ved
by sever al means, i t s message cont ent and r el evance woul d be l ow si nce i t s
f or mi s l i kel y t o be per cei ved onl y f r oma di st ance and i t s appar ent r el a-
t i onshi p t o t he vi ewer woul d be t enuous at best .
knowl edge of t he symbol has been wi del y di ssemi nat ed i n ot her ways, i t shoul d
be r ecogni zabl e.
I n addi t i on, t hey
The ear t hwor ks and anomal i es pr esent onl y t he bi ohazar dous bur i ed wast e
However , consi der i ng t hat
Per i pher al Mar ker s
The per i pher al mar ker s, descr i bed i n Sect i on 7. 1. 1 , ar e gr ani t e mono-
l i t hs, 7 met er s hi gh. Nat ur al gr ani t e f or mat i ons have sur vi ved up t o t wo
mi l l i on year s i n a wi de r ange o f envi r onment s ( Ber r y, 1983), i ndi cat i ng a hi gh
dur abi l i t y f or t he mar ker s.
t ons, maki ng i t s movement unl i kel y.
i nt egr i t y agai nst anyt hi ng shor t of pl anned demol i t i on.
t ance of t he mar ker s, t oget her wi t h t hei r number and t he di f f i cul t y of t he
demol i t i on, woul d make t hei r t ot al dest r uct i on unl i kel y. *
Mul t i pl e mar ker s pl aced at t he per i pher y of t he r eposi t or y woul d be
hi ghl y accessi bl e t o any per son appr oachi ng t he si t e, r egar dl ess o f di r ect i on.
The hei ght and spaci ng of t he mar ker s woul d ensur e t hei r vi si bi l i t y f r omt he
gr ound and woul d al so per mi t det ect i on by cer t ai n r emot e aer i al or sat el l i t e
r econnai ssance t echni ques ( Fost er and Hal l , 1981; Wat ki ns, 1981). Thus t he
per i pher al mar ker s ar e al so hi ghl y det ect abl e.
symbol and t he wr i t t en message i n sever al l anguages and pi ct ogr aphs. Thi s
mul t i pl i ci t y of message t ype, coupl ed wi t h i t s l ocat i on at t he si t e, shoul d
make t he mar ker s hi ghl y ef f ect i ve.
Each mar ker woul d wei gh i n excess of 25 met r i c
I t s monol i t hi c st r uct ur e woul d ensur e i t s
The obvi ous i mpor -
The f i r st l evel messages i ncl uded on t he per i pher al mar ker s i ncl ude t he
*Some soci et al pr ot ect i on agai nst such demol i t i on woul d be af f or ded wer e
biohazardous/radioactive wast e st i l l a mat t er of publ i c concer n.
n
97
Cent r a Monument
The cent r al monument mar ker s and t he base mat , as descr i bed i n
Sect i on 7. 1. 2, woul d be monol i t hi c i n const r uct i on.
about 200 met r i c t ons and t he NGS mar ker about 20 met r i c t ons.
of t hese mar ker s woul d be f ur t her enhanced by anchor i ng each one t o a pi l i ng.
The cent r al monument s woul d be hi ghl y det ect abl e because of t hei r si ze and
pr omi nent l ocat i on at t he cent er of t he ear t hwor ks and cent r al pl aza. Al so,
as on t he per i pher al mar ker s, t he message woul d be wr i t t en bot h pi ct ogr aph-
i cal l y and i n sever al l anguages. Even i f l ar ge par t s of t he hi gher l evel
messages wer e dest r oyed, t he r esi dual f i r st l evel message, because of t he
pr esence of t he ot her messages and mar ker s and t he pr omi nent onsi t e l ocat i on,
shoul d be compr ehensi bl e. The pr esence of t hr ee mar ker s woul d add r edundancy
t o t he over al l syst em.
The mar ker s woul d wei gh
The dur abi l i t y
Cent r al Monument Vaul t s
Al t hough t he cent r al monument mar ker s woul d be hi ghl y dur abl e, t he
dur abi l i t y of t he t hr ee smal l er document vaul t s ( see Fi gur e 7- 7) woul d be
somewhat l ess. The vaul t s woul d wei gh appr oxi mat el y 17 met r i c t ons ( wi t hout
t he l i ds), suf f i ci ent t o det er casual vandal i smor r emoval . The si des of t he
vaul t s woul d cont ai n t he bi ohazar dous wast e symbol and a f i r st l evel message
engr aved i n t he gr ani t e bot h pi ct ogr aphi cal l y and i n sever al l anguages.
t he vaul t s ( wi t hout consi der i ng t hei r cont ent s) t oget her wi t h t he cent r al
mar ker s shoul d ef f ect i vel y convey t he f i - r st l evel message.
Thus,
,/
/'
7. 3. 2 Second Level Channel s
The second l evel message, shown i n Fi gur e 5- 2 and di scussed i n
Sect i on 5. 2, war ns of bi ohazar dous wast e and br i ef l y descr i bes t he ext ent of
t he r eposi t or y as wel l as t he l ocat i on of t he wast e.
t r ansmi t t ed by per i pher al mar ker s, t he cent r al monument , l and use r ecor ds, and
of f si t e ar chi ves. The di scussi on of t he ef f ect i veness of al l but t he l and use
r ecor ds i s i dent i cal wi t h t hat gi ven i n t he pr ecedi ng sect i on f or t he f i r st
l evel message channel s, and t her ef or e i s not r epeat ed here.
Thi s message woul d be
Land Use Records
98
n
The i ncor por at i on of r eposi t or y- r el at ed i nf or mat i on i nt o l and use
r ecor ds, as descr i bed i n Sect i on 7.2, i s speci f i ed by t he U.S. Envi r onment al
Pr ot ect i on Agency as a post cl osur e r equi r ement f or t he di sposal of bot h
hazar dous wast e and l ow- l evel r adi oact i ve wast e. Many hi st or i cal r ecor ds of
l and use and owner shi p, and some r ecor ds of mi ni ng, go back many hundr eds of
year s ( Kr oker , 1977); however , wi t hout del i ber at e act i on by soci et y t o mai n-
t ai n and updat e t he l and r ecor ds, deeds, and si t e pl ans, l ocal r ecor ds wi l l
not be dur abl e f or mor e t han sever al hundr eds of year s.
Never t hel ess, whi l e t hey exi st , t hese r ecor ds wi l l be conveyed t o each
i ndi vi dual who at t empt s t o t ake t i t l e t o, or make l egal use of , t he r eposi t or y
si t e. The second l evel message i ncor por at ed i n l and use r ecor ds has t he
advant age of bei ng di st i nct l y coupl ed wi t h t he owner shi p and descr i pt i on of
t he r eposi t or y si t e, but t her e i s some uncer t ai nt y r el at ed t o si t e i dent i f i -
cat i on i f t he r ecor ds ar e st or ed f ar f r omt he r eposi t or y or i f t he t er r ai n of
t he si t e i s subst ant i al l y al t er ed over t he per i od of i nt er est . Ther e i s al so
a di st i nct possi bi l i t y t hat t he war ni ngs cont ai ned i n l and use r ecor ds may be
r et r ansl at ed over t he cent ur i es; t her e i s, however , no assur ance t hat t hi s
wi l l be done.
The dur abi l i t y of t he si t e mar ker s i ncr eases t he l i kel i hood t hat t he si t e
wi l l appear on f ut ur e maps ( f i r st l evel message) , and t he maps i n t ur n wi l l
spr ead t he knowl edge of t he si t e. The second l evel caut i on message and br i ef
r eposi t or y descr i pt i on woul d pr obabl y be successf ul l y t r ansmi t t ed t o f ut ur e
gener at i ons f or 10, 000 year s.
sour ces of i nf or mat i on, as wel l as t he r equest t o t r ansl at e and updat e t he
messages when appr opr i at e, wi l l al so i ncr ease t he ef f ect i veness of al l t he
The i ncl usi on of r ef er ences t o addi t i onal
messages.
7. 3. 3 Thi r d Level Channel s
The t hi r d l evel message ( see Fi gur e ) woul d be t r ansmi t t ed on
Y by
engr avi ng i nt o t he sur f aces of t he cent r al si t e monument ( mar ker s and vaul t s)
and at of f si t e ar chi ves. Si nce t he monument was r at ed hi gh i n dur abi l i t y and
det ect abi l i t y, pr i mar i l y because of i t s si ze and monol i t hi c const r uct i on,
t hese same r at i ngs ar e assi gned t o t he t hi r d l evel messages.
99
1 eve
Al t hough a l i mi t ed number of medi a and f or ms woul d
messages, t he message woul d be r epeat ed on sever a
exi st i n many of f si t e ar chi ves. I t woul d be wr i t t en i n
be used f or t he t hi r d
sur f aces and woul d
sever al l anguages and
pr esent ed pi ct ogr aphi cal l y, and woul d cont ai n di agr ams showi ng t he ext ent and
l ocat i on of t he wast e. Thus, t he t hi r d l evel message shoul d be compr ehen-
si bl e, and i t s r el at i vel y hi gh i nf or mat i on cont ent war r ant s a hi gh r at i ng f or
i t s abi l i t y t o el i ci t t he desi r ed r esponse.
i nf or mat i on st or ed away f r omt he si t e wi l l suppor t t he ef f ect i veness of t he
f our t h l evel messages, and t he r equest t o t r ansl at e and r et r ansmi t t he
The r ef er ences t o mor e det ai l ed
messages wi l l ai d i n per pet uat i ng t he i nf or mat i on.
subst ant i al l y enhances t he l i kel i hood t hat , even i f t hi r d l evel i nf or mat i on i s
par t i al l y dest r oyed, t he r esi dual t hi r d l evel messages wi l l sur vi ve and be
under st ood f or t he 10, 000- year per i od of i nt er est .
The l ar ge number of of f si t e ar chi ves cont ai ni ng f our t h l evel i nf or mat i on
7. 3. 4 Four t h Level Channel s
The f our t h l evel messages of det ai l ed t echni cal i nf or mat i on ( see
Sect i on 5. 4) woul d be t r ansmi t t ed i n t wo ways.
200 pages woul d be pl aced i n t he t hr ee cent r al monument vaul t s, and t he
compl et e ver si on of about 1, 500 pages woul d be st or ed i n many of f si t e
ar chi ves. The l engt h and det ai l of t hese messages, as wel l as t he mul t i pl e
l anguages and symbol s used, woul d ensur e a ver y hi gh degr ee of compr ehensi -
bility and ability to elicit the desired response.
The f our t h l evel messages woul d be conveyed by bot h onsi t e and of f si t e
A br i ef er ver si on of about
means, each havi ng a l i f e expect ancy of l ess t han sever al t housand year s.
However , consi der abl e r edundancy i s pr ovi ded by t he many of f si t e ar chi ve
l ocat i ons and t he r ef er ences t o t hemi n t he t hi r d l evel messages. For t hi s
r eason t he of f si t e l evel channel s shoul d be of medi umdur abi l i t y wi t h t he
l i kel i hood t hat t hey woul d endur e and be under st ood f or 2, 000 t o 10, 000 year s.
The onsi t e cent r al monument vaul t s ar e r at ed somewhat l ower t han t he
of f si t e ar chi ves. The pot ent i al weak poi nt of t he vaul t s i s t hat t he i nf or -
mat i on cont ai ned i nsi de of t hemcan be per manent l y r emoved f r omt hemand be
dest r oyed. Met hods ar e not avai l abl e t o ensur e t hat t he vaul t cont ent s wi l l
r emai n i nt act f or t he f ul l 10, 000 year s. Conver sel y, havi ng t hr ee i dent i cal
100
vaul t s wi t h i dent i cal cont ent s woul d i ncr ease t he l i kel i hood t hat at l east one
message woul d r emai n i nt act . Al so t he appar ent i mpor t ance of t he monument and
t he vaul t s and t hei r cont ai ned i nf or mat i on suggest s t hat t he r equest f or a
r el ay syst em( t hi r d and f our t h l evel messages) t o per pet uat e t he messages may
be heeded. Thus, t her e i s a r easonabl e pr obabi l i t y t hat t he messages i n at
l east one of t he vaul t s woul d sur vi ve mor e t han 2, 000 year s.
Because t he t hr ee cent r al monument vaul t s have massi ve cover s t o pr event
e casual i nspect i on, t he cont ai ned l evel 4 i nf or mat i on i s not easi l y accessi b
t o i ndi vi dual s vi si t i ng t he si t e. However , because t he t hi r d l evel message
woul d announce t he exi st ence of t he message i t woul d be moder at el y det ect ab e.
7.4 OVERALL ASSESSMENT OF COMMUNI CATI ON METHODS
The pr evi ous eval uat i ons, t hough onl y qual i t at i ve, i l l ust r at e t he ef f ec-
t i veness and t he r edundancy t hat can be bui l t i nt o a communi cat i on syst em.
Addi t i onal r edundancy i s pr ovi ded by t he use of f our di f f er ent l evel s of
message and t he way many of t he message channel s r ei nf or ce and suppor t each
ot her . Fur t her mor e, l i t t l e cr edi t has been t aken f or t he r easonabl y l i kel y
pr ospect t hat f ut ur e gener at i ons wi l l deemt he i dent i f i cat i on of bi ohazar dous
wast e si t es t o be i n soci et y' s best i nt er est and wi l l act accor di ngl y t o
per pet uat e t he knowl edge t hr ough a r el ay syst em. A l ong- t er mcommuni cat i on
syst emwoul d ul t i mat el y r el y most heavi l y on per manent mar ker s and monument s
wi t h t he messages t i ed i nt egr al l y t o t he st r uct ur e. These passi ve measur es
shoul d r equi r e no mai nt enance t o t r ansmi t t hei r messages up t o 10, 000 year s
i nt o t he f ut ur e.
l i kel i hood of per pet uat i ng know. l edge about r eposi t or i es t hr ough ot her means as
wel l .
t echnol ogi cal l evel o f t he r esponsi bl e soci et y must appr oxi mat e t hat of our
own. The i nst i t ut i ons accompanyi ng such t echnol ogi es, f or exampl e, educat i on,
gover nment , communi cat i on, and l ar ge- scal e ener gy gener at i on and t r ansmi ssi on,
shoul d not be t ot al l y i gnor ed i n assessi ng t he l i kel i hood of per pet ut i on of
i nf or mat i on. Al t hough speci f i c i nst i t ut i ons r eadi l y change, many basi c i nst i -
t ut i onal f unct i ons t r anscend r eor gani zat i on and cont i nue. Thi s r ei nf or ces t he
expect at i on t hat knowl edge of t he r eposi t or i es wi l l be mai nt ai ned, and t hat
The pr esence of t hese mar ker s and monument s enhances t he
For si gni f i cant human i nt er f er ence wi t h wast e r eposi t or i es t o occur , t he
101
t he passi ve measur es di scussed
soci et y' s at t ent i on on t he need
n t hi s r epor t wi l l per i odi cal l y f ocus
f or mor e act i ve measur es l i ke sur vei l l ance,
mai nt enance, message r el ayi ng, and educat i on.
t echni cal and or gani zat i onal capabi l i t i es f or i nt er f er i ng wi t h wast e r eposi -
t or i es but devoi d of t he knowl edge and t he soci et al i nst i t ut i ons t hat ar e most
l i kel y t o pr event har mf ul i nt er f er ence. The r easonabl y hi gh pr obabi l i t y t hat
The l east l i kel y pr ospect f or t he f ut ur e i s a soci et y ar med wi t h t he
i hood of t he per manent mar ker s and monument s wi l l endur e makes t he l i ke
si gni f i cant i nadver t ent i nt er f er ence r el at i vel y r emot e i ndeed.
Th
102
8 AREAS REQUI RI NG FUTURE WORK
use of a compr ehensi ve communi cat i on syst em, i ncl udi ng t hose compo-
nent s descr i bed i n Sect i on 7, i s expect ed t o pr ovi de ef f ect i ve measur es t o
r educe t he l i kel i hood of uni nf or med human i nt er f er ence act i vi t i es. However ,
f ut ur e act i vi t y, i ncl udi ng t est i ng and anal ysi s, i s needed t o i ncr ease
conf i dence i n component and syst emef f ect i veness.
wher e f ur t her st udy coul d be par t i cul ar l y benef i ci al .
The f ol l owi ng ar e ar eas
8.1 EFFECTI VENESS OF MESSAGE
To det er mi ne t he ef f ect i veness of t he var i ous l evel s of messages,
cont r ol l ed behavor i al t est i ng coul d be conduct ed. For exampl e, t he i ni t i al
r eact i ons of sampl e popul at i ons t o t he pr oposed bi ohazar dous wast e symbol
coul d be st udi ed, t o det er mi ne i t s pr obabl e accept ance and r ecogni t i on af t er
common use. Test s usi ng var i at i ons i n symbol shapes, as wel l as col or s, coul d
be per f or med t o assess possi bl e changes t o t he pr oposed symbol . Fi r st l evel
messages can i ncl ude ear t hwor ks and r emot el y sensed war ni ng desi gns of anoma-
l ous i nf r ar ed r ef l ect i ve pr oper t i es. The si ze of t hese symbol i c desi gns
shoul d be anal yzed wi t h r ef er ence t o exi st i ng and l i kel y near - t er msat el l i t e
det ect i on t echnol ogi es. The i nt er pr et at i on of t hese messages shoul d al so be
t est ed.
The i coni c message desi gn coul d be devel oped f ur t her , and sever al pi ct o-
gr aphi c messages coul d al so be t est ed among sampl e popul at i ons.
r esponse of t he sampl e popul at i on t o t he f i r st l evel message shoul d be
det er mi ned to ensur e t hat t he pr i mar y r esponse i s one of caut i on. Car e must
be exer ci sed t o ensur e t hat t he messages used do not become at t r act i ons t hat
pr oduce r esponses opposi t e f r omt hose desi r ed.
The basi c
8.2 MATERI AL AND MESSAGE DURABI LI TY
Fur t her i nvest i gat i on i s necessar y t o det er mi ne t he expect ed l ongevi t y of
message channel s i ncl udi ng ear t hwor ks, monument s, vaul t s, and wr i t t en r ecor ds.
The l ongevi t y of l and use r ecor ds as a met hod of t r ansmi t t i ng r eposi t or y-
r el at ed messages al so r equi r es f ur t her i nvest i gat i on. I nf or mat i on i s needed
103
on t he avai l abi l i t y and maxi mumsi zes of nat ur al mat er i al s f or mar ker s, as
wel l as on t he var i ous met hods of i ncor por at i ng messages on mar ker s. I t i s
desi r abl e t o maxi mi ze t he dur abi l i t y of , and mi ni mi ze weat her i ng ef f ect s on,
speci f i c mat er i al s t hat mi ght be used i n message t r ansmi ssi on. Fur t her
i nvest i gat i on and anal ysi s o f synt het i c r ock ( Synr oc) and composi t e st r uct ur es
(e. g. , r ei nf or ced concr et e cl ad wi t h Synr oc) i s al so necessar y, i ncl udi ng
t est i ng f or i mpr oved per f or mance, and abi l i t y t o const r uct .
Bot h t he nat ur al and engi neer ed mat er i al s shoul d be t est ed t o det er mi ne
t hei r r esi st ance t o weat her i ng i n cur r ent and pr edi ct ed f ut ur e at mospher es.
The ef f ect i veness of possi bl e communi cat i on syst emcomponent s i s a necessar y
ar ea of st udy t o det er mi ne t he r el i ance t hat coul d be pl aced on sever al of t he
sof t er message channel s, e. g. , l and use r ecor ds, ar chi ves, and publ i c i nf or -
mat i on.
i nst i t ut i ons and t he cont r i but i on t hey coul d make t o per pet uat i ng r eposi t or y-
r el at ed messages.
The f ut ur e sur vi vabi l i t y of l anguages i s anot her i mpor t ant ar ea of st udy,
i n par t i cul ar , i dent i f yi ng t hose l anguage el ement s t hat seemt o sur vi ve over
l ong per i ods of t i me. The r at e of changes i n l anguages i s al so of i nt er est as
i s t he ef f ect of wor l dwi de communi cat i on and t he di st r i but i on of pr i nt ed docu-
ment s.
used t o t r ansmi t t he f our l evel s of message.
Fur t her wor k i s needed t o det er mi ne t he sur vi vabi l i t y of var i ous
The r esul t s of such r esear ch coul d af f ect t he sel ect i on of l anguages
8.3 MESSAGE TRANSMI SSI ON
The ef f ect i veness of or al t r ansmi ssi on of r eposi t or y- r el at ed messages i s
anot her ar ea f or f ur t her st udy. I nf or mat i on on t he per si st ence, accur acy, and
compr ehensi bi l i t y of or al messages over t i me wi l l ai d i n pl anni ng f or mor e
ef f ect i ve communi cat i on r egar di ng wast e r eposi t or y l ocat i ons and hazar ds.
Publ i c i nf or mat i on mechani sms, i ncl udi ng f or mal and i nf or mal educat i on
pr ogr ams, coul d be st udi ed t o det er mi ne t hei r vi abi l i t y as a met hod t o accu-
r at el y t r ansmi t messages and i nf or mat i on. A speci f i c publ i c i nf or mat i on and
educat i on pr ogr amcoul d t hen be devel oped and t est ed pr i or t o wast e di sposal .
8.4 SITE-SPECIFIC
A number of s
muni cat i ons syst em
STUDY
t e- speci f i c st ud
ef f ect i veness as
104
es woul d be necessar y t o opt i mi ze com-
i t r el at es t o pot ent i al r eposi t or y
l ocat i ons.
syst emdevel oped t hat woul d be most ef f ect i ve f or t he si t e.
ef f ect i veness t hat must be exami ned.
weat her i ng, based on i nher ent si t e char act er i st i cs i ncl udi ng pot ent i al l ong-
t er mcl i mat i c changes; (2) t he ef f ect s of damage or obl i t er at i on by veget at i ve
gr owt h; and ( 3) t he ef f ect s of sei smi c act i vi t i es, f l oodi ng, sever e er osi on,
or deposi t i on.
consi der at i on of pr eci pi t at i on, wi nd, f l oodi ng, and si l t deposi t i on at
pot ent i al si t e l ocat i ons.
l ar ge monol i t hi c bl ocks coul d be eval uat ed and/ or t est ed f or er osi on i n t he
si t e- speci f i c weat her envi r onment s.
di f f er ent si t es i n or der t o maxi mi ze dur abi l i t y.
Pot ent i al r eposi t or y si t es coul d be exami ned and a communi cat i on
Ther e ar e r el at i onshi ps bet ween si t e condi t i ons and mar ker l ongevi t y and
These i ncl ude (1) t he ef f ect s of
Local l y excavat ed or i mpor t ed const r uct i on mat er i al coul d be eval uat ed i n
Si mi l ar l y, speci f i c gr ani t e t ypes avai l abl e i n
Di f f er ent mat er i al s may be pr ef er r ed at
1
I
105
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113
APPENDI X A
n
n
115
APPENDI X A
PI CTOGRAPHI C PRESENTATI ON OF BI OHAZARDOUS CAUTI ON MESSAGE
The pi ct ogr aph t hat f ol l ows was devel oped usi ng t he concept s and gui de-
l i nes di scussed by Gi vens (1981). The obj ect i ve i s t o convey t o t he r eader
t he sense t hat i f t he ar ea bel ow t he mar ker s i s di st ur bed, t oxi c subst ances
wi l l ent er t he gr ound wat er and l ead t o sever e consequences.
r el i es on sever al vi sual i mages act i ng i n concer t t o r el ay t he message.
The pi ct ogr aph
e The gr ound sur f ace exhi bi t s per i pher al mar ker s and a cent r al
monument t o denot e r el evance t o t he si t e wher e t hose mar ker s and
monument exi st .
0 The gr ound- wat er syst emi s i ndi cat ed by wat er - dr op shapes and by
t he chemi cal symbol f or wat er ( t he onl y depar t ur e f r omi cons,
used as a r edundant measure) .
a A r eposi t or y f ar bel ow t he sur f ace i s depi ct ed wi t h t he
bi ohazar dous symbol . The f act t hat t he obj ect por t r ayed bel ow
t he sur f ace i s a r eposi t or y may not be at al l evi dent t o a f ut ur e
r eader f r omt he f i r st f r ame; however , t he movement of t he dar k
mat er i al f r omt he r eposi t or y t hr ough t he aqui f er and i nt o t he
veget abl es i n t he t hi r d f r ame, coupl ed wi t h t he movement of t he
bi ohazar dous symbol , shoul d i mpl y t he bur i al of bi ohazar dous
mat er i al s bel ow t he sur f ace.
o The pi ct ogr aphi c sequence exagger at es r eal i t y wi t h r egar d t o t he
r api di t y of cont ami nant t r anspor t and upt ake, and wi t h r egar d t o
t he sever i t y of t he consequences. However , exagger at i on i s
necessar y because bot h t he cl ar i t y and t he r el evance of t he
message may suf f er i f . t he pi ct ogr aph at t empt s t o i ndi cat e con-
t ami nant t r anspor t t i me of t housands of year s. Si mi l ar l y, t he
consequence por t r ayed, a pai nf ul deat h, over - exagger at es t he
cause- ef f ect r el at i onshi p and t he r at e of t he i ndi vi dual ' s demi se
( one out of t hr ee suf f er deat h i n t he pi ct ogr aph, wher eas a
t o chance woul d be mor e r epr esent at i ve) .
116
The pi ct ogr aphi c sequence i s r ead t op- t o- bot t omwhi ch i s appr opr i at e on a
pancul t ur al basi s, i . e. , var i ous cul t ur es r ead r i ght - t o- l ef t and l ef t - t o-
r i ght , but al l r ead t op- t o- bot t om( Gi vens, 1981).
can be del i ver ed usi ng t hi s t echni que.
r each agr eement on t he message( s) t o be del i ver ed and t he most appr opr i at e
i cons t o be used.
pi ct ogr aph woul d appear on t he mar ker s at t he si t e.
woul d r ecogni ze t he pi ct ogr aphi c set t i ng as t he one i n whi ch t hey ar e l ocat ed
whi l e st udyi ng t he pi ct ogr aph.
i ndi cat e t he st eps l eadi ng t o t he pr esent f i r st f r ame, i . e. , mi ni ng t he
The pi ct ogr aph i s i nt ended t o be i ndi cat i ve of t he t ype of message t hat
Addi t i onal wor k woul d be r equi r ed t o
I n r evi ewi ng t he sequence, r eader s of t hi s r epor t ar e r emi nded t hat t he
Ther ef or e, f ut ur e r eader s
The ser i es coul d easi l y be expanded t o
r eposi t or y, empl aci ng t he wast e, and seal i ng t he r eposi t or y.
n
*
.
.
4
n
5
. E
D
-
. .
e I
e e e e
e e e e e
\
_ . . - -- -
& & & & L A
. .
- .
119
AP P ENDI X B
121
APPENDI X B
The Human I nt er f er ence Task For ce was composed of t he f ol l owi ng i ndi vi dual s:
Wi l l i amM. Hewi t t ( Chai r per son)
Manager , Syst ems Depar t ment
Of f i ce of Nucl ear Wast e I sol at i on
Bat t el l e Memor i al I nst i t ut e
Speci al t y: Nucl ear Wast e Management
D. A. Br odni ck
Soci oeconomi c Gr oup Leader , Nucl ear Af f ai r s
Fl or i da Power and Li ght Company
Speci al t i es: Law and Soci ol ogy
Nei l Nor man
Pr oj ect Manager , Envi r onment al Ser vi ces Depar t ment
Becht el Gr oup, I ncor por at ed
Speci al t y: Engi neer i ng
J anet Owen
Seni or Sci ent i st , Envi r onment al Ser vi ces Depar t ment
Becht el Gr oup, I ncor por at ed
Speci al t y: Envi r onment al Sci ences
Li nda U1 l and
Seni or Sci ent i st , Envi r onment al Ser vi ces Depar t ment
Becht el Gr oup, I ncor por at ed
Speci al t i es: Pol i t i cal Sci ences and Publ i c Par t i ci pat i on
Abr ahamWei t zber g
Seni or Execut i ve Consul t ant , Ener gy Syst ems Di vi si on
NUS Cor por at i on
Speci al t y: Nucl ear Physi cs
The f ol l owi ng peopl e ar e consul t ant s to t he Task For ce:
War r en Ber r y
Manager , Cor r osi on Sect i on
Bat t el l e Col umbus Labor at or i es
Speci al t y: Mat er i al s Sci ence
Paul Ekman
Pr of essor of Psychol ogy
Uni ver si t y of Cal i f or ni a, San Fr anci sco
Speci al t y: Nonver bal Communi cat i on
Davi d B. Gi vens
Depar t ment of Ant hr opol ogy
Uni ver si t y of Washi ngt on
Speci al t i es: Ant hr opol ogy and Nonver bal Communi cat i on
122
Maureen Kapl an
The Analytic Sciences Corporation
Specialty: Archaeology
George Kukla
Senior Research Associate
Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory
Specialty: Climatology
Thomas Sebeok
Chairman, Research Center for Language and Semiotic Studies
Indiana University
Specialties: Linguistics and Semiotics
Percy H. Tannenbaum
Director, Survey Research Center
University of California, Berkeley
Specialties: Behavioral Psychology and Public Policy
n
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ALVI N R BICKLK I K
CHARLES L BLALOCK
C UKTIS W 5TOVLK
MISSISSIPPI DEPT OF NATURAL RESOURCES
MISSISSIPPI EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT
AGENCY
J AMEsE MAHE K
SARA TUBE
MISSISSIPPI LIBRARY COMMI S S I ON
MISSISSIPPI MI NERAL RESOURCES INSTITUTE
MISSISSIPPI STATE BOARD OF HEALTH
EDDIE S FUENTE
ClJ Y K WI LSON
REPRESENTATIVES
MISSISSIPPI STATE HOUSE OF
tI I LLMAN TL ROhl t F RAl l LR
126
MISSISSIPPI STATE UNIVERSITY
TROY J . LASWELL
VICTOR L. ZITTA
MI TRE CORP
LESTER A. ETTLINCER
MlTSUBlSHl METAL CORP
TATSUO.ARlMA
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MICHAELENE PENDLETON ( 2)
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GEOLOGY
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CECIL D. LEWIS. J R
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NEW ENGLAND NUCLEAR CORP
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SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
J AMES T MCF ARLAND
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NEW YORK STATE ATTORNEY GENERALS
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j OHN C. DEMPSEY
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J AMES R. ALBANESE
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BERNARD J WO O D
NTR GOVERNMENT SERVICES
THOMAS V REYNOLDS
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J EAN R l ON
ANTHONY MULLER
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OTHA INC
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MI CHAEL CRLJ TLECK
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I AMES WU
URCE SYSTEMS INSTITUTE
Q KIRK R SMI TH
RHODE I SLAND GOVERNORS ENERGY OFFICE
RHODE I SLAND GOVERNORS OFFICE
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DUANE MATLOCK
RONAL D C ARNETT
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KARL M LA RUE
MI CHAEL J SMI TH
DAVI DL SOUTH
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ROCKWELL I NTERNATI ONAL ENERGY SYSTEMS
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ROGERS & ASSOCIATES ENGINEERING CORP
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ROY F. WESTON I NC
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DAVI D HART
RONAL D MAC DONAL D
MI CHAEL V MELLINGER
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J AMES VANCE
S.E. LOGAN & ASSOCIATES I NC
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S.M. STOLLER CORP
ROBERT W KUPP
SALT LAKE CITY TRIBUNE
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SUE NE WHAMS
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TEXAS STATE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES
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THE J ACKSON CLARION-LEDGER
128
Tl OGA COUNTY P LANNI NG BOARD
THOMAS A. COOKI NGHAM
TRU WASTE SYSTEMS OFFICE
K. V. GILBERT
TUN I SMAI L ATOMI C RESEARCH CENTRE
(PUSPATI)
SAMSURDI N BI N AHAMAD
TUSKEGEE INSTITUTE
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U.H.D.E. - W. GERMANY
FRANK STEINBRUNN
U.S. BUREAU OF L AND MANAGEMENT
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EDWARD R. SCHERICK
GREGORY F. THAYN
U.S. BUREAU OF MINES
ANTHONY I ANNACCHI ONE
US. BUREAU OF RECLAMATI ON
J OHN BROWN
RECE LEACH
U.S. DEPT OF COMMERCE
PETER A. RONA
US. DEPT OF ENERGY
CHED BRADLEY
R. COOPERSTEIN
LAWRENCE H. HAR MON
CARL NEWTON
J AMES TCRl
US. DEPT OF ENERGY - ALBUQUERQUE
OPERATIONS OFFICE
P H I L I P LA R R A G O IT E
J OSEPH M. MC C OU C H
US. DEPT OF ENERGY - CHI CAGO
OPERATIONS OFFICE
LICKI ALSPACCH
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US. DEPT OF ENERGY - CRYSTALLINE ROCK
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U.S. DEPT OF ENERGY - DALLAS SUPPORT
OFFICE
CLRTI S E. CARLSOh. I R
REPOSITORY DEPLOYMENT
U.S. DEPT OF ENERGY - DI VI SI ON OF WASTE
J E F F SMlLEY
U.S. DEPT OF ENERGY - GEOLOGI C
REPOSITORY DI VI SI ON
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C. R. COOLEY 121
WARREX EISTER
J IM FlORE
%IARK M. FREl
CRlTZ H. GEORGE
RALPH STEI S
U.S. DEPT OF ENERGY - GRAND J UNCTI.ON
OFFICE
MAY S E ROBERTS
US. DEPT OF ENERGY - HEADQUARTERS
PCBLIC READI NG R O O M
HESRY F. WALTER
US. DEPT OF ENERGY - I DAHO OPERATIONS
OFFICE
M. BARAI NCA
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US. DEPT OF ENERGY - NEVADA OPERATIONS
OFFICE
PUBLIC READI NG R O O M
U.S. DEPT OF ENERGY - NUCLEAR WASTE
POLICY ACT OFFICE
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US. DEPT OF ENERGY - NWTS P ROGRAM
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US. DEPT OF ENERGY - OAK RIDGE
OPERATIONS OFFICE
PUBLIC READI NG R O O M
U.S. DEPT OF ENERGY - OFFICE OF BASIC
ENERGY SCIENCES
MARK W WITTELS
US. DEPT OF ENERGY - OFFICE OF DEFENSE
WASTE AND BYPRODUCTS
C K OERTEL
U.S. DEPT OF ENERGY - OFFICE OF PROlECT
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SIGRID HICDON
OPERATIONS OFFICE
US. DEPT OF ENERGY - REGI ON Vl l l
US. DEPT OF ENERGY - RI CHLAND
J SCHREIBER
US. DEPT OF ENERGY - SAN FRANCISCO
OPERATIONS OFFICE
ENERGY RESOURCES CENTER
P bBLlC READI NG R O O M
US. DEPT OF ENERGY - S AVANNAH RIVER
OPERATIONS OFFICE
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US. DEPT OF ENERGY -TECHNI CAL
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US. DEPT OF LABOR
KELVIN K WL
U.S. DEPT OF THE INTERIOR
PAUL A HSlEH
US. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
DI\ ISION OF CRITERIA & STANDARDS
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U.S. GENERAL ACCOUNTI NG OFFICE
US. GEOLOGI CAL SURVEY - ALEXANDRIA
U.S. GEOLOGI CAL SURVEY - BATON ROUGE
G h RYALS
DA R Ml h KNOCHENM.115
U.S. GEOLOGI CAL SURVEY - COLUMBUS
A U LASALA J R
M S BEDIYCER
J ESS M CI tVELA\D
ROBERT] HlTE
CARP LD C PARKER J R
U.S. GEOLOGI CAL SURVEY - DENVER
US. CEO1 OGI CAL SURVEY - J ACKSON
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY - RESTON
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U.S. HOUSE SUBCOMMITTEE ON ENERGY AND
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MORRI S K I DALL
U.S. NATI ONAL PARK SERVICE
US. NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMI S S I ON
THOMA5 C fiY LI E
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PATRICIA A COMf L L A
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DOCKET CONTROL CENTER
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PHILIP S J USTUS
MI CHAEL 5 KEARNEY
MAL C OL M R KNAPP
J OHN C MCKINLEY
THOMAS J NI CHOLSON
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MI CHAEL WEBER
EVERETT A WI CK
ROBERT J WRI GHT
UI NTAH COUNTY LIBRARY
UNION OF CONCERNED SCIENTISTS
UNI TED K I NGDOM DEPT OF THE
MI CHAEL FADEN
ENVI RONMENT
F 5 FEATES
UNIVERSITY OF AKRON
LORETTA J COLE
UNIVERSITY OF ARI ZONA
I AAK DAEMEN
J AME j C MCCRAY
S HL OMO P Y E UMAN
R O Y G POST
T ODD LAPORTE
THOMAS H P I CFORD
D OKRENT
KRIS PRESTON
UNIVERSITY OF DELAWARE
FRANK A KULACKI
UNIVERSITY OF FLORI DA
DAVI DE CLARK
DOLORES C J ENKINS
M J OHANI AN
DAVI D EPP
MURLI H MANC HNANI
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UNIVERSITY OF CALI FORNI A AT LOS ANGELES
UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI I AT MA NOA
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CHAMP AI GN
DANIEL F HANG
MA C DI RACHE
UNIVERSITY OF MARY LAND
FRANK J MUNNO
MARVI N ROUSH
UNIVERSITY OF MI CHI GAN
hl L L l A M KERR
UNIVERSITY OF MI NNESOTA
CHARLES FAIRHIIRST
DOhAL D CiLLI 5
R AY MOND STERI ING
UNIVERSITY OF MISSISSIPPI
UNIVERSITY OF MI SSOURI AT KANSAS CITY
GEORGE D BRUNTON
EDWI N D COEBEL
SYEDE HASAN
ALLEN W HATHEWAY
ARVI ND KUMAR
NI CK TSOU L F A N I DI 5
UNIVRSITY OF NEW ME XI CO
UNIVERSITY OF MI SSOURI AT ROLLA
HAROLD M ANDERSON
DOI J CLAS C HROOKI NS
RODNEY C EWINC
UNIVERSITY OF OK L AHOMA
DANIEL T HOATRI CHT
TIJ NCER OREN
UNIVERSITY OF OTTAWA - C ANADA
n
129
UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH
B. L. COHEN
VERSITY OF SOUTHERN MISSISSIPPI
CHARLES R. BRENT
J AMES W P I NSON
PAUL ANAEJ I ONU
BUREAU OF E CONOMI C GEOLOGY
EARNEST F CLOY NA
THOMAS C CUSTAVSON
MARTI N P A J ACKSON
J OE 0 LEDBETTER
E C WE RMUND
DONAL D R LEWIS
RYOHEI KIYOSE
N S BRAR
J AMES W BUNCER
MARRI OTT LIBRARY
GARY M SANDQUIST
UNIVERSITY OF WASHI NGTON
M A ROBKI N
UNIVERSITY OF WI SCONSI N
B C HAI MS ON
UNIVERSITY OF WI SCONSI N AT MI LWAUKEE
HOWAR D PINCUS
UPPER PEASE SOIL A ND WATER
CONSERVATI ON DISTRICT
UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN
UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT SAN ANTONI O
UNIVERSITY OF TOKY O - J AP AN
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO - CANADA
UNIVERSITY OF UT AH
W H MARSHALL
1 URS-BERGER
TONY MOR GAN
URS/I OHN A. BLUME & ASSOCIATES,
ANDREW B CUNNI NGHAM
I
ENGINEERS
UTAH DEPT OF NATURAL RESOURCES &
ENERGY
MA R K A PAGE
' UT AH DEPT OF TRANSPORTATION
DELOY K PETERSON
I
UTAH DI VI SI ON OF ENVI RONMENTAL
HEALTH
M A R V H MAXELL
SALLYJ KEFER
J OHN KNUDS ON
C OR DON W TOP HAM
UTAH DI VI SI ON OF OIL. GAS & MINING
UTAH DI VI SI ON OF PARKS & RECREATION
UTAH ENERGY OFFICE
R O D MI LLAR
UTAH ENVI RONMENT CENTER
UTAH GEOLOGI CAL AND MI NERAL SURVEY
J UNE WI CKHAM
GENEVIEVE AT WOOD
BILL L UND
MAC E YONETANI
RANDY MOON (25)
UTAH OFFICE OF P LANNI NG & BUDGET
UT AH SOUTHEASTERN DISTRICT HEALTH
DEPARTMENT
ROBERT L F URLOW
UTAH STATE GEOLOGI C TASK FORCE
UTAH STATE UNIVERSITY
J AC K T SPENCE
UTAHNS AGAINST THE DUMP COALI TI ON
UTILITY DATA INSTITUTE
VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY
FRANK L PARKER
VEPCO
VERMONT DEPT OF WATER RESOURCES AND
DAVI D D TILLSON
FRED YOST
B H WAKE MAN
ENVI RONMENTAL ENGINEERING
CHARLES A RATTE
VERMONT STATE NUCLEAR ADVISORY PANEL
VIRGINIA CALLAN
VI RGI NI A DEPT OF HEALTH
WI LLI AM F CILLEY
ROBERT G WICKLINE
VI RGI NI A DI VI SI ON OF MI NERAL RESOURCES
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VI RGI NI A HOUSE OF DELEGATES
VI RGI NI A POLYTECHNICAL INSTITUTE AND
A LI CTOR l HOMA5
STATE UNIVERSITY
CARY L DObNE Y
WA STATE DEPARTMENT OF ECOLOGY
WASHI NGTON DEPT OF SOCIAL AND HEALTH
DAVI D W STEVEN5
SERVICES
T STRONG
WASHI NGTON HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES
WATTLAB
WEBSTER PARISH LIBRARY
WEST VALLEY NUCLEAR SERVICES C O I NC
RAY ISAACSON
ROB E WATT
CHRIS CHAP MAN
ERICH I MAYER
WESTERN STATE COLLEGE
FREDR PECK
WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC CORP
CF ORCE V B t1ALL
J AMF5 H SALINC
J AMES R 5C HOKNHOI I 5T
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ROBERT HALSTEAD
WI SCONSI N DI VI SI ON OF STATE ENERGY
WOODS ROBERTSON ASSOCIATES - CANADA
WOODWARD- CLY DE CONSULTANTS
F R CONWFLL ( 2)
TERRY A GRANT
ASHOK P ATWARDHAN
WFSTERN RECI ON LIHRARY
WP-SYSTEM AB - SWEDEN
I VAR SACEIORS
WRI GHT STATE UNIVERSITY
MI CHAEL FARRCLL
YALE UNIVERSITY
C R HOL E MAN