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NOMEN CLATU RE
QUANTITY
Cross-Sectional area
Radius
Length
Thickness
Width
Diameter
Magnetic flux density
Capacitance
Test f requency
Optimum tube testing frequency
Characteristic or Limit
frequency
Resonant frequency
Magnetic field intensity
(Magnetizing force)
Current
Current density
Self Inductance
Number of turns (Windings)
Characteristic Parameter
Resistance
Resistive load
Electric potential
Depth below the surface
Inductive Reactance
Capacitive Reactance
Imp ed ance
Standard Depth
of Penetration
Permeability
Resistivity
Conductivity
Magnetic flux
Fill Factor
Phase Lag
Angular frequency
Angle between Z & R
..;'
2
metre
metre
metre
metre
met re
SI UNIT
metre
2
w'eber/meter
fa rads
he rt z
he rt z
he rt z
or tesla
hertz
amperes/meter or
lenze
amperes
2
amperes / meter
henry
dimensionless
dimensionless
ohm
ohm
volt
metre
ohm
ohm
ohm
metre
henry/ meter

siemens / meter
weber
dimensionless
radians
radians / second
degrees
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1.1
CHAPTER 1 - I NTRODUCTION
EDDY CURRENT TESTING
Eddy current testing (ET) is a nondestructive test technique
based on inducing currents in the material being
inspected and observing the interaction between those
currents and the material. Eddy currents are generated by
electromagnetic coils in the test probe, and monitored
simultaneously by measuring probe electrical impedance.
Since it's an electiomagnetic induction process, direct
electrical contact with the sample is not required; however,
the sample material has to be conductive.
Eddy current testing is ' a versatile technique. It's mainly
used for thin materials; in thick materials, penetration
constraints limit the inspected volume to thin surface
layers. In addition to flaw inspection, ET can be used to
indirectly meas ure mechanical and metallurgical
characteris tics which correlate with electrical and magnetic
properties. Also, geometric effects such as thickness,
curvature and probe-to-material spacing influence eddy
current flow and can b e measured.
The large number of p9tentially significant variables in ET
is both a strength and a weakness of technique since
effects of otherwise trivial parameters can mask important
information or be misinterpreted. Virtually everything that
affects eddy current flow or o therwise influences probe
impedance has to be taken into account to obtain reliable
results. Thus, credible eddy current testing requires a high
level of operator tra1n1ng and awareness.
1.2 PURPOSE OF THIS MANUAL
The purpose of this manual is to promote the development and
use of eddy current testing by providing a scientifically
sound training and reference manual. The selection of
material presented is based on the premise that a sound
understanding of basic principies is essential to obtaining
valid data and interpreting it correctly. A non- rigorous
approach has been used to present complex physical phenomena
in a document oriented towards application of eddy current
techniques, especially for defect detection and diagnosis.
The presentation moves from theory (including a review of
basic electrical concepts ) to test methods an'd signa!
analysis. Simplified derivations of probe response to test
parameters are presented to develop a basic understanding of
eddy current test principles. Thus, eddy cur rent signals are
..

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t
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1.3
-2-
consistently illustrated on impedance plane diagrams (the
display used in modero eddy current test instruments) and to
aid explanation, the parameter "eddy current phase, lag" is
introduced .
Since probes play a key r ole in eddy current testing,
technical aspects of probe design are introduced with
pertinent electrical impedance calculations. While knowledge
of basic electrical circuits is required for a complete
understanding of eddy current test principies, a good
technical base for inspection can still be obtained if
sections of this manual r equiring such a background are
skipped.
From an applications point of view, the material in this
manual provides an inspector with the necessary background to
decide:
1) what probe(s) to use,
2) what test frequencies are suitable,
3) what calibration defects or standards are required for
signa! calibration and / or simulation,
4) what tests are required to differentiate between
significant signals and false indications.
5) how to estmate depth of real defects .
To supplement theory , practica! examples are presented to
develop proficiency in performing inspections, and to
illustrate how basic principies are applied to diagnose real
signals.
A number of laboratory demonstrations, practica! tests and
multiple choice questions are included in Volume 2, "Eddy
Current Course Supplement". They are divided into groups
co r responding to the chapters in this manual . The
demonstrations are intended for use in eddy current courses
to help cla r ify some of the more difficult concepts. The
practica! tests are to give students practice in using
equipment and performing typical tests. The multiple choice
questions are intended to check students ' understanding of
the course material and prepare for certification exams.
H!STORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Electromagnetic testing -- the interaction of magnetic fields
with circulating electrical cu rrents -- had its origin in
1831 when M. Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction.
He induced current flow in a secondary coil by switching a
battery on and off, D.E. Hughes pe rformed the first recorded
eddy current test in 1879 . He was able to distinguish
between different metals by noting a change in excitation
frequency resulting from effects of test material resistivi ty
and magnetic permeability.
-
(
-3-
THER MUST BE DEFECTS IN
THB-SE TUBES SOMEWHERE -
I SAW SQUI GGLES ON THE EDDY
CURRENt SCREEN /

Fig. l.l:Misinterpreted Signals
Initially, the extreme sensitivity to many material
properties and conditions made ET difficult and unreliable.
Figure 1.1 illustrates this point. It took until 1926 before
the first eddy current instrument was developed to measure
sample thickness. By the end of ~ o r l War II further
research and improved electronics made industrial inspection
possible, and many practica! instruments were developed. A
major breakthrough came in the 1950's when Forster developed
instruments with impedance plane signal displays. These made
it possible to discriminate between different parameters,
though the procedure was still empirical. Durtng the 1960's
progress in theoretical and practica! uses of eddy current
testing advanced the technology from an empirical art t o an
accepted engineering discipline.
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