HRJ Vol. 6 - No. 2

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HIGHWAY RESEARCH
JOURNAL
Highway Research Board
I ndi an R oads C ongr ess
Volume 6 No. 2 July December 2013
Copyright
Regd. No. DELENG/2008/26432 with the Registrar of Newspapers
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HIGHWAY RESEARCH
JOURNAL
Volume 6 No. 2
July - December 2013
* PAVEMENT
* BRIDGE ENGINEERING
HIGHWAY RESEARCH BOARD
INDIAN ROADS CONGRESS
(All Rights Reserved. No part of this Publication shall be reproduced, translated or
transmitted in any form or by any means without the permission of the
Indian Roads Congress)
Edited and Published by Shri Vishnu Shankar Prasad, Secretary General, Indian Roads Congress, Jamnagar House,
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Written comments on the Papers published in this
Highway Research Journal are invited and may be sent
at hrb@irc.org.in before 31
st
January, 2014
The opinions and conclusions in this Journal are those of the
Authors and not of the IRC Highway Research Board
MEMBERS OF THE IRC HIGHWAY RESEARCH BOARD
(2012-2014)
1. The Director General (Road Development) & Chairman
Special Secretary to the Govt. of India
(Shri C. Kandasamy)
Ministry of Road Transport & Highways,
Transport Bhawan, 1, Parliament Street,
NEW DELHI 110 001
[in the event of DG(RD) not in position,
the President, IRC will function]

2. The Secretary General Secretary
(Shri Vishnu Shankar Prasad)
Indian Roads Congress,
Kama Koti Marg,
Sector 6, R.K. Puram,
NEW DELHI 110 022
Members
3. The President, IRC
(Shri C. Kandasamy)
Director General (Road Development) &
Special Secretary to the Govt. of India,
NEW DELHI 110 001
[in the event of DG(RD) not in position,
the President, IRC will function]
4. The Director
(Dr. S. Gangopadhyay)
CSIR-Central Road Research Institute,
P.O. CRRI, Delhi-Mathura Road,
NEW DELHI 110 020
5. The Additional Director General
(Shri V.L. Patankar)
NEW DELHI 110 001
6. The Additional Director General-II
(Shri Chaman Lal)
NEW DELHI 110 001
7. The Director General Border Roads
(Lt. Gen. A. T. Parnaik, SM, VSM)
Seema Sadak Bhawan,
Ring Road, Delhi Cantt.,
NEW DELHI 110 010
8. The Member (Technical)
(Shri M. P. Sharma)
National Highways Authority of India,
Plot No.G-5 & 6, Dwarka,
NEW DELHI 110 075
9. The Director (Technical)
(Dr. I.K. Pateriya)
National Rural Roads Development Agency (NRRDA),
5
th
Floor, NBCC Towers,
Bhikaji Cama Place,
NEW DELHI 110 066
10. The Director
(Shri P.V.V.S.S. Ravi Prasad)
Indian Academy of Highway Engineers,
A-5, Institutional Area,
Sector 62, NH-24 Bypass,
NOIDA 201 301 (U.P.)
11. The Chief Engineer (Roads) SR&T
(Shri Manoj Kumar)
NEW DELHI 110 001
12. The Chief Engineer (Bridges) SR&T
(Shri A.P. Pathak)
NEW DELHI 110 001
13. The Engineer-in-Chief
(Shri Mahesh Kumar)
Haryana Public Works (B&R) Department,
House No. 1017, Sector- 24-B,
CHANDIGARH-160 023 (Haryana)
14. The Chief Engineer (NH),
(Shri A. K. Singla)
Punjab P.W.D. B&R Branch,
Nirman Bhawan,
Block-C, Mini Secretariat,
PATIALA-147 001 (Punjab)
(Shri R. K. Gupta)
PWD Rajasthan,
J AIPUR-302 006 (Rajasthan)
16. The Chief Engineer (NH) & Addl. Secretary
(Shri P.N. Jain)
R&B Deptt.,
Block No.14, 1st Floor,
New Sachivalaya,
GANDHINAGAR-382 010 (Gujarat)
17. The Chief Engineer (NH)
(Shri P. S. Mandpe)
Public Works Region,
Konkan Bhawan,
NAVI MUMBAI-400 614
(Maharashtra)
18. The Engineer-in-Chief (R&B), Admn. & NH
(Shri M. Gangadharam)
R&B Department,
Errummanzil,
HYDERABAD 500 082
(Andhra Pradesh)
(Shri M. Bhagat)
Road Construction Deptt.,
Engineering Hostel,
HEC, Dhurwa,
RANCHI-834 004 (J harkhand)
20. The Engineer-in-Chief-cum-Secretary
to the Govt. of Odisha
(Shri Nalini Kanta Pradhan)
Works Department,
Odisha Secretariat,
BHUBANESWAR 751 001 (Odisha)
P.W.D. (Roads),
Barik Compound,
Opposite State Library,
SHILLONG-793 001 (Meghalaya)
22. The Chief Engineer
(Shri N.N. Deka)
N.H. Works, Assam,
Chandmari,
GUWAHATI-781 003(Assam)
23. The Chief Engineer (H)
Quality Assurance and Research,
Highway Research Station,
76, Sardar Patel Road, Guindy,
CHENNAI 600 025 (Tamil Nadu)
24. The J oint Director
Kerala Highway Research Institute,
PWD Kariyavattom,
THIRUVANANTHAPURAM 695 581 (Kerala)
25. The J oint Director (Roads)
Gujarat Engineering Research Institute (GERI),
Race Course,
VADODARA 390 007 (Gujarat)
26. The Director General
(Shri D.D. Bhide)
Design, Training, Hydrology, Research & Safety
(DTHRS),
Maharashtra Engineering Research Institute (MERI),
Dindori Road,
NASHIK 422 004 (Maharashtra)
27. The Director
UPPWD Research Institute and
Quality Promotion Organisation,
Nirman Bhawan, 96, M.G. Marg,
LUCKNOW-226 001 (UP)
28. Dr. S.S. Jain
Professor of Civil Engineering,
Deptt. of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee,
ROORKEE 247 667
(Uttarakhand)
29. Prof. A. Veeraragavan
Professor, Deptt. of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Madras,
CHENNAI 600 036 (Tamil Nadu)
30. Dr. P.K. Sarkar
Professor, Deptt. of Transport Planning,
School of Planning & Architecture,
E-799, C.R. Park,
NEW DELHI 110 019
31. Prof. L.S. Ramchandra
Head, Deptt. of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur,
KHARAGPUR-721 302 (West Bengal)
32. Dr. Animesh Das
Associate Professor,
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur,
KANPUR- 208 016 (Uttar Pradesh)
33. The Chief Engineer, Panchayat &
Addl. Secretary,
(Shri S. B. Vasava)
Roads & Buildings Department,
New Sachivalay,
GANDHINAGAR (Gujarat)-382 011
34. The Chief Operating Offcer
(Shri Mahesh M. Hiremath)
Karnataka Rural Road Development Agency,
Nirman Bhavan, II Floor,
KSCC Building,
Rajajinagar Ist Block,
Dr. Rajkumar Road,
BANGALORE-560 010
(Karnataka)
(Shri C. P. Tongden)
Rural Management & Development
Department, Tashiling, Secretariat,
GANGTOK (Sikkim)
36. The Chief Executive Offcer
(Shri Ranjit Kumar Majumder)
Tripura Rural Road Development Agency
(TRRDA) & J S PWD,
Govt. of Tripura, Directorate of
Urban Development,
3rd Floor of Khadya Bhavan,
Pandit Nehru Complex,
AGARTALA 799 006 Tripura (W)
(Shri K. K. Srivastava)
Uttarakhand Rural Roads Agency,
Opp. I.T. Park, Shastradhara Road,
DEHRADUN- 248 001 (Uttarakhand)
38. The Director
(Shri G. Dinshaw)
Central Institute of Road Transport,
Post Box No. 1897, Bhosari,
Pune-Nasik Road,
PUNE 411 026 (Maharashtra)
39. The President, Intercontinental Consultants &
Technocrats (ICT) Pvt. Ltd.,
A-9, Green Park,
NEW DELHI 110 016
40. TheJ t. Managing Director,
Consulting Engineers Group Limited,
C-478, 2nd Floor, Block-C,
Vikas Puri,
NEW DELHI-110 018
41. The Director (Technical),
Scott Wilson India Pvt. Ltd.,
B-210, Second Floor, C.R. Park,
NEW DELHI 110 019
42. The Executive Director Marketing,
Oriental Structural Engineers Pvt. Ltd.,
21, Commercial Complex,
Malcha Marg, Diplomatic Enclave,
NEW DELHI 110 021
43. The Vice-President,
Gammon India Ltd.,
Library Tech., Gammon House,
Veer Savarkar Marg, Prabhadevi,
MUMBAI 400 025
44. The Director (Technical)
BSCPL Infrastructure Ltd.,
M. No. 8-2-502/1/A, J IVI Towers,
Road No. 7, Banjara Hills,
HYDERABAD 500 034
45. Dr. L.R. Kadiyali
Chief Executive,
M/s. L.R. Kadiyali & Associates,
RZ-44, Bhawani Kunj,
Behind D-2, Vasant Kunj,
NEW DELHI 110 070
46. Shri D.P. Gupta
DG (RD) & AS (Retd.), MOST,
D-21, Ground Floor,
Greater Kailash Enclave Part-I,
NEW DELHI 110 048
47. Shri P.L. Bongirwar
(Principal Secretary (Retd.),
PWD Maharashtra)
Advisor, L&T,
B-1102, Pataliputra Co-op Society,
Plot No. 5, A. Patwardhan Road,
Near Four Bunglow Signal,
Andheri (West),
MUMBAI 400 053
48. Shri D. Sanyal
Managing Director,
M/s. CRAPHTS Consultants (I) Pvt. Ltd.,
14/3, Mathura Road,
FARIDABAD-121 003 (Haryana)
49. Shri T. Elangovan
Scientist-G (Formerly Director),
National Transportation Planning &
Research Centre (NATPAC),
Sasthra Bhawan, Pattom Palace P.O.,
THIRUVANANTHAPURAM 695 004 (Kerala)
50. Dr. G.V.S. Raju
Chief Engineer (Roads & Buildings),
Rural Roads, Errummanzil,
HYDERABAD 500 082
51. Shri K.S. Krishna Reddy
Chief Engineer
HARSHITHA,
No. 1333, 8th Cross,
11th Main, J udicial Layout,
GKVK Post,
BANGALORE 560 065
52. Dr. G. L. Sivakumar Babu
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Science,
BANGALORE 560 012
53. Prof. K. Sudhakar Reddy
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur,
KHARAGPUR-721 302
54. Dr. C.S.R.K. Prasad
Professor & Head,
Transportation Division,
Department of Civil Engineering,
National Institute of Technology,
WARANGAL 506 004
(Andhra Pradesh)
Co-opted Members
CONTENTS
PAVEMENT Page
Design Approach for Geocell Reinforced Flexible Pavements
Chandan Basu & Jitendra Kumar Soni
1
Study of Alkali Aggregate Reactivity Using Thin Section Petrographic Analysis
Abhijeet S. Gandage, Vikram D. Narsale & Rahul A. Joshi
8
Guidelines for Writing Good Asphalt Related Research Papers
Prithvi S. Kandhal & Rajib B. Mallick
17
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) at Different Reliability Levels and
Coeffcient of Variations
Swapan Kumar Bagui
28
Characterization of Jarofx Waste Material for the Construction of Road
A.K. Sinha, V.G. Havanagi, V. K. Arora, A. Ranjan & S. Mathur
35
Probable Causes and Corrective Measures of Landslides on Aizwal-Lunglei
Road (NH - 54), Mizoram
Pankaj Gupta, A. K. Sinha, Vasant G. Havangi & Sudhir Mathur
44
BRIDGE ENGINEERING
Problems of Bridge Bearings on Sloping Spans and at Abutments
C.V. Kand
52
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JULY DECEMBER 2012 8
DESIGN APPROACH FOR GEOCELL REINFORCED FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS
CHANDAN BASU* & JITENDRA KUMAR SONI**
ABSTRACT
Geocell is a comparatively new reinforcing material in civil industry. The unique three dimensional confnement action of this material separates it from
other Geosynthetic reinforcing material such as woven Geotextile, Geogrids etc. The local soil or granular material show better structural properties
when confned in Geocell with a proper manner. The incorporation of Geocell in pavement layers facilitates a better load distribution and reduction in
vertical stresses underneath the pavement structure. Hence a signifcant thickness reduction is possible by using this cellular confnement technology
in fexible pavements. There have been a lot of literature Papers published to incorporate the reinforcing effect of geotextile and geogrids in paved and
unpaved pavements. However, for Geocell the design implication is still in infancy and has not been standardize yet. This Paper is intended to provide
a Mechanistic Empirical design guideline for a geocell reinforced fexible pavement with its positive outcomes as well as limitations. The designed is
aimed to follow the basic rules of the IRC Guidelines.
1 INTRODUCTION
India is a country known for its vast land and huge
transportation network. Road network in India is one of the
most extensive in the world, amounting to 3.314 million
kilometers
1
, consisting of Expressways, National Highways,
State Highways, Major District Roads, other District Roads
and Village Roads. The National Highways extending over
70,548 km
1
act as the main road network in the country. This
large and diverse transportation network caters to the needs
of 1.1 billion people.
The raw materials required to build such a gigantic
road network are immense in quantity. The day-by-day
increasing cost of natural granular aggregates, bitumen is
one of the biggest hindrances in achieving the 20 km per
day road construction target. Sustainable and durable roads
constructed with innovative techniques are always welcome
in such situations. A technology which can save the natural
resources with a cost economy can be the future of Indian
roads. However, a well established design with proven feld
and testing results is a must condition before adopting such
new technologies.
2 GEOCELL CELLULAR CONFINEMENT
SYSTEM
Geocell is one such kind of innovative technology which
comes under the family of Geosynthetics. It is a honeycomb
shaped cellular structure (shown in Fig. 1) made of Polymers
such as High Density Polyethylene (HDPE), Polypropylene
or Alloy material to suit the harsh environmental conditions,
especially, increased temperate in case of fexible pavements
where the asphalt layers are subject to very elevated
temperature during installation. The reinforcing material
such as Geogrids and Geotextiles are known as 2-D
materials. The thickness of these Geogrids and Geotextiles
are far smaller compare to their other dimensions (length
and width). Compare to Geotextile and Geogrids, the
thickness of Geocell adds third dimension to this material.
The reinforcing effect of Geocell is mainly due to the
confnement effect rather than the tensile strength of the
material as in case of woven Geotextile and Geogrids
Research and development of cellular confnement systems
(Geocell) began with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
in September 1975
16
to test the feasibility of constructing
tactical bridge approach roads over soft ground. Engineers
discovered that sand-confnement systems performed better
than conventional crushed stone sections. They concluded
that a sand-confnement system could be developed that
would provide an expedient construction technique for
building approach roads over soft ground and that the
system would not be adversely affected by wet weather
conditions.
Now-a-days this system is successfully being adopted for
various load support applications such as permanent paved
roads, heavy load platforms, runways etc. This system has
gain popularity form militarian to civilian application.
* Sr. Vice-President & HOD - Pavement, (chandan_basu@ictonline.com )
** Sr. Manager, Pavement (jksoni@gmail.com)
Material and Geotechnical Division, International
Consutlants and Technocrats Pvt. Ltd., A-9, Second
Floor, Green Park, New Delhi-110 016,
The views expressed in the Paper are personal views of the author. For any query, the author may be contacted by e-mail.
(A) (B)
Fig. 1 Three Dimensional Geocell; (A) Single Cell, (B) Geocell section
CHANDAN BASU & JITENDRA KUMAR SONI ON
3 REINFORCING EFFECT AND MECHANISM
OF GEOCELL
The three-dimensional Geocell structure confnes the infll
soil/gravel, limiting the lateral deformation. The use of the
Cellular Confnement System acts to stiffen the pavement
foundation material and reduces the vertical stresses
imposed on the underneath layers, thereby limiting the
amount of damage and maximizing the bearing resistance.
The effect is a reduction in required pavement thickness for
similar performance, or replacement of more expensive high
quality aggregate with less expensive locally available in-
flls. Lateral expansion of the infll is restricted by high hoop
strength. The service life of the pavement also increases
drastically due to the result of less attrition of aggregates.
The reinforcing effect of Geocell confnement system has
very well been elaborated by various researchers, such as,
Han et al. (2008, 2010), Rajagopal et al. (2001, 2006 and
2008), Bathurst et al. (1993, 1998). According to these
researchers the Geocell confned gravel mattress decreases
vertical differential settlement, improves shear strength, and
enhances load bearing capacity
7
.
Pokharel et al. (2009)
12
found through experimental
evaluation that the performance of Geocell- reinforced bases
depend upon the elastic modulus of the Geocell. The geocell
with a higher elastic modulus had a higher bearing capacity
and stiffness of the reinforced base.
4 MECHANISTIC EMPIRICAL DESIGN OF
PAVEMENTS
Mechanistic-empirical design is a method of designing
highway pavements. It combines empirical relationships
obtained from the feld data with theoretical predictions
based on the mechanics of materials. This method relates
inputs, such as, traffc, loadings, soil strength, climate, etc
to the actual pavement response. Mechanistic-empirical
method is more accurate than the empirical method because
the empirical method only relies on the feld performance,
while the mechanistic-empirical method combines both the
feld performance and theoretical prediction models.
Mechanistic-Empirical (M-E) design procedure involves
three main steps. In the frst step, pavement response values
are obtained in the feld or in a laboratory test. In the second
step, theoretical values of pavement response are calculated
using mechanics. Then fnally, the data obtained from the
feld and laboratory tests is related to the predicted pavement
response by using advanced structural models. The structural
models are based on an analysis method called fnite element
analysis. If the pavement response predicted by models does
not match the observed pavement distress, shift factors are
used to adjust predicted pavement performance to match the
feld-observed pavement performance. Thus, confdence and
improved reliability are developed in the M-E procedure.
The main empirical portions of the mechanistic-empirical
design process are the equations used to compute the number
of loading cycles to failure. These equations are derived
by observing the performance of pavements and relating
the type and extent of observed failure to an initial strain
under various loads. Currently, two types of failure criteria
are widely recognized, one relating to fatigue cracking at
the bottom of asphalt layer and the other to rutting initiating
in the subgrade. A third defection-based criterion may be
of use in special applications. Since these failure criteria
are empirically established, they must be calibrated to
specifc local conditions and are generally not applicable on
a national scale.
For Indian scenario these equations are calibrated to suit
the Indian climate and loading conditions in Research
Scheme R-56
13
. And the same has been adopted in IRC: 37-
2001
6
. The fatigue and rutting resistance of a pavement is
determined base on the tensile and compressive strains at
specifc critical locations, respectively. Fig. 2 (taken from
IRC: 37-2001) shows the critical locations in a pavement
structure.
4.1 Fatigue Failure Cr iter ion
Bituminous surfacing of pavements display fexural fatigue
cracking if the tensile strain at the bottom of bituminous
Fig. 2 Critical Locations in Pavement (from IRC: 37-2001)
layer is beyond certain limit. Points A and B (refer
Fig. 2) are the critical locations for tensile strains (
t
).
Maximum value of the strain is adopted for design. As per
IRC: 37-2001:
Eqn. 1
4.2 Rutting Failure Cr iter ion
Point C (refer Fig. 2) is the critical locations for the
vertical subgrade strains (
z
). Maximum value of the strain
is adopted for design. As per IRC: 37-2001:
Eqn. 2
where,
N
F
= Number of cumulative standard axle to produce
20 per cent cracked surface area;

t
= Maximum tensile strain at the bottom of
Bituminous layer;
E = Elastic Modulus of bituminous surfacing
(MPa);
N
R
= Number of cumulative standard axle to produce
rutting of 20 mm and

z
= Maximum vertical subgrade strain
5 DESIGN OF GEOCELL REINFORCED
PAVEMENT AS PER M-E THEORY
A Geocell reinforced pavement can be design as per ME
design theory. In this design methodology the Geocell layer
is assumed to be used in the base layer of the pavement
section. The base later (also known as WMM/WBM) is in
direct contact with hot asphaltic layers and hence geocell
having very low coeffcient of thermal expansion are most
appropriate for this application. The Geocell can be shifted
to lower part of pavement structure also by strengthening the
sub-base or subgrade layer. But a Geocell shifted in upper
layers shall give the maximum beneft as the vertical load
coming to the beneath layer shall be much less in this case.
Another important consideration taken in this design is that
the pavement thickness is reduced in such a manner that it
satisfes the minimum thickness requirements suggested by
IRC codes. In India the overloading is a very common for
most of the roads. The design Traffc is very high (more than
150 MSA) in most of the cases for National Highways. In
such cases the pavements are designed in stage construction
where the initial pavement is constructed for lower design
traffc and at the end of that corresponding lower design
traffc the pavement is strengthen by providing bituminous
layer over the already constructed pavement. Since in this
procedure the base and sub-base layer cannot be changed
in later stages hence in this design procedure the thickness
was reduced for asphaltic layers only. The base and
subbase thickness is kept to be same considering the future
requirement. This consideration also plays a signifcant role
in cost economy as the cost of bituminous layer is much
higher than the cost of aggregate and sand.
The design procedure for geocell reinforced pavement can
be sub-divided into two parts.
Part 1: Comparison of Geocell Reinforced Section with
Conventional Section
Part 2: Calculation of Fatigue and Rutting Resistance of
Geocell Reinforced Section as per equations suggested by
IRC: 37-2001.
Part 1 comprises of the comparison of conventional section
with Geocell reinforced section. The conventional section
can be taken from IRC design cataloguesand than can be
compared in term of tensile strain at the bottom of asphalt
layer (i.e. Fatigue resistance). This tensile strain comparison
is very critical to determine thecorrect thickness of the
reduced asphalt in Reinforced section.
Part 2 comprises of determination of Fatigue and rutting
resistance of reinforced pavement (N
F
and N
R
, respectively)
as suggested by IRC: 37-2001. Fatigue and rutting resistance
of reinforced pavement must be higher than the design trafc
load (MSA).
The various steps (step 1 to step 9) involved in design are
discussed here in detail:
Step 1: Determination of socked subgrade CBR as per IS:
2720.
Step 2: Determination of Design Trafc Load (in MSA)
from Trafc Survey.
Step 3: Selection of Conventional Pavement from IRC:37
Design Catalogue for Specic Subgrade CBR and Design
Trafc.
Step 4: Determine the Elastic modulus and Poissons ratio
of subgrade, sub-base and base layers. The Elastic modulus
of subgrade is calculated from following equations:
Eqn. 3
Eqn. 4
Eqn. 4 is taken from IRC:37 which matches with the equation
suggested by Lister and Powell (1987) in Shell Pavement
Design Manual
14
. The Elastic Modulus of base and sub-base
is determined from the Elastic Modulus of underneath layer
and thickness of the same layer. According to Dorman and
Metcalf (1965).
Eqn. 5
The Eqn. 5 has also been adopted in Shell Pavement Design
Manual and IRC:37-2001. IRC:37-2001 recommends
the Poissons ratio as 0.4 for subgrade, sub-base and base
layers.
Step 5: Assign the Poissons ratio and Elastic modulus
for Asphaltic layer. Since IRC design catalogues were
developed for a temperature of 35C, hence the E value
corresponding to 35C has to be considered. IRC:37-2001
recommends the Poissons ratio as 0.5 and Elastic Modulus
as 1695 MPa for DBM 60/70 and BC layer.
Step 6: Determine the tensile strain at the bottom of asphalt
layer for this conventional section. There is lot of software
available to nd out the tensile strain at a particular location
in pavement such as FPAVE, EVERSTRESS, KENPAVE etc.
The strains can also be manually calculated as per the theory
of Elastic Layer System
18
. While calculating the strain by
using these software following parameters (Table 1) must be
taken as input value which suits the Indian conditions.
Table 1 Input Par ameter s for Calculating Str ains at the
Bottom of Asphalt Layer s
Par ameter s Input values
Number of Wheels 2
Single Wheel Load 20400.0 N
Tire Pressure 560 kPa
Contact Area 36428.57 mm
2
Radius of Contact area 10.768 cm
Distance between wheels 310.0 mm
Step 7: Since the Geocell is used in base layer and so
the Elastic modulus of base layer shall increase due to
connement action of Geocell. This increased modulus of
conned base layer can be computed by method proposed
by Rajagopal et al. (2001) or by applying a Modulus
Improvement Factor (MIF) to the unconned modulus of
Base material.
Eqn. 6
This MIF has a very crucial role in design and must be
evaluated from the eld and laboratory testing. MIF depends
upon the Geocell material, its dimensions and different in-
ll material. The precise MIF can be taken from the Geocell
Manufacture based on their eld and laboratory testing for
specic size and material. Rajagopal and Keif (2008)
7
found
the MIF (pavements structural soundness, E
reinforced
/E
unreinforced
)
as 5.0 for a reinforced gravel layer for a 25 cm high Geocell
made of polymeric alloy. However, it is recommended to
ensure the correct MIF for a proper design.
Step 8: Based on this increased modulus of base layer the
strain at the bottom of asphalt layer is again calculated which
will result a very low strain. By Trial and Error method the
thickness of asphalt layer is reduced in such a manner that
the tensile strain at the bottom of asphalt layer is less or
equal to that of conventional section. This process insure
the completion of Part-1 of design with insuring the better
or equal fatigue resistance of Geocell reinforced section as
compared to conventional section.
Step 9: For this reinforced section with reduced asphalt
thickness, determine the compressive strain at the top of
subgrade. Based on tensile strain and compressive strain
calculate the Fatigue and Rutting resistance (N
F
and N
R
,
respectively) from Eqns. 1 and 2 suggested by IRC:37-2001.
The Fatigue and Rutting resistance (in terms of MSA) must
be greater or equal to design trafc load (calculated in Step
2). This process insures the completion of Part-2 of design.
6 SOLVED DESIGN EXAMPLE
Design a Geocell reinforced pavement for 4 per cent CBR
and 150 MSA trafc load. The Geocell of 125 mm height
with a MIF of 2.5 can be used. Also compare this reinforced
pavement design with conventional pavement section in
terms of fatigue resistance.
Step 1: The Subgrade CBR = 4 per cent
Step 2: The Design Trafc = 150 MSA
Step 3: The conventional pavement section for 4 per cent
CBR and 150 MSA is shown in Table 2.
Table 2 Conventional Pavement Design (from IRC
Design Catalogues)
Layer BC DBM Base Layer Subbase
Thickness (mm) 50 190 250 330
Steps 4-5: Elastic modulus of subgrade, sub-base, base
and asphalt layers are calculated from Eqns. 3, 4 and 5 as
shown in Table 3.
Table 3 Elastic Modulus and Poissons Ratio for
Different Layer s of Conventional Section
Layer Elastic modulus
(MPa)
Poissons r atio
Asphalt layer (BC+DBM) 1695 0.5
Base Layer 259 0.4
Subbase Layer 108 0.4
Subgrade 40 0.4
Step 6: Determination of tensile strain at the bottom of
asphalt layer for this conventional section.The tensile strains
calculated from different software are tabulated in Table 4.
Results of all these software show a close agreement between
their results.
Table 4 Tensile Str ain at Bottom of Asphalt Layer from
Different Software (Conventional Section)
Software FPAVE EVERSERIES Layered Elastic
Theor y
Tensile strain
at bottomof
Asphalt layer
145.7
Micro
strain
145.89 Micro strain 145.82 Micro strain
Step 7: The modulus of Base Layer is increased due to
Geocell connement. The increased Modulus of conned
base layer can be determined from Eqn. 6.

This increased modulus is applicable for reinforced zone
only. Similar to Geogrid the confnement action is extended to
2-3 cm above and below the reinforcing layer due to
interlocking of particles. Hence, the fully confned zone is
extended to 25 mm above the Geocell and 20 mm below
the Geocell. Afterward there shall be a gradual transition
zone from increased modulus to original modulus. For a
conservative design, this transition zone has been neglected.
Hence, the thickness of total confned base layer= Height
of Geocell +25 mm height above Geocell +20 mm height
below Geocell =125+25 +20 =170 mm.
The Elastic modulus of complete base layer shall be
determined as per weighted average method. So,
The calculated Elastic modulus of subgrade, sub-base, base and
asphalt layers for reinforced section are shown in Table 5.
Table 5 Elastic Modulus and Poissons Ratio for
Different Layer s of Geocell Reinforced Section
Layer Elastic modulus
(MPa)
Poissons r atio
Asphalt layer (BC+DBM) 1695 0.5
Composite Geocell
Reinforced Base Layer and
Unreinforced base layer
523.4 0.4
Subbase Layer 108 0.4
Subgrade 40 0.4
Step 8: By Trial and Error Method reduce the thickness of
DBM (asphalt layer) in such a manner that the tensile strain
at the bottom of asphalt layer is less than that of conventional
section. Assuming DBM thickness reduction = 75 mm, the
reduced reinforced section shall be
Table 6 Geocell Reinforced Pavement Section
(by Tr ial and Er ror Method)
Layer BC DBM Base Layer Subbase
Thickness (mm) 50 115 (39% LESS) 250 330
The computed tensile strain at the bottom of asphalt layer
for geocell reinforced section is presented in Table 7. This
strain is lesser than the conventional sections strain. Hence,
the section is structurally better in Fatigue resistance. If the
strain is higher than the conventional sections strain increase
the thickness of DBM (by Trial and Error Method).
Table 7 Tensile Str ain at Bottom of Asphalt Layer from
Different Software (Reinforced Section)
Software FPAVE EVERSERIES Layered Elastic
Theor y
Tensile strain
at bottom of
Asphalt layer
144.2
Micro
strain
144.18 Micro
strain
144.07
Microstrain
Step 9: Calculate the N
F
and N
R
from Eqns. 1 & 2,
respectively to determine the fatigue and rutting resistance
of reinforced pavement.
Maximum Tensile Strain at bottom of Asphalt layer =144.2
Micro-strain (From FPAVE output)
Corresponding N
F
=388 MSA >>150 MSA
Maximum compressive strain at the top of subgrade =262.8
Micro strain (From FPAVE output)
Corresponding N
R
=711 MSA >>150 MSA
Step 10: Both conventional and Geocell reinforced sections
are summarized in Table 8. The cross section drawing of
reinforced section with different layers thickness and
location of Geocell is shown in the Fig. 3.
Table 8 Summar y of Conventional and Geocell
Reinforced Section
Layer BC DBM Base Subbase Total
Thickness
Conventional
Section
50 190 250 330 820
Geocell
Reinforced
Section
50 115 250 330 745 (9.1%
less)
7 DISCUSSION ON RESULTS
The overall thickness reduction in the above solved
example is very less (9.1 per cent only). But since this
thickness reduction is in costly asphalt layers hence Geocell
Technology provides signifcant initial construction costs
saving. The construction time saving because of reduced
thickness and long service life are added bonus points which
has not been quantifed in this example.
8 ADVANTAGES AND ASSUMPTIONS OF
PROPOSED DESIGN METHODOLOGY
The design methodology Presented in this Paper is
aimed to follow the basic IRC Guidelines and have some
advantages such as with this procedure the Geocell can
be used in base or sub-base or subgrade layer as per the
project specifc requirement. The same methodology can
be used for Geogrid reinforced pavements (provided
with the different MIF. Inferior materials can be used
in pavement with this design methodology by confning
them in Geocell provided the material properties should
be acceptable as per MORTH
15
Guidelines.
This design approach is based on some assumptions as
mentioned below:
Composite elastic modulus of reinforced and
unreinforced base layer was determined by Weighted
Average Method.
The strains and elastic modulus of layers were
calculated based on four layer elastic theory. These
four layers are i) Subgrade, ii) Sub-base layer, iii)
Composite reinforced and unreinforced base layer,
and iv) Asphalt layer (BC+DBM).
The MIF must be very carefully taken in design. The
MIF value must be verifed by appropriate testing for
some trail patch before full fedge execution of the
work.
When Geocell is used in Base layer which is direct
in contact with asphalt layer, ordinary HDPE
geocell may not perform well due to high coeffcient
of thermal expansion. Geocell made of alloy
material with proven testing records under elevated
temperature must be used.
9 CONCLUSION AND SUMMARY
Geocell when used properly in fexible pavements may
yield a signifcant reduction in bituminous layers and thus
can reduce the overall cost of pavements. However, a
proper and well established designing procedure in a must
condition to utilize the beneft of this technology. By using
the Mechanistic Empirical (M-E) procedure, the design of
Geocell reinforced pavement can be standardized. Beside
this initial cost saving, the overall construction time saving
because of reduced thickness and long service life (due to
reduced aggregate attrition) are other important aspects of
this technology which has not been quantifed in this Paper.
Fig. 3 Geocell Reinforced Pavement Section (Design Example)
REFERENCES
Annual Report (2008-2009), Ministry of Road Transport & 1.
Highways, Government of India, New Delhi.
Bathurst R.J. and Karpurapu R. 1993, "Large- 2. Scale Triaxial
Compression Testing of Geocell Reinforced Granular Soils",
Geotechnical Testing Journal, ASTM, 16, 296-303.
Bathurst R.J. and Karpurapu, R. 1993., "Large 3. Scale Triaxial Tests
on Geocell Reinforced Granular Soils", Geotechnical Testing
Journal, 16 (3), 296-303.
Bathurst R.J . and Knight M.A. 1998, "Analysis of 4. Geocell
Reinforced Soil Covers Over Large Span Conduits". Computers
and Geotechnics, 22, 205-219.
Han, J., Yang, X.M., Leshchinsky, D., and Parsons, R.L, (2008), 5.
"Behavior of Geocell-Reinforced Sand Under a Vertical Load".
Journal of Transportation Research Board, 2045, 95-101.
IRC:37-2001 IRC (2001), "Guidelines for the Design of Flexible 6.
Pavement" (Second Revison).
Keif O. and Rajagopal, K. (2008), Three Dimensional Cellular 7.
Confnement Contribution to Structural Pavement Reinforcement,
IGS, Hyderabad, 2008.
Madhavi Latha, G., Dash, S.K., Rajagopal, K. and Krishnaswamy, 8.
N.R. (2001), Finite Element Analysis of Strip Footing Supported
on Geocell Reinforced Sand Beds, Indian Geotechnical Journal,
Vol. 31, No. 4, 454-478.
Madhavi Latha, G., Rajagopal, K. and Krishnaswamy, N.R. (2006) 9.
Experimental and Theoretical Investigations on Geocell Supported
Embankments, ASCE International Journal of Geomechanics,
January-February, Vol. 6, No. 1, 30-35.
Mhaiskar S.Y. and Mandal, J.N. 1992, "Soft Clay Subgrade 10.
Stabilisation Using Geocells", Geotechnical Special Publications,
Vol. 30, S. 1092 1103, New York, American Society of Civil
Engineers, ASCE.
Pokharel, S., Han, J., Leshchinsky, D., Parsons, R.L, and Halahmi, 11.
I. (2010), "Investigation of Factors Infuencing Behavior of Single
Geocell-Reinforced Bases Under Static Loading", Geotextiles and
Geomembranes, 28, 570-578.
Pokharel, S., Han, J., Leshchinsky, D., Parsons, R.L, and Halahmi, 12.
I. (2009), "Experimental Evaluation of Infuence Factors for Single
Geocell-Reinforced Sand", Report submitted to Geosynthetics
Committee (AFS70) at the US Transportation Research Board
(TRB) Annual Meeting, Washington, D.C., January 11-15, 2009.
Research Scheme R-56 ,Analytical Design of Flexible 13.
Pavements, Final Report submitted to the Ministry of Surface
Transport (Road Wing), March 1999, Civil Engineering
Department, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, West
Bengal.
Shell Pavement Design Manual "Asphalt Pavement and Overlay 14.
for Road Traffc", Shell International Petroleum Company Ltd.,
1978, London.
Specifcation for Road and Bridge Works (Third Revision), 1995, 15.
Ministry of Surface Transport (Road & Wing), Published by Indian
Roads Congress, New Delhi.
Webster, S.L. and Watkins J.E. 1977, "Investigation of 16.
Construction Techniques for Tactical Bridge Approach Roads
Across Soft Ground", Soils and Pavements Laboratory, U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg,
MS, Technical Report S771, September 1977.
Yang, X.M., Han, J., Parsons, R.L., and Leshchinsky, D. (2010), 17.
"Three-Dimensional Numerical Modeling of Single Geocell-
Reinforced Sand", Frontiers of Architecture and Civil Engineering
in China, 4(2), 233-240.
Yang H. Huang (2004), Pavement Analysis and Design, 18. Second
Edition, Published by Pearson Education, Inc, Upper Saddle River,
NJ 07458.
STUDY OF ALKALI AGGREGATE REACTIVITY USING THIN SECTION
PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS
ABHIJEET S. GANDAGE*, VIKRAM D. NARSALE** & RAHUL A. JOSHI***
ABSTRACT
Alkali Aggregate Reaction (AAR) also called as Alkali Silicate Reaction (ASR) is one of the major durability problems in concrete structures. It is
a chemical reaction between alkali hydroxides in cement paste and reactive silica in aggregates in the presence of water. This reaction produces an
alkali silicate gel that can absorb water and expand to cause tensile stresses in the concrete. When these stresses exceed the tensile strength of concrete,
they cause cracking and deterioration of concrete. Structures that are at risk due to alkali aggregate reaction are road pavements, bridges, hydraulic
structures, frames and foundations subjected to continuous exposure of moisture. There are various tests recommended for examination of individual
components like cement, aggregates to assess their potential reactivity. Also there are tests recommended for examining development and growth
of AAR in set matured concrete specimen. Thin section Petrographic analysis is one method which involves microscopic examination of concrete
specimen suspect of AAR. This method encompasses microscopic examinations along with supplementary chemical analysis of concrete specimen
thereby helping in evaluation of quality, composition, integrity and causes of failure or poor performance. This Paper attempts to present fndings of thin
section petrographic analysis used to examine alkali aggregate reactivity in concrete specimen using basalt aggregates found in and around Pune.
1 INTRODUCTION
Concrete is widely used material in India and all over the
world as it has good water resisting properties as compared
to timber structures, it can be formed in to a variety of
shapes and sizes and lastly it is the cheapest and most readily
available material on the job.
One of the important structural properties of concrete
which makes it the most popular construction materials is
its compressive strength. The important properties which
have some infuence on the compressive strength of the
concrete are density, impermeability, durability, resistance
to abrasion, resistance to impact, tensile strength, resistance
to sulphates, etc.
Designers of concrete structures are mostly interested in the
strength characteristics of the material. Properly constituted,
placed and cured concrete can be durable under most natural
and industrial environments. However cases of premature
deterioration of concrete do occur and such cases focus on
lack of durability. As per Mehta and Gerwick
1
deterioration
of concrete can be classifed under following major
categories:
It has to be emphasized that the distinction between physical
and chemical causes of deterioration is purely arbitrary
and in practice the two are superimposed over one another.
Concrete in service is susceptible to a variety of durability
problems, usually induced by environmental exposure but,
occasionally internally caused which can lead to premature
deterioration and sometimes destruction of the concrete.
* Assistant Professor, Deptt. of Civil Engg.,
(abhijeetgandage@hotmail.com; abhijeetgandage@gmail.com)
** ME Civil Construction & Management Student, Deptt. of Civil Engg.
*** Assistant Professor, Deptt. of Petroleum Engg.
Of this major problems involve alkali aggregate reactions,
steel corrosion and externally caused or internally generated
sulphate attack. This Paper would focus on Alkali Aggregate
Reactivity (AAR).
2 ALKALI AGGREGATE REACTIVITY
For a long time aggregates were considered as inert
component of concrete. However, in 1930s it was observed
in California that new structures had developed severe
cracks though they were designed and constructed as per
specifcations prescribed in relevant design codes. In 1940,
Stanton
2
proved that aggregates may not be necessarily inert
and established the existence of AAR as an internal process
within the structure of the concrete. AAR is one of the most
recognized durability issues in Portland Cement Concrete
that contributes to premature degradation. The presence of
Fig. 1 Causes of Concrete Deterioration
Maharashtra Institute of Technology (MIT), Pune,
ABHIJEET S. GANDAGE, VIKRAM D. NARSALE & RAHUL A. JOSHI ON
STUDY OF ALKALI AGGREGATE REACTIVITY USING THIN SECTION PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS
# Both sodium and potassium compounds are usually present in Portland cements. However it is customary to express the alkali content
of cement as acid soluble sodium oxide equivalent which is equal to Na 2O + 0.658K2O
AAR is not deleterious, but, in suffcient quantities it can
cause excessive expansion and disruptive cracking of the
concrete. Field evidence for the occurrence of ASR includes
expansion and development of polygonal (or map) cracking
on the surface of affected members accompanied by reaction
product gel exuding from the cracks.
In 1950, Plum
3
formulated the chemical reaction causing
Alkali aggregate reaction as under:
SiO
2
+ NaOH + Ca(OH)
2
+ H
2
O (n
1
Na
2
O) (n
2
CaO)
(n
3
SiO
2
) (n
4
H
2
O)
The mechanism for alkali silicate reaction proposed by
Diamond is as follows
4
:
(i) Initial alkali depolymerization and dissolution of
reactive silica: Cement (a high alkali content material)
can increase solubility of non-crystalline silica and
the rate at which it dissolves. Additionally the cement
will raise the pH of the surrounding medium which
will affect the crystalline silica.
(ii) Formation of hydrous alkali silicate gel: The initial
dissolution of reactive silica then opens up the
aggregate pore structure and allows more silica to
dissolve into solution. The end result is alkali-silica
gel that is formed in place. This gel formation is not
expansive itself but it does destroy the integrity of the
aggregate particle.
(iii) Attraction of water by the gel: The gel attracts
considerable amount of water and expands. If the
expansion is great enough, the resulting stress
will crack the now weakened aggregate and the
surrounding paste.
(iv) Formation of gel colloid: After the gel ingests enough
water, the water takes over the substance leading to
diffusion of alkali silica gel in water. This water then
escapes to surrounding cracks and voids and may
partake in secondary reactions.
Raw materials used for the manufacture of Portland cement
clinker are the source of alkalies in cement, which typically
range from 0.2 to 1.5 per cent Na
2
O equivalent
#
.
Depending on the alkali content of the cement, the pH
of the pore fuid in normal concretes is generally 12.5 to
13.5. This pH represents a strongly alkaline fuid in which
acidic rocks composed of higher percentage of silica and
siliceous minerals do not remain stable on long exposure.
The types of rock which contain reactive constituents
include basalts, andesites, rhyolites, siliceous limestones
and sandstones with higher content of oxides of iron and
calcium. The reactive constituents may be in form of opals,
amorphous components in cherts, chalcedony, volcanic
glass, zeolites, some crystalline forms of silica including
tridymite, cristobalite and highly strained quartz, silica or
siliceous components in sedimentary and metamorphic
rocks, like, greywackes, argillites, phyllites and siltstones
and disseminated silica (usually as skeletal remains of small
organisms) in limestones.
In India following type of rock aggregates are to be viewed
with caution vis--vis alkali silica reaction
5
:
(a) Basalt rocks occurring in the Deccan Plateau, Madhya
Pradesh, Kathiawar, Hyderabad, Pir Panjal Hills of
J ammu and Kashmir, Bengal and Bihar.
(b) Limestones and dolomites containing chert nodules
would be highly reactive in Bijawar, Madhya Pradesh,
Assam, Punjab and Rajasthan.
Fig. 2 Schematic of Alkali Aggregate Reaction
2
(c) Sandstones containing silica minerals, like,
chalcedony, crypto to microcrystalline quartz or
opal in Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, and Delhi.
According to studies carried out by Cement and Concrete
Association of New Zealand
6
aggregates with various
mineralogical compositions have been classifed as under:
Table 1 Example of Non-Reactive and Reactive Aggregates
Non-reactive aggregates Reactive aggregates
Greywacke Schist Basalt >50%
SiO
2
Christobalite
Basalt <50%
SiO
2
Quartz Sands Andesite Tridymite
Phonolite Rhyolitic pumiceDacite Quartzite
Granite Perlite Rhyolite Volcanic glass
Vermiculite Limestone Amorphous and Cryptocrystalline
silicas (including Opal & Chalcedony)
3 LITERATURE REVIEW
AAR is a chemical reaction between alkali hydroxides in
pore solution and the reactive form of silica in aggregates.
The product of this reaction is a gel known as AAR gel. This
gel has a tendency to absorb water and swell, causing internal
stresses within the concrete. The swelling pressures depend
on many factors, like, availability of suffcient moisture, gel
composition, temperature, type and composition of reacting
materials. Typical manifestation of AAR includes map
cracking (Photo 1).
In the advanced stages, AAR may lead to misalignment
of structural elements and expansive features such as joint
closures and heaving/blowups. Use of reactive aggregates
and high alkali cements caused road slabs to be lifted and
dislodged from the ground by over 0.3m, causing extensive
cracking in concrete in Bahia Blanca Argentina
7
(Photo 2).
It has to be understood that AAR is actually a reaction between
hydroxyl ions (OH_) and reactive siliceous components of
the aggregates2. Large concentrations of alkali metal cations
in the concrete matrix leads to equally large concentration
of OH_ ions and this is where the role of alkalis becomes
relevant (gel formation due to presence of moisture).
According to Natesaiyer and Hover8, other kinds of distress
may sometimes show features similar to those of ASR. To
confrm the presence of ASR, petrographic examination is
generally necessary to confrm that the distress observed
is actually due to the ASR. One of the distinguishing
characteristic of ASR is the formation of ASR gel. Diamond2
(1989) indicated that the expansive pressures on account of
gel swelling can be in the range of 6 7 MPa. Apart from
the reactivity of aggregates, the gel formation and swelling
depends on particle size distribution of aggregates, porosity,
amount of reactive minerals along with suffcient alkali
concentration and environmental factors.
The mechanisms governing ASR expansion are quite
complex. The three essential factors2,9 necessary for ASR
induced damage are:
(i) Suffcient availability of OH_ ions and alkalis
(ii) Reactive form of silica or silicate in the aggregates.
(iii) Suffcient moisture (Relative Humidity >80 per cent).
ASR damage exponentially shortens the life of concrete
structures design to survive at least 15 years to require
replacement only after 5-10 years
2, 10
.
Photo 1 Map Cracking Observed on an Airfeld Concrete Pavement due to
Alkali Aggregate Reactivity
2
Photo 2 AAR Causing Heaving and Blowup in Concrete Pavement
Many of the aggregates used in concrete manufacture are
heterogeneous in nature. The laboratory tests on aggregate
and/or cement aggregate combination are the ways to
measure the aggregate reactivity prior to their use in concrete
structures. The test methods to detect AAR can be classifed in
three categories aggregate testing, cement mortar/concrete
testing and gel identifcation testing. Out of all tests to
determine AAR, the tests performed on concrete specimen are
more reliable than the tests on aggregate particles and/or tests
on mortar bar. Petrographic studies help to detect possible
occurrence of potential alkali silica and alkali carbonate
reactions by quantitative determination of constituents that
lead to such reactions and also recommend additional tests to
confrm or refute the possibilities of the above reactions
9
.
4 TEST PROCEDURES FOR TESTING AAR
A review of various standard codes of practice reveals that
there are three major test procedures that can be adopted to
detect and report AAR. They are ;
(i) Mortar bar method
(ii) Chemical method
(iii) Petrographic examination
Most of the test methods prescribed to assess AAR, measure
the potential reactivity of the aggregates.
Table 2 Var ious Codes of Pr actice to Test AAR
Method Standar d Code of Pr actice
IS ASTM CSA
Mortar bar Method IS 2386 Part VII ASTM C1260 CSA 23.2-25A
Chemical Method IS 2386 Part VII ASTM C289 CSA 23.4-2C
Petrographic
Examination
IS 2386 Part VIII ASTM C295 CSA 21.2-21A
Indian Standard Code of Practice IS 2386 (Part VII and Part
VIII) 1963 (Reaffrmed 1997).
ASTM American Standards for Testing of Materials;
CSA Canadian Standards Association.
The tests to determine AAR can be tests on aggregate
particles, tests on mortar bar or tests on concrete specimen.
The choice of a specifc method depends to a large extent
on the purpose of the examination and the nature of the
sample. For the given case we have adopted the Petrographic
examination on concrete specimen.
5 PETROGRAPHIC EXAMINATION
Identifcation of the constituents of a sample is usually a
necessary step towards recognition of the properties that
may be expected to infuence the behaviour of the material
in its intended use. Concrete is a typical multiscale material.
Its structure cannot be approached at a single level of scale,
but rather requires examination and documentation over a
very large range of magnifcations. According to Diamond
11

(1993), the structure of a concrete can be examined at fve
levels: visual, petrographic, intermediate scanning electron
microscopy (SEM), high magnifcation SEM, and the
nanometer level. Each level of the structure corresponds to a
certain range of the length scale.
The petrographic level falls in the scale of 10
-5
to 10
-3
m,
which can be made visible in stereoptical and petrographic
microscopes. Optical microscopy is more usefully applied
to either plane polished surfaces or specially ground
petrographic thin sections, typically 25 to 30m, and
transparent to light. Such sections are produced by a process
that includes impregnation of the empty spaces, such as
cracks, air voids, and empty capillary pores, by a fuorescent
dye dissolved in low viscosity epoxy resin. When such
specimens are examined in petrographic microscopes
equipped for fuorescent light examination, the details of
crack patterns and degree of local inhomogeneity can be
revealed. Depending on the extent of analysis involved,
petrographic examination of a sample can be coupled with
X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis, Differential Thermal
Level Optical Magnifcation
Range
Usual method of obser vation Str uctures to be revealed
Visual 1x 10x Unaided eye or hand lens Details of coarse aggregate and air voids
Petrographic 25x 250x Optical microscope Fine aggregates, air voids, some paste details and
some cracks.
Intermediate SEM 250x 2000x SEM backscatter mode on plane polished
surfaces
Arrangement and juxtaposition of cement paste
particles, sand, capillary voids
High magnifcation SEM 2000x 20000x SEM secondary electron mode on fractured
surfaces
Details of internal structure of individual cement
particles and masses
Nanostructure 1000000x Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM),High Voltage
Transmission Electron Microscope(TEM)
Some details of C-S-H gel
Table 3 Str uctur al Magnifcation Levels of Concrete
11
Analysis (DTA), Infra-red Spectroscopy or Scanning
Electron Microscopy (SEM). These analysis tools along with
petrographic descriptions help to identify and understand
grain size of each mineral species, grain shape which gives
textural data for mineral species, inclusions in the grains,
overgrowths, intergrowths and other morphological data
including mineral associations, pore spaces, fractures among
other properties.
The value of petrographic examination will depend on a
large extent on the sampling techniques adopted in short
listing the samples for the test, completeness and accuracy of
the data of the source from where the samples are procured
along with the proposed use of the material and the ability of
the examination team to correlate this data with the fndings
of the examination.
The purpose of undertaking Petrographic examination can
be as under:
(i) Identify the physical and chemical properties of
the material that have bearing on the properties
and performance of the material in its intended
application.
(ii) Classifcation of the material/specimen based on its
constituents.
(iii) To identify the amount of constituents present in the
material those have bearing on the performance of
the material in its use.
(iv) Compare the specimen material with new source of
material.
(v) Identifying possible contamination of aggregate
specimen by deleterious materials, like, synthetic
glass, cinders, coal ash, clinkers, magnesium oxide,
calcium oxide, gypsum, soil hydrocarbons, chemicals
that may affect the setting properties of concrete or
any other property of the aggregates.
One of the important use of Petrographic examinations is
its ability to help to identify proportions of cubic, spherical,
ellipsoidal, pyramidal, tubular, fat and elongated particles in
a aggregate sample or samples. Flat, elongated and thin chip
like, particles in the aggregate increase the requirement of
mixing water and in turn decrease the strength of concrete.
Thin sections of concrete specimen with or without cover
slips are observed in plane light, plane polarized light and in
cross Nichols. In all descriptions the condition of light has
to be specifed.
6 TEST PROCEDURE
In this Paper the authors have undertaken thin section
Petrographic examination of set and cured concrete
specimen. The basic aim of the study was to identify the
potential reactivity of basalt aggregates found around Pune,
Maharashtra, for alkali aggregate reaction. The Paper does
not take into account the possible infuence of alkalinity of
cement used in concrete mix. However, the alkaline content
of cement and its infuence will have signifcant bearing on
the results but has been considered in the future scope.
The studies were divided in two parts:
Part 1: Concrete Mix Design
Part 2: Thin Section preparation and Petrographic
Examination
Before the laboratory studies some preliminary data as
regards the aggregate specimen to be tested was collected
which comprised of the following:
(a) Location/Source of the sample
(b) Physical observations
(c) Use of sample (For manufacture of concrete or
artifcial sand)
For the concrete mix, M20 grade of concrete was adopted.
The mix design was undertaken as per the guidelines of
IS 10262:200911 (Indian Standard Concrete Mix Proportioning
Guidelines). The details of concrete mix are as under:
Gradeof Concrete: M20 Water cement ratio: 0.45
Gradeof Cement: G43 Fine Aggregates (FA):River sand
Type of Cement: Ordinary
Portland cement
Specifc Gravity of FA:2.61
Source of CA: Quarry sites located at Shivane-Agdambe (South West
Pune), Jambhulwadi (South Pune) and Kondhwa (South East Pune)
Specifc Gravity of CA: 2.65 Admixtures: Nil
Target Mean Strength: 28 MPa
(as per IS 10262:2009)
28 day compressive strength: 28.3 MPa.
The second part of the examination comprises of preparation
of thin sections and later observing these sections under
petrographic microscope.
The instrument setup required for preparation of thin section
comprises of following:
(i) Rock cutting saw of 700 mm diameter with diamond
blade
(ii) Thin section CL-50 precision lapping machine.
Lapping machines usually come with cast iron
lapping plates and controlled abrasive slurry feed
(iii) Microscopic slides
(iv) Ultrasonic cleaning machine for cleaning of
impregnated and polished surfaces
(v) Laboratory oven for drying the sample prior to slide
preparation.The samples are to be dried for effective
impregnation of epoxy resins. The oven is also used
for curing epoxy resins at a temperature not exceeding
45
o
C
12
(vi) Jack for holding the concrete block during cutting
operation
(vii) Mounting medium suitable for mounting concrete
specimen on slides
(viii) Petrographic microscope with photo micrographic
camera
(ix) Petri culture dishes and fasks of 200 ml capacity
For sample preparation some chemicals are also required as
listed below:
(i) Abrasive silicon carbide grit as an abrasive agent.
(ii) Epoxy resin and hardener (commercial brand name
Araldite) for impregnation of specimen samples.
(iii) Acetone as a solvent.
(iv) Water.
(v) Dye.
Thin Section Lapping
Machine
Petrographic Microscope
Photo 3 Thin section CL-50 Precision Lapping Machine (L) and
Petrographic Microscope (R).
While preparing the thin sections following precautions
have to be considered:
(a) Excessive heating is to be avoided during the
preparation of thin sections. Excessive heating means
temperature more than 45
o
C. Tests performed at 38
o
C
produce reliable results
6
.
(b) Exposure to air should be minimized as carbonation
may take place in freshly ground and polished
concrete surfaces and carbonation may lead to loss of
valuable information in the fnished thin section.
(c) Exposure to water should be completely avoided as it
may result in secondary hydration and loss of water
soluble compounds from the cement paste.
The thin section preparation involves following steps:
(i) Preliminary cutting and dressing: The concrete core or
block is held tightly in the jack of the cutting machine
having diamond blade saw. Chips of approximately
10 mm x 20 mm size and 2 mm 5 mm thickness are
cut.
(ii) Initial Lapping: Prior to next step the chips obtained
from the above step are ground and lapped to remove
any damage caused in the cutting process. The
combination of grinding and lapping action will
ensure high quality optically fat surface that can be
properly bonded to the glass microscope slide. The
thickness of these dressed chips is 1mm.
(iii) Cleaning and drying: After the initial lapping
procedure the samples are cleaned in ultrasonic
cleaner setup for 10 minutes to clear off abrasive
agent (silicon carbide) and other dust particles. The
samples are dried in laboratory oven for 10 minutes
with temperature around 70oC.
(iv) Mounting of specimen on glass slides: The fattened
polished surface of the specimen cleaned by ultrasonic
method is further cleaned with the help of acetone
(solvent). The solvent cleaned specimen is bonded on
the glass slide with the help of epoxy resin hardener.
While applying the epoxy resin hardener care is
taken about the thickness of layer of hardener being
applied. To control the thickness of the epoxy resin
hardener small amount of acetone can be used. Also
while applying the hardener few drops of coloured
dye can be added.
(v) Final Lapping: Once the specimen has been mounted
on the glass slide they are allowed to set for 12
16 hours. After this setting period the specimen
are lapped so as to achieve a thickness of up to
30 microns.
(vi) Covering: After the fnal lapping the specimen is
thoroughly cleaned and covered using glass cover
slip. This is to prevent carbonation and damage to the
sample after its preparation and is also important to
reduce light scattering during the examination of the
thin section.
7 OBSERVATIONS
The thin section samples prepared are observed under the
petrographic microscope by keeping the specimen samples
in two positions:
(a) Plane Polarized Light (PPL)
(b) Between Cross Nicole (BCN)
The interpretation of colours observed in the slides is based
on the Michel-Levy Birefringence14 chart.
Important points that are to be observed in the Thin Section
Petrographic examination are as under:
(a) Size, shape and distribution of the coarse and fne
aggregates and in particular structures seen within
these rocks and the degree of weathering.
(b) The coherence, colour and porosity of the cement
paste.
(c) The presence of cement replacement phases, such
as, slag or PFA can be usually recognized though the
amount cannot be accurately quantifed.
(d) Any product of process of deterioration of either the
cement paste or the aggregate can be recognized.
(e) The distribution of fne cracks and microcracks. The
crack surface are usually stained due to the presence
of penetrative dye.
(f) Relative abundance of rock types in the coarse
aggregates can be assessed.
(g) Any superfcial evidence of deleterious process
affecting the concrete.
With respect to the given experimental study following
observations are observed:
(i) Mineral grains are mostly lath shaped along with
some rounded and semi rounded shape grains
(Photo 5).
(ii) Lath shaped mineral grains show two sets of
cleavages clearly and minor cracks when seen in
BCN position.
(iii) Fresh, well defned and unaltered boundaries between
grains and matrix (cement) phase of concrete
(Photo 6).
(iv) Pale green coloured mineral grains with
feebly developed cleavages are also present
(Photo 6).
(v) Relief seen in lath shaped mineral grains is quite low
or negative and in other minerals is high or positive.
(vi) Blue coloured portion is seen in between mineral
grains and cement boundary (Photo 7).
(vii) The colours shown in BCN position are mainly black,
brown and pale green.
(viii) Double refraction colours are not seen at the
boundary of particle phase (aggregate) and matrix
phase (cement paste).
Fig. 3 Michel-Levy Birefringence14 Chart
Photo 4 Cut, dressed, initial lapped concrete specimen chip mounted on
microscope slide with the help of epoxy resin hardener (L) and
Final lapped concrete specimen with dye and covered using glass
cover slip (R)
Photo 8: Microscopic Image Concrete Specimen Prepared with
Aggregates fromJ ambhulwadi.
Interpretation of the observations:
(i) Lath shaped mineral grain represents the plagioclase
minerals. The total amount of these minerals is
around 40 50 per cent.
(ii) Pale green coloured grain represents olivine which
accounts for around 25 per cent of the total volume.
(iii) Brown coloured mineral represents augite and it
accounts for around 20 per cent of the total volume.
(iv) Green to brown coloured grains represents hornblende
that account for 10 per cent of the total volume.
(v) Opaque iron oxides are also present in small amounts.
(vi) Mostly the boundaries of the contacts between
mineral grains and cement are well defned and uncut.
This means that there is absence of reaction between
cement and the aggregate.
(vii) Slightly blue coloured patches are observed which
represent voids in the concrete itself. Some of the
blue points are due to the excessive polishing of the
specimen (Photo 8).
(viii) There is no reaction at the boundary of the mineral
grain (aggregate) and cement.
(ix) Reddish colour represents the staining done for the
grid marking.
(x) All the above observations and fndings indicate that
the given aggregate samples are of basalt rock.
CONCLUSION
The typical Alkali Aggregate Reaction is a chemical reaction
between reactive silica present in the aggregates and alkali
hydroxides in the concrete pore solution. The product of this
reaction is a hygroscopic gel which expands in volume by
absorbing moisture in conducive environments. The swelling
Photo 5 Microscopic Image Concrete Specimen Prepared with Aggregates
fromJ ambhulwadi
Photo 7 Microscopic Image Concrete Specimen Prepared with Aggregates
fromJ ambhulwadi.
Photo 6 Microscopic Image Concrete Specimen prepared with Aggregates
fromShivane/Agdambe.
will be prepared using appropriate powder additives to
inhibit AAR. These specimens will be analyzed using thin
section petrographic analysis. A comparative study,with
image analysis,will be presented in the next phase.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the Board of College and
University Development (BCUD) of University of Pune for
the fnancial support extended for this project.
REFERENCES
Mehta P. Kumar, Monteiro J. M. Paolo, Concrete Microstructures, 1.
Properties and Materials, Third Edition, Tata McGraw Hill
Publishing Company Ltd., New Delhi (2006).
Zollinger D., G. Mukhopadhyay, A. K., Ghanem H., Shon C. S., 2.
Gress D., and Hooton D., Mitigation of ASR in Concrete
Pavement Combined Materials Testing, Innovative Pavement
Foundation Research Report (IPRF), Texas Transportation Institute
and Texas A & M University, Texas, US, December 2009.
Rodrigo Del Hoyo, Alkali Aggregate Reactions in Dams, 3.
Special Workshop on Chemical Expansion of Concrete in Dams
and Hydro Projects Organized by International Commission on
Large Dams at Granada, Spain (2007).
Mindess Sidney, Young J. Francis and Darwin D., Concrete, 4.
Second Edition, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, US, 2002.
M. S. Shetty, Concrete Technology Theory and Practice, Tenth 5.
Edition, S Chand and Company Ltd. New Delhi, 1999.
Cement and Concrete Association of New Zealand,Technical 6.
Report 3 (TR-3) on Alkali Aggregate Reaction - Minimizing the
Risk of Damage to Concrete, Guidance Note and Recommended
Practice, Second Edition, 2003.
Marfl S. A., Maiza P. J. and Salomon R. C., ASR Induced Blow- 7.
up in an Urban Concrete Pavement (Bahia Blanca-Argentina),
The International Journal of Pavement Engineering, Vol. 2, No. 4,
Oct-Dec. 2001, pp. 271-276
W. F. Chen, W. L. Dolch, and Sidney Diamond, The Civil 8.
Engineering Handbook, CRC Press, New York, 2000.
ASTM C 295-98, Standard 9. Guide for Petrographic Examination of
Aggregates for Concrete, 1999.
Hassan Ghanem, Dan Zollinger, and Robert Lytton, Determination 10.
of Main Parameters of Alkali Silica Reaction using System
Identifcation Method, ASCE Journal of Materials in Civil
Engineering, Vol. 22, No. 9, September 2010.
Zongjin Li, Advanced Concrete Technology, First Edition, John 11.
Wiley and Sons Inc., New Jersey, US, 2010.
Indian Standard Concrete Mix Proportioning Guidelines, IS 12.
10262 2009, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
Eden M. A., A Code of Practice for Petrographic Examination 13.
of Concrete, Publication by Applied Petrography Group, U. K.
(2010).
Andrew McLeish, Geological Science, Fourth Reprint, Blackie 14.
and Son Publishers, London (1991).
of the gel causes cracks in concrete, which provide a passage
for the entry of other chemicals (chloride ions, sulphate
ions, etc.) that attack the matrix of concrete leading to more
damage. Hence, the choice of materials (type of aggregates,
type of cement, supplementary cementitious materials,
chemical admixtures, etc.), moisture and environmental
conditions play an important role in AAR reaction.
Of all the test procedures prescribed by standard code
of practice, the Thin Section Petrographic Analysis test
procedure is comparatively quicker vis--vis getting
meaningful results in time. The siliceous phases (both
reactive as well as non-reactive constituents) in aggregates
are identifed based on characteristic optical properties
under petrographic microscope. The aggregate reactivity
is determined based on the identifed siliceous phase. This
method can be used as a screening test for identifying
reactive aggregates.
For the given aggregate sample tested for AAR using
petrographic analysis method the potential reactivity of the
said aggregates is negative.
Further, it can be concluded that Thin Section Petrographic
Analysis is not a method to test AAR only. In case of
non-reactive aggregates, the method of examination can
be used to study the internal structure and distribution of
the ingredients in the concrete. The boundary conditions
between the aggregates and cement matrix phase observed
and studied help to interpret the effciency and effectiveness
of concreting operations.
9 FUTURE SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The study of alkali aggregate reaction requires integration
of feld observations and laboratory investigations. The
feld interpretation of AAR is characterized by map cracks.
However, the laboratory investigations, like, thin section
petrographic analysis, help to identify the cause of expansion
and reactivity of aggregate.
As a part of this study, thin section petrographic studies will be
undertaken on concrete specimen prepared using aggregates
from different sources. In the present study, aggregates from
three different quarry sites located around Pune were tested
for AAR. In the next phase of this study, 10 quarry sites
in the Western Maharashtra region have been identifed.
Concrete specimens will be prepared using the aggregates
from these quarry sites. The presence of AAR reactivity of
these concrete specimenswill analyzed be using thin section
petrographic analysis. In case of detection of AAR in any of
these prepared concrete specimens, fresh concrete specimen
GUIDELINES FOR WRITING GOOD ASPHALT RELATED RESEARCH PAPERS
PRITHVI S. KANDHAL* & RAJIB B. MALLICK**
ABSTRACT
Review of numerous asphalt related Technical Papers published in India has revealed that their quality is generally not up to international standards.
This Paper gives guidelines for improving the quality of research papers on Asphalt Technology.
Comprehensive Guidelines have been given for various typical sections generally contained in Research Papers such as abstract, introduction, scope of
study and objectives, review of literature, materials, testing procedures and experiment plan, construction data (if any), test data and statistical analyses,
conclusions and recommendations, acknowledgements, references, and appendices. Many of the Guidelines are also applicable and useful for Research
Papers on other Areas of Transportation.
1 BACKGROUND
It has been observed from the review of numerous Technical
Papers related to Asphalt Technology published in India that
their quality is generally not up to international standards.
This also applies to Research Papers/Reports produced by
premier institutions in India.
The following guidelines have been prepared based on the
authors experience for improving the quality of papers on
asphalt technology. Guidelines are given in order of various
typical sections generally contained in a Research Paper
such as abstract, introduction, scope of study and objectives,
review of literature, materials, testing procedures and
experiment plan, construction data (if any), test data and
statistical analyses, conclusions and recommendations,
acknowledgements, references, and appendices.
2 ABSTRACT
The Abstract (or Synopsis) should be very brief, generally,
not exceeding 500 words. The reader should get a general
idea about what is contained in the Paper. It needs to have
four primary segments: Introduction/Importance of the
Subject (2-3 sentences); Objective (one sentence); Scope of
the Study or Variables Examined (2-3 sentences); and Main
Conclusions (2-3 sentences).
3 INRODUCTION
The Introduction should be brief. It should mention
the importance of the specifc research topic keeping
in perspective the general feld and/or needs of India.
The Introduction should lead into the next section of
objective(s).
4 SCOPE OF STUDY AND OBJECTIVE(S)
Briefy outline the scope of this study so that the reader
clearly understands its limitations. Then give the primary
and secondary (if any) objectives of this study. It has been
observed that sometimes many objectives are given but some
are not reported later in the Paper. This usually happens if
the Research Paper has been prepared from a large Research
Report by copy and paste.
5 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Before formulating an experimental research plan it is
necessary to review the literature on the subject to determine
what work has been done in the past by other researchers and
what results/conclusions were drawn. This is necessary to
avoid repetitions or pitfalls. All Papers which have reported
either positive or negative fndings on a new technology
should be included. Sometimes, when the researchers have
obtained positive results from a process or a product (such
as any additive), they tend to exclude those Papers which
reported negative results on a similar product. It is not
unusual and should be accepted that researchers sometimes
get different results when similar products or technologies
are investigated.
The review of literature can be reported either in a
chronological order or can be subdivided into subsections of
the larger subject if deemed appropriate. For example, if a
product has been evaluated in the laboratory as well as feld
it can be subdivided into laboratory and feld performance.
The researchers must use the internet to access literature
on the subject being researched. There are many research
engines such as Google and Yahoo. However, the most
* Associate Director Emeritus, National Center for Asphalt Technology, USA (pkandhal@gmail.com)
** Professor, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, USA (rajib@wpi.edu)
PRITHVI S. KANDHAL & RAJIB B. MALLICK ON
important and comprehensive highway related database is: (a)
US Transportation Research Board (TRB)s Transportation
Research Information Services (TRIS) Database and (b) the
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD)s Joint Transport Research Centres International
Transport Research Documentation (ITRD) Database.
Transportation Research Information Database (TRID) is a
newly integrated database that combines the records from
TRBs TRIS Database and the OECDs ITRD Database.
Together, TRID provides access to over 9,00,000 records
of Transportation Research. TRID, released in 2011, is
the worlds largest and most comprehensive bibliographic
resource on transportation research information. It is
produced and maintained by the Transportation Research
Board of the National Academies with sponsorship by State
Departments of Transportation, the various administrations
at the U.S. Department of Transportation, and other sponsors
of TRBs core technical activities. ITRD is produced by
ITRD member organizations under the sponsorship of the
J oint Transport Research Centre (collectively J TRC) of
the International Transport Forum and the Organisation for
Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD).
The Transportation Research Boards TRID Website is a
leading tool for transportation professionals to stay updated
on the status of world-wide transportation research. TRID
covers all modes and disciplines of transportation and contains
more than 9,00,000 records of references to books, technical
reports, conference proceedings, and journal articles in the
feld of transportation research. Almost 500 serial titles are
regularly scanned and indexed for TRID. More than 64,000
records contain links to full-text documents.
TRID can be accessed at the following link:
http://trid.trb.org/search.aspx
Although the TRID search will not give the whole paper,
it will give a full record of each Paper/Report containing
the Title, Authors Name(s), Name of J ournal, its Volume
Number, and an Abstract. By reading the abstracts, the
researchers can determine which papers are worth obtaining
from technical library.
Use of proper keywords and their combinations thereof is
essential to get the optimum results from a literature search
on the internet. For example, a literature search is needed on
Field Performance of Steel Slag in Bituminous Mixtures.
If one key word bituminous mixture is used it will
produce a large number of references. The literature search
can be narrowed down further by including steel slag as
additional keyword. That is, use bituminous mixture and
steel slag. If needed, it can be further narrowed down by
adding feld performance keyword.
Quite often, we also have to use or when there are other
synonyms for a term or keyword. For example, try bituminous
mix or asphalt mix or hot mix asphalt to get maximum
number of references. For example, in the previous example
we can try: bituminous mix or asphalt mix or hot mix
asphalt and steel slag or open hearth slag.
Select the desired Papers from the TRID search and print
out full records (including abstract) before beginning the
research. If the full Paper is not available in the nearby
technical library, send an e-mail to authors. With good luck,
they may provide a soft copy via e-mail. Many full Papers
on Asphalt Technology published by a specifc author are
also sometimes available on the internet, for example at the
following link:
http://www.scribd.com/doc/47323198/Kandhal-Asphalt-
Literature-With-Web-Links
Finally, do search on Google and Yahoo Search
Engines. Surprisingly, additional references to
Papers/Reports/Trade Journals can be available.

6 MATERIALS
All materials used in laboratory and/or feld evaluation should
be characterized, documented and reported. References
should be made to standard tests used such as ASTM and BIS
(Bureau of Indian Standards). If non-standard experimental
or research tests are used they should be described briefy
and references should be made to published Papers where
such tests have been described in detail.
Examples of some materials used in asphalt research are
given below:
6.1 Bitumen as a Binder
Bitumen binder should be classifed as per prevailing
grading system in India. For example, Viscosity Graded
(VG) bitumen such as VG-30 and VG-10 should be used
rather than old penetration graded bitumen such as 60/70
and 80/100. Sometimes, researchers just reproduce the test
data supplied by the refneries. This should be discouraged.
Bitumen binder should actually be tested, especially,
viscosity at 60C by the researchers laboratory. In case of
modifed bituminous binders, its type such as elastomer
and plastomer and the type of polymer should be reported.
In case of Crumb Rubber Modifed Bitumen (CRMB), the
size and amount of crumb rubber used should be reported
together with the details of its manufacturing process such
as blending temperature and digestion time.
6.2 Aggregates
The geological type of the aggregate such as limestone,
granite and sandstone should always be reported because it
can infuence mix test results such as moisture susceptibility
(stripping). Besides standard tests non-standard tests which
are germane to the research should also be conducted to fully
characterize the aggregates used. Test values should not be
reported to many unnecessary decimal values because that
makes them rather incomprehensible to reader.
For example, specifc gravity values (bulk, apparent or
effective) should be reported to three decimal places (not
less or more) and gradation should be rounded off to whole
number except the percentage passing 0.075 mm sieve
should be reported to one decimal place. Table 1 gives
typical aggregate test values rounded off appropriately.
Table 1 Aggregate Test Values (Example)
Test Rounded off value
Bulk specifc gravity 2.672
Water absorption 1.2 %
Flakiness and elongation index 24.5 %
Aggregate impact value 17.8 %
Los Angles abrasion value 28.3 %
Sodium or magnesium soundness 8.3 %
6.3 Additive
If an additive is used for the bituminous binder or bituminous
mix, it should at least be described generically if it is not
advisable to mention its brand name. Some researchers do
not do it and just state certain additive was used. Such
research is hardly useful to other researchers and the technical
community at large if they cannot procure that certain
additive to replicate the research in their laboratory.
Many times there is no harm in mentioning the brand
name of the additive if it is acknowledged under the
Acknowledgement Section with the following statement:
The research sponsoring organization and the authors do not
endorse any proprietary products or technologies mentioned
in this paper. These appear herein only because they are
considered essential to the objective of this paper. This is
permitted by the US Transportation Research Board.
6.4 Bituminous Mixes
The procedure used in preparing the bituminous mixes such
as mixing temperature and the procedure used in compacting
the bituminous mix such as Marshall and Superpave gyratory
compaction, should be described. Again, the test values
obtained for compacted bitumen mixes should be rounded
off appropriately as shown in Table 2. For example, it is
of no use to report air voids as 5.173 per cent which rather
makes it incomprehensible to reader; it should be reported
as 5.2 per cent.
Table 2 Mix Design Test Data
Proper ty Rounded off value
Specifc gravity of bitumen 1.028
Bulk specifc gravity of aggregate 2.672
Effective specifc gravity of aggregate 2.715
Maximum specifc gravity of mix 2.529
Bulk specifc gravity of compacted
specimen
2.409
% Air voids 4.8
% VMA 13.7
% VFA 65.9
Stability, kg 2,210
Flow, unit 4.2
7 LABORATORY AND/OR CONSTRUCTION
TEST DATA
It is a normal practice to conduct laboratory or feld tests in
triplicate and average values reported. It should always be
mentioned whether the reported test values are individual
test results or averages of duplicate or triplicate specimens.
Construction details should be documented and reported;
for example, prevailing ambient temperature, lay down mix
temperature, compaction temperature, type and number of
rollers used. Construction test data such as core density should
be obtained at random locations. Air voids in compacted mat
have highly signifcant effect on pavement performance. For
example, if control test section has 10 per cent air voids at
the time of construction and the experimental test section
has 6 per cent air voids at the time of construction, the feld
performance of the former is expected to be worse than the
latter. Therefore, just reporting the relative feld performance
without reporting percent air voids in the mat at the time of
construction may be misleading.
Obviously all pertinent test information which has a
direct effect on performance should be reported. If some
information is not available it should be acknowledged in
the Paper.
Any unusual circumstances and/or behaviour of the mix
during construction (such as tenderness, harshness and
diffculty in placing /handwork) should be documented
because these factors also affect the performance of the test
sections.
Relative costs of construction for control and experimental
sections, if available, should also be reported so that life/
cycle costs can be determined later.
8 STATISTICAL ANALYSES OF TEST DATA
Statistical analyses of test data cannot be done successfully
unless there is an experimental program which lists all
independent variables and all dependent variables; tests to
be conducted; number of samples to be tested; and replicates
of each test. As a minimum such an experimental program
would yield means and standard deviations for the test
values.
There are two basic necessities of writing a successful
research paper: what we say should be new and, it should
be convincing. Statistical analyses help the author in
writing the Paper in a convincing manner. Such analysis
can be carried out by various software such as SPSS. For
example, see the following link:
http://www-142. ibm. com/software/products/in/en/
spss-stats-standard
Commonly used statistical methods are described below,
with examples. All quoted equations have been taken from
the following textbook: Steel, Robert G. and James H.
Torrie, "Principles and Procedures of Statistics", New York:
McGraw, 1960.
The reasons for conducting each statistical method are also
presented.
8.1 Analysis of Var iance (ANOVA)
One very common item in Research Papers is the
presentation of a new material or a construction process,
and the discussion on its effect on a measured test property.
In such a case, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) must
be carried out before making the conclusion regarding
the applicability of the new material/method. One way
ANOVA will help to determine what proportion of
variance is accounted for by the systematic effect and what
proportion is not accounted for; this helps us to determine
whether there is a signifcant effect of x (independent
variable) values on the y (dependent) values. An example
is as follows:
Suppose researchers use four different treatments of fber
to reduce the draindown of asphalt binder in Stone Matrix
Asphalt (SMA) mixes. Draindown tests were carried out
using wire baskets and the total draindown at 120 min was
recorded for three replicates for each treatment plus one case
(termed control) in which no fber was used. Test results are
shown in Fig. 1.
Fig.1 Plot of Additive Type and Amount Versus Draindown
To make convincing conclusions regarding the effect
of the fbers, the frst question that needs to be answered
is the following: Is there at least one treatment mean that
is different from the others? ANOVA can be conducted to
answer this question, as shown in Table 3.
Table 3 Example of ANOVA
Source SS DF MS F
Treatments 3.124 4 0.781 8.089 >
3.48
Error 0.966 10 0.097
Total 4.090 14
At 95 per cent (Probability, p = 0.05) confdence level F
critical
=
3.48; (In fact, the F value matches F
critical
at a p value of 0.004)
The different statistics are described as follows:
SS Treatments (SS
T
) =
K
i=1
r
i
N
T
i
2

T
2
Ti=i
th
Treatment Total
k
i=1
T = T
i
is the grand total
r
i

=number of replicates for i
th
treatment
k =number of treatments
SS Error (SS
Error
) =TSS-SS
T

TSS = S
2
all

* d
f
all
S
2
all

=
k
i=1
(X
i-
- Mean
Total

)
2
/ N-1
N =
k
i=1
r
i

Mean
Total

=
T
N

MS
Treatment

=
SS
T
k-1

MS
Error

=
SS
Error
N-K
F

=
MS
Treatment
MS
Error

Since the F value exceeds the Fcritical value at 95 per cnet
confdence level, it can be concluded that there is at least one
treatment that differs from the others. In other words, it is
confrmed that there is a signifcant effect from at least one
treatment of fbers.
8.2 Separ ation of Means (Ranking)
The next question that arises is: which treatment(s) are
signifcantly different, and how can they be ranked? This
answer can be obtained by conducting a multiple comparison
technique, such Tukeys Honestly Signifcant Difference
(HSD) test, which compares the difference between two
means against a standard error.
Let us utilize the last example (effect of fber on draindown)
to conduct Tukeys HSD test. Recall that in our example,
from the ANOVA Table, MS
error
=0.097; DF
error
=10; n (or r,
number of replicates) =3
The decision rule is as follows:
If ,
(X
1
-X
2
)
SE
q
critical
then the difference between the means X
1
and X
2
will be
declared signifcant.
where,
Standard Error (SE) =
MSError
n
Where, critical is obtained from Tukeys probability Table
for the specifc DF
Treatment
and DF
Error
)
In the given example,
SE =0.179; DF
Treatment

=4; DF
Error

=10
Table 4 shows the results of Tukeys HSD analysis, and
Table 5 shows the groupings. Note that means with the same
groups do not differ signifcantly. From this analysis it can
be concluded that the addition of fber A at 0.3 per cent or
B at 0.1 and 0.3 per cent defnitely reduces draindown, as
compared to the no additive mix.
Table 4 Tukeys HSD Analysis
Compar isons Tukeys
par ameter
(X1-X2)
SE
q
cr itical
Signifcantly
different?
No
Additives
Fiber-A-
0.1%
2.137 4.33 No
No
Additives
Fiber
A-0.3%
5.463 Yes
No
Additives
Fiber
B-0.1%
5.704 Yes
No
Additives
Fiber
B-0.3%
6.800 Yes
Fiber-A-
0.1%
Fiber
A-0.3%
3.326 No
Fiber-A-
0.1%
Fiber
B-0.1%
3.567 No
Fiber-A-
0.1%
Fiber
B-0.3%
4.664 Yes

Fiber
A-0.3%
Fiber
B-0.1%
0.242 No
Fiber
A-0.3%
Fiber
B-0.3%
1.338 No

Fiber
B-0.1%
Fiber
B-0.3%
1.096 No
By considering the rut depth as a dependent on the level of
percentage of sand used, one possible mathematical model
is:
y
ij
=
i
+
ij
y
ij
= + (-) +
ij
y
ij
=

+
i +
ij
where, y
ij
=j
th
response (rut depth) observed for the i
th

treatment (sand percentage) level, =overall mean,
i
=
mean of all of the responses of the i
th
treatment,
ij
=error
The responses y
ij
can be used to test:
H
0
=
1
=
2
=
3
=
4

i
= 0 for, i =1, 2, 3 and 4
H
A
: at least one treatment mean differs

i
0 for, i =1, 2, 3 and 4
using an F ratio test based on the following ANOVA:
Table 7 ANOVA of Rut Depth Data
Source SS DF MS F
Treatments 363.40 3 121.13 15.09
Error 128.40 16 8.03
Total 491.80 19
If the F test fails to reject
H
0
then the model
y
ij
=
i
+
ij
is suffcient to explain the y
ij
When an analysis of variance is performed the variance of
the response y
ij
is broken down according to the components
in the model being used to explain the responses.
For example, with the model y
ij
=

+
i +
ij
y
ij
-

+
i +
ij
we can describe the variability in y
ij
- (Total Sums of
Squares about the mean =TSS) using two components;
variability attributable to the
i
treatments effects (SStreatments)
and the remaining unexplainable variability known as pure
error (
[ SS ]

Error
)
However, if the treatments levels are quantitative (treatment
i has x
i
amount of x which causes response y
ij
) it may be
reasonable to assume that the mean response
i
depends on
the treatment level x
i
in a linear manner (i.e.
i
=
x=0
+
xi
).
The model to explain treatment responses would then be
y
ij
=
x=0
+
xi
+
ij
Table 5 Grouping of the Treatments on the Basis of
Tukeys HSD Analysis
Type of treatment Group
No Additives A
Fiber-A-0.1% AB
Fiber A-0.3% BC
Fiber B-0.1% BC
Fiber B-0.3% C
8.3 Simple Linear Regression
Suppose it is necessary to determine whether there is a
relationship between the percentage of natural sand (for
example river sand with relatively rounded aggregates) in the
total fne aggregates of the mix and rut depths observed from
wheel tracking tests. An experiment involving four levels of
sand percentage: 15, 20, 25 and 30 per cent was conducted.
For each percentage of sand, fve mixes were prepared and
tested with a wheel tracking test. The results are as given in
Table 6 and are shown graphically in Fig. 2.
Table 6 Rut Depths in mm from Wheel
Tr acking Exper iments
Percentage of natur al sand
Test No. 15 20 25 30
1 7 12 14 19
2 7 17 18 25
3 15 12 18 22
4 11 18 19 19
5 9 18 19 23
The research question is: Can the average rut depth be
explained with a straight line relationship between average
rut depth and percentage of sand used?
Fig. 2 Plot of Percentage of Natural Sand versus Rut Depth
The variance of the estimator for is:
The standard error for ,
b

can be estimated by replacing
2
with MSE (see ANOVA, Table 5) in the variance formula
and taking the square root:

=

[

n
i
x
i
2
)-

n
i
x
i
2
]
N
MSE
In the example problem,

=

[625.0]
8.03
=0.1133
If we want to test the hypotheses:
H
0
: = 0
H
A
: 0
Using t statistic, we calculate:
tcalculted
=

-
0
tcritical
=

0.1133

=6.6344
0.752 - 0
t 0.05(2),
n

=16

=2.12
Since

at

=0.05 level, tcalculted
>
tcritical
we reject H
0
; we conclude that there is a linear relationship
between rut depth and sand percentage.
The variability of by the linear regression needs to be
determined to estimate the strength of the regression.
SSregression
= n
i
x
i
i

n
i
x
i
)

n
i
i
)
N
In this example,
SSregression
=
0.752
7,715

20

=353.44
1,44,900

)
Hence, from Table 7, we can have Table 8 as follows:
Table 8 Par titioning of Sum of Squares
Source SS DF MS F
Treatments 363.40 3 121.13 15.09
Linear 353.44 1 353.44 44.02
Remainder 9.96 2 4.98 0.62
Error 128.40 16 8.03
Total 491.80 19
This defnes a simple linear regression model for explaining
the responses.
To test whether a simple linear regression effect exists
between the response and the treatment levels, the following
hypothesis are tested:
H
0
: = 0
H
A
: 0
In order to test = 0 we need an estimate of and the
standard error for the estimate.
To fnd a best estimate for , consider the estimate
+
x
i for the regression
x=0
+
xi
to be best if it has
the property that the sum of the squared distances from
the sample points (x
i ,
y
ij
) to the points on the estimate of
the sample regression line (x
^
i, + x
^
i) is as small as
possible.
For this, the requirement is:
[(y
ij
[
(
-
+ x
i
2
needs to be minimized with respect to and
The values of and which minimize (
[
(y
ij
[
(
-
+
x
i
2
are called the least square estimates. The least square
estimates can found as follows:

=
n
i
x
i

n
i
x
i
)

n
i
i
)

n
i
x
i
2
-

n
i
x
i
)
2
N
N
=
[(
n
i

i
(

n
i
x
i
)]
N
where,
n
i
=the number of responses measured at x
i
N = the total number of responses taken in the experiment
In the given example, the least square estimates are found
to be:
20
=

7715.0

144900.0
)
= 0.752
625.0
=
[(
322.0 0.752 (450)]/
20
= -0.82
Therefore, the estimate of the true average rut depth
i
at a
level x
i
is:
= -0.82+0.752 x
i
24
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JULY DECEMBER 2013
It is also possible to test:
H
0
: No linear relation between percentage sand and rut depth
H
A
: There is a linear relation between percentage sand and rut
depth
by using the F statistic,
F =

8.03

=44.02 >
353.44
Fcritical , 0.05(1) 16
For assessing how good the linear regression model is for
reducing errors in predicting rut depth based on percentage
sand, the coeffcient of determination (R
2
) is used, where:
R
2
=

Total sum of squares
SSRegression
In this example,
R
2
=

491.8

=0.7186
353.44
This means that 71.86 per cent of the variation in rut depth can be
explained by the linear relationship rut depth versus percentage of
sand.
We can also conduct a Lack of Fit test, to test whether a linear
relationship between the rut depth and the percentage of sand is
reasonable to assume by interpreting the remainder of the treatment
sum of squares as sum of squares attributable to departure from a
linear relationship.
The notation SS
Lack of Fit
is used for the part of the Treatment
Sum of Squares that is attributable to deviation from a
straight line model.
Partitioning the Treatment Sum of Squares into SS
Regression
and SS
Lack of ft
the ANOVA Table can be presented as in
Table 9.
Table 9 Fur ther Par titioning of Sum of Squares
Source SS DF MS F
Treatments 363.40 3 121.13 15.09
Linear 353.44 1 353.44 44.02
Lack of Fit 9.96 2 4.98 0.62
Error 128.40 16 8.03
Total 491.80 19
To test whether the assumption of a straight line model is
reasonable or not, an F statistic test can be conducted, comparing
the MS
Lack of ft

to MSError.
In this example,
H
0
: The assumption of a straight line relationship between
average rut depth and percentage sand is reasonable
H
A
:A straight line relationship is unreasonable

F
calculated
=

MSError
MSLack of Fit
=

0.6

>
Fcritical , 0.05(1), 2, 16
Hence, H
0
cannot be rejected.
8.4 Confdence Interval
Sometimes it is good to know what is the interval within
which researchers are confdent to certain degree that the
average value of a dependent variable will lie for a specifc
value of the independent variable, that is the confdence
interval.
If x
0
denotes a given value of x, an estimate of
y
,
x
o

is

0

=

+
x
0

The standard error for y
0
is
S
^
0 =MSE(1/N + (x
^
0 x)

2/ ( n
^
i
x
^
i

2
( n
^
i x
^
i N

2/N ))
To form the (1-
a)
100% confdence interval use

0

t
a(2),v
MSE
S
0
For the given example, let us fnd a 95 per cent confdence
interval when 20 per cent sand is used. Here,

=
_
0.82+0.752x
and x
o
=20
So,
O
=
_
0.82+0.752 (20)

=14.22

20
20
8.03
1
=0.694
10750 -
450
2
(20-22.5)
2
+
) (
S
O =
t 0.05 (2) 16 = 2.1199
Hence, the 95 per cent confdence interval for
y,
x
20
is
14.22 2.1199( 0.694) 12.75<
y,
x
20

<15.69
This means that the researchers are 95 per cent confdent that
the true average rut depth is between 12.75 and 15.69 mm
when the percentage of sand is 20.
8.5 Detection of outlier
Sometimes there are bad data points resulting from poor
experimental methods or practices. These data do not follow
the trend of the other data, and deviate markedly from the
^ ^
^
rest of the observations. Such data need to be identifed and
deleted from the rest of the data before the set of data is
analyzed. There are various standard methods of detecting
outliers and different statistical methods employ different
procedures.
One simple procedure is through the use of box plots. The
method consists of the following steps:
(i) Find the lowest (LO), highest (HI), and the 25
th
, 50
th

and the 75
th
percentile data. Mark these either on a
horizontal or a vertical scale.
(ii) Draw a box so that the 25
th
and the 75
th
percentiles
represent the ends of the box. Also, draw a line
parallel to these ends at the 50th percentile.
(iii) Calculate the value C =

3
3
(x
.75-
x
.25
)
(iv) If HI

x
.75
+
C draw line from
x
.75 to HI. Otherwise
draw line from
x
.75 to
x
.75
+c
Cand mark of HI with
an asterisk (to detect outliers)
(iv) If LO

x
.25
C
draw a line from
x
.25 to LO.
Otherwise draw a line from
x
.25 to
x
.25
C
and mark
LO with an asterisk (de detect outliers)
Consider the following example. In 2004, rut depth data
(mm) were obtained from several asphalt paving projects
constructed in 1998, year as shown in Table 10. Can the
researchers identify the outliers?
Table 10 Rut Depth Data of Projects from 1998, as
Obtained in 2004
Project No. Rut depth, mm
1 2.54
2 12.7
3 1.27
4 5.08
5 5.33
6 6.35
7 7.62
8 3.81
9 2.54
10 5.59
11 4.83
12 11.43
13 2.79
14 5.08
LO =1.27; HI =12.7;
x
.25 =3.048;
x
0.5 =5.08;
x.
75 =6.159
Fig. 3 Box Plot and Outliers
With the data, Fig. 3 is drawn. It can be seen that the data
points 11.43 and 12.7 are identifed as outliers.
8.6 Deter mination of Percent Within Limits (PWL)
In many specifcations, the evaluation of a job for
acceptance or rejection is based on the Percent Within
Limits (PWL) of results for each lot of the pavement. PWL
(or percent conforming ) is defned as the percentage of
the lot falling above the lower specifcation limit (LSL),
beneath the upper specifcation limit (USL), or between the
USL and LSL. Although tests can be applied to verify it,
in general, the population of most test results is assumed
to be normally distributed, and the use of this procedure
ensures the consideration of both average and variability of
the test results for evaluation of the quality of the product.
The PWL approach is used by many states in the US for
acceptance of asphalt paving projects. The PWL concept
is based on the use of the area under a standard normal
distribution. Consider the following example.
Suppose the bitumen content of fve samples have been
determined to as shown in Table 11. The permissible range
is 5% 0.4%. Determine the Percent Within Limits (PWL).
Table 11 Bitumen Content Data
Sample No. Bitumen content
1 4.6
2 5.2
3 4.9
4 4.8
5 4.5
The steps are as follows.
(i) Determine mean value, = 4.8; standard deviation,
= 0.27
(ii) The specication limits are from 4.6 per cent to
5.4 per cent
(iii) Calculate Z statistic for upper limit:

0.27
=2.22
x -
Z= =
5.4 - 4.8
From Table 12, it can be concluded that percentage
above 5.4 is 1 - 0.5 - 0.4868 = 0.0132
(iv) Calculate theZ statistic for lower limit:

0.27
=0.74
x -
Z= =
4.6 - 4.8
From Table 12, it can be concluded that the
percentage below 4.6 is 1 - 0.5 - 0.2704 = 0.2296
(v) Hence, PWL = (1-(0.0132 + 0.2296))*100
= 75.72%
Many state highway agencies in the US have linked PWLs
to pay factors, which varies from state to state. For example,
one state determines the pay factors as given in Table 13. In
such Tables, PWLs are listed in increment of one per cent;
Table 12 lists some excerpts only from one such Table.
Table 12 Areas under the Standar d Nor mal Distr ibution
Z 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
0.0 0.000 0.0040 0.0080 0.0120 0.0160 0.0199 0.0239 0.0279 0.0319 0.0359
0.1 0.0398 0.0138 0.0478 0.0517 0.0557 0.0596 0.0636 0.0675 0.0714 0.0753
0.2 0.0793 0.0832 0.0871 0.0910 0.0948 0.0987 0.1026 0.1064 0.1103 0.0041
0.3 0.1179 0.1217 0.1255 0.1293 0.1331 0.1368 0.1406 0.1443 0.1480 0.1517
0.4 0.1554 0.1591 0.1628 0.1664 0.1700 0.1736 0.1772 0.1808 0.1844 0.1879
0.5 0.1915 0.1950 0.1986 0.2019 0.2054 0.2088 0.2123 0.2157 0.2190 0.2224
0.6 0.2257 0.2291 0.2324 0.2357 0.2389 0.2422 0.2464 0.2486 0.2517 0.2549
0.7 0.2580 0.2611 0.2642 0.2673 0.2704 0.2734 0.2764 0.2794 0.2823 0.2852
0.8 0.2881 0.2910 0.2939 0.2967 0.3925 0.3023 0.3051 0.3078 0.3106 0.3183
0.9 0.3159 0.3186 0.3212 0.3238 0.3264 0.3289 0.3315 0.3340 0.3365 0.3389
1.0 0.3413 0.3438 0.3461 .03485 0.3508 0.3531 0.3554 0.3577 0.3599 0.3621
1.1 0.3643 0.3665 0.3686 0.3708 0.3729 0.3749 0.3770 0.3790 0.3810 0.3830
1.2 0.3849 0.3969 0.3888 0.3907 0.3925 0.3944 0.3962 0.3980 0.3997 0.4015
1.3 0.4032 0.4949 0.4066 0.4082 0.4099 0.4115 0.4131 0.4147 0.4162 0.4177
1.4 0.4192 0.4207 0.4222 0.4236 0.4251 0.4265 0.4279 0.4292 0.4306 0.4319
1.5 0.4332 0.4345 0.4357 0.4370 0.4382 0.4394 0.4406 0.4418 0.4429 0.4441
1.6 0.4452 0.4463 0.4474 0.4484 0.4495 0.4505 0.4515 0.4525 0.4535 0.4545
1.7 0.4554 0.4564 0.4573 0.4582 0.4581 0.4599 0.4608 0.4616 0.4625 0.4633
1.8 0.4641 0.4649 0.4656 0.4664 0.4671 0.4678 0.4686 0.4693 0.4699 0.4706
1.9 0.4713 0.4719 0.4726 0.4732 0.4738 0.4744 0.4750 0.4756 0.4761 0.4767
2.0 0.4772 0.4778 0.4783 0.4788 0.4793 0.4798 0.4803 0.4808 0.4812 0.4817
2.1 0.4821 0.4826 0.4830 0.4834 0.4838 0.4842 0.4216 0.4850 0.4854 0.4857
2.2 0.4861 0.4864 0.4868 0.4871 0.4875 0.4878 0.4881 0.4884 0.4887 0.4890
2.3 0.4893 0.4896 0.4898 0.4901 0.4904 0.4906 0.4909 0.4911 0.4913 0.4916
2.4 0.4918 0.4920 0.4922 0.4925 0.4927 0.4929 0.4931 0.4932 0.4934 0.4936
2.5 0.4938 0.4940 0.4941 0.4943 0.4945 0.4946 0.4948 0.4949 0.4951 0.4952
2.6 0.4953 0.4955 0.4956 0.4957 0.4959 0.4960 0.4961 0.4962 0.4963 0.4964
2.7 0.4965 0.4966 0.4967 0.4968 0.4969 0.4970 0.4971 0.4972 0.4973 0.4974
2.8 0.4974 0.4975 0.4976 0.4977 0.4977 0.4978 0.4979 0.4979 0.4980 0.4981
2.9 0.4981 0.4982 0.4982 0.4983 0.4984 0.4984 0.4985 0.4985 0.4986 0.4986
3.0 0.4987 0.4987 0.4987 0.4988 0.4988 0.4989 0.4989 0.4989 0.4990 0.4980
3.1 0.4990 0.4991 0.4991 0.4991 0.4992 0.4992 0.4992 0.4992 0.4993 0.4993
3.2 0.4993 0.4993 0.4994 0.4994 0.4994 0.4994 0.4994 0.4995 0.4995 0.4995
3.3 0.4995 0.4995 0.4995 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4997
3.4 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4998
Table 13 Example of PWLs Linked to Pay Factor s
Percent Within
Limits (PWL)
Pay Factor (Percent of Bid
Pr ice)
100 100
90 95
80 78
70 60
64 50
Less than 64 Remove and replace
9 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
Many readers do not have time to read the whole Paper
including test data and analyses. They rather prefer to read
this section to get an essence of the whole Paper. Therefore,
a brief summary of the research (especially, its importance
and main objectives) consisting of a short paragraph will be
useful to such readers.
Conclusions should be in proper order and should always be
supported by reported test data. Many research projects are
not comprehensive in scope and, therefore, frm conclusions
cannot be drawn. In such cases, it should be acknowledged
that the conclusions are based on limited test data.
Recommendations may include (a) need for more research
or study and (b) how the research results can be implemented
by the highway community.
10 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is customary to acknowledge the organization which
sponsored the research reported in the Paper. Names of key
people who assisted in conduction the research should also
be acknowledged.
If brand names of some materials are used in the Paper, the
following statement can be made: The research sponsoring
organization and the authors do not endorse any proprietary
products or technologies mentioned in this Paper. These
appear herein only because they are considered essential to
the objective of this Paper.
The following statement can also be made if applicable: The
contents of this Paper/Report refect the views of the authors
who are solely responsible for the facts and the accuracy of the
data presented herein. The contents do not necessarily refect
the offcial views and policies of the research sponsoring
organization. This Report does not constitute a standard,
specifcation, or regulation.
11 REFERENCES
References can be listed in alphabetical order and quoted
in the text accordingly. References can also be listed in the
order they are quoted in the Paper. Guidelines given by the
publishers of the journal need to be followed.
References should be complete in all respects: authors
names; title of the Paper/Report; and J ournal name, volume
number and year.
If reference is made to a URL address from an internet
website, the date it was accessed by the researchers should
also be mentioned.
12 APPENDICES
There may be a need to report voluminous test data, describe
a test method in detail or include a tentative specifcation in
the Paper. Appendices are very effective for such purposes.
They reduce the size of the main body of the Paper making
it more readable. Only those readers who desire more details
can refer to the appropriate appendices.
CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO (CBR) AT DIFFERENT RELIABILITY LEVELS
AND COEFFICIENT OF VARIATIONS
Swapan Kumar Bagui*
ABSTRACT
This Paper presents the reliability analysis of California Bearing Ratio (CBR). There are several methods for reporting CBR values namely 10
th

percentile/90
th
percentile CBR Method, average CBR of same source of material and other methods. There are several factors for performance of CBR.
These are: moisture content variation, compacting effort, thickness variation, drying and wetting or freezing and thawing. It is possible to achieve
Laboratory CBR in the feld. This Paper presents the reliability analysis of the CBR value with a case study using cumulative distribution approach and
determine lower and upper limit of CBR value and expected CBR value using Monte Carlo Simulation Method. Finally, this Paper presents CBR at
different reliability levels which may be useful in fnalization of design CBR value.
1 INTRODUCTION
In India, more than10,000 km roads have been constructed
with four lanes confguration in the last ten years. Major
roads are found incapable of carrying design traffc within
few year/ before design life. Rut and fatigue failure occurred
within few years after construction of road. The causes of
failure are: Poor subgrade CBR, Poor level of subgrade
compaction, laboratory CBR and feld CBR were not
correlated during execution and inadequate quality control
of the work during execution, substandard asphalt concrete
work and asphalt uses in the mix, etc. This Paper presents
CBR with consideration of different reliability levels which
were not considered in design and develop a methodology
for determination of CBR at different reliability levels.
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
Three samples shall be tested for CBR and average values
shall be reported if variation of CBR values does not vary as
shown in Table 1 [(IRC:37-2001) and (IRC:37-2012)].
Table 1 Per missible Var iation of CBR
CBR (%) Maximum Var iation (%)
5 1
5-10 2
10-30 3
>30 5
Where variation is more as reported in Table 1, minimum six
samples shall be tested and average value shall be reported
(IRC:37-2001).
Subgrades are inherently variable in nature and refect the
changes in topography, soil type, and drainage conditions that
generally occur along an existing or proposed road alignment.
Hence the selection of a subgrade CBR value requires adequate
consideration of the degree of variability within a particular
project section, and the quantity and quality of data on subgrade
properties. The investigation methodology and the strength
(or stiffness) assessment techniques adopted to determine the
design support condition should be consistent with the required
level of performance risk for the pavement under consideration.
More comprehensive testing programs and/or conservative
design values are commonly selected when the consequences
of premature pavement distress are highly signifcant or
considered unacceptable (Austroads 2010).
There are primarily two modes of testing available for
estimating subgrade support values: feld testing and laboratory
testing. Field testing is applicable to situations where the
support values from the in situ subgrade soil conditions are
expected to be similar to those of the proposed pavement.
Laboratory testing is applicable both in that situation and
also when subgrade support is to be determined from frst
principles. Consideration should be given to the sample
density, moisture, and soaking conditions which simulate
the expected pavement support while in-service. To ensure
homogeneous sub-sections of subgrade, the CBR values
should have a coeffcient of variation (i.e. Standard deviation
divided by the mean) of 0.25 or less. The ten percentile level
(i.e. 90 per cent of results exceed this level) is commonly
adopted for the design of highway pavements. For roads in
arid climates, or roads of lesser importance, higher percentile
values may be appropriate (Vic Roads 2004 and 2005).
Presumptive CBR approach may be used when no other
relevant information is available. It is particularly useful for
lightly-traffcked roads where extensive investigations are
not warranted, and also when conducting preliminary designs
for all roads. Typical presumptive values of CBR are given
in Table 2. However, such values should only be utilized
on the basis that the information will be supplemented by
taking account of local experience (Austroads 2008).
* C-78, Shalimar Garden, Flat-F1, Sahibabad, Ghaziabad (UP) ; ( swapanbagui@gmail.com)
SWAPAN KUMAR BAGUI ON
CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO (CBR) AT DIFFERENT RELIABILITY LEVELS AND COEFFICIENT OF VARIATIONS
Table 2 Typical Presumptive Subgr ade Design
CBR Values
Soil Type Presumptive CBR (%)
Highly plastic clay 2-5
Silt 2-4
Silty Clay /Silty Clay 3-6
Sand 5-10
The design subgrade CBR must not exceed a value calculated
using the following expression:
Design CBR = C-KS
(RTA Austroads Guide supplements 2012);
where C = Mean of all CBR determinations within a single
design unit; S = Standard deviation of all CBR determinations
within a single design unit and; K = Reliability Factor
depending on climatic and drainage condition.
Percentile CBR value is used by various countries considering
reliability of CBR value.
Existing CBR at feld density has been carried out during
preparation of many Detailed Project Reports (DPR) in
India (Widening and strengthening project). It has been
found that existing CBR is on the lower side of Design CBR
adopted during preparation of DPR / construction of existing
road. This means that the laboratory reported CBR has
some reliable factors which were not taken attention during
preparation of the DPR.
3 OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE
Based on lead from past study and need of present research
work, the objective and scope are identifed as:
The object is to analyze a road project to report CBR
at different reliability levels. This needs to be analyzed
properly.
Based on this objective, the scope of the present work is the
determination of CBR taking a case study using Cumulative
Distribution Approach and Monte Carlo Simulation
Techniques for the analysis of CBR at different reliability
levels.
4 PROPOSED METHODOLOGY
The proposed methodology to determine CBR at different
reliability levels has been described as follows:
Following steps have been considered to determine CBR:
Determine average CBR same source/borrow area. 1.
Varying Standard deviation/mean (Coeffcient of 2.
variation) of CBR values as 0.05, 0.075, 0.1, 0.15
and 0.20.
Prepare Cumulative Frequency distribution graph 3.
Determine CBR at 80, 85, 90, 95, 97.5 and 99.99 4.
per cent confdence level both upper and lower side
of mean.
Calculate lower level, base level and upper level 5.
Prepare graphs, regression equations, etc. 6.
Determine expected CBR value using Monte Carlo 7.
Simulation Method.
5 CASE STUDY
Project road corridor is selected section of NH-79A, NH-79
and NH-76. Three samples were collected from each borrow
area and thirty borrow areas were considered for analysis.
Average CBR of 7, 10 and 15 per cent were found for these
borrow areas.
6 DISCUSSION
Lower and upper limit of CBR has been calculated by
Cumulative Distribution Method as shown in Fig. 1.
Analysis has been calculated using Average CBR values of
10 and has been plotted in graph and illustrated in Fig. 2
for CBR 10 per cent. It has been found that R
2
value
decreases with increasing value of coeffcient of variation.
Normal distribution graph has been plotted using data as
presented in Annexure 1. Table A1 has been developed from
Annexure 1. Values of CBR at 85 Percent confdence level
for coeffcient of variation 0.2 are found 7.92 and 12.08 per
cent as shown in Annexure 1. Similarly values of CBR at
other coeffcient of variations have been calculated and
reported in Table A1 and these data have been used to prepare
Fig. 2. From Fig. 2, it is revealed that lower and upper limit
CBR varies linearly with positive and negative slope for
upper limit and lower limit of CBR and zero slopes for base
CBR. Non-dimensional regression equations have also been
developed. The regression equations are shown in Tables 3
(CBR 10 per cent), and 4 (CBR 15 per cent) for different
confdence levels ( 80 to 99.99 per cent) and varying /
from 0.05 to 0.20. From regression equations (reported in
Tables 3 and 4), it is found that data have been correlated with
good correlation (R
2
values vary from 0.99 to 1.00). Similar
equations can be developed for other CBR values. From known
CBR, CBR at various reliability levels can be determined.
Tables 3 and 4 are very useful for constructing good road,
to determine CBR varying / (Standard Deviation / Mean
CBR) and confdence levels / reliability coeffcient, K non-
dimensional regression factor has been prepared for easily
calculating CBR at different confdence levels and coeffcient
of variations. This is shown in Tables 3 and 4. K values are
shown in Table 5. Expected CBR has been determined using
Monte Carlo Simulation Method and presented in Table 6.
Roads can be classifed as following groups:
Expressway;
National Highway;
State Highway;
Major District Road;
Ordinary District Road;
PMGSY / Rural Road;
Reliability levels and coeffcient of variations may be
recommended for Indian condition based on American and
Australian practices and presented in Table 7.
Table 3 CBR at Different Confdence Levels for Average
CBR 10 %
Cotnfdence
Level
Upper Range Lower Range Repor ted
80 10+8.4COV 10 8.44COV CBR(10.842COV)
85 10+10.4COV 10-10.4COV CBR(11.04COV)
90 10+13.08COV 10 13.1COV CBR(11.31COV)
95 10+16.37COV 10 16.44COV CBR(11.64COV)
97.5 10+19.56COV 10 19.52COV CBR(11.954COV)
99.99 10+37.04COV 10 37.48 COV CBR(13.73COV)
Table 4 CBR at Different Confdence Levels for Average
CBR 15 %
Confidence
Level
Upper Range Lower Range Reported
80 1.5(10+8.4COV) 1.5(10 8.44COV) CBR(10.842COV)
85 1.5(10+10.4COV) 1.5(10-10.4COV) CBR(11.04COV)
90 1.5(10+13.08COV) 1.5(10 13.1COV) CBR(11.31COV)
95 1.5(10+16.37COV) 1.5(10 16.44COV) CBR(11.64COV)
97.5 1.5(10+19.56COV) 1.5(10 19.52COV) CBR(11.954COV)
99.99 1.5(10+37.04COV) 1.5(10 37.48 COV) CBR(13.73COV)
Table 5 Deter mination of K Factor for Determining
CBR at Different Reliability Levels
Confdence
Level (%)
Coeffcient of Variation
0.050 0.100 0.150 0.200
80 0.958 0.916 0.874 0.832
85 0.948 0.896 0.844 0.792
90 0.935 0.869 0.804 0.738
95 0.918 0.836 0.754 0.672
97.5 0.903 0.805 0.708 0.610
99.99 0.814 0.627 0.441 0.254
Table 6 Expected CBR at 95 % Confdence Level for
/=0.1
Assumed Er ror (%) Actual Er ror (%) Expected CBR for
Base CBR 10
2 1.33 9.94
5 3.86 9.86
7.5 5.33 9.84
10 7.31 9.82
Fig. 2 CBR with Varying Standard Deviation / Mean Ratio
at 85 % Confdence Level for CBR 10
Fig.1 Cumulative Probability of Average CBR 10
Coeffcient of
Var iation
Lower Level
CBR
Upper Level
CBR
Base CBR
0 10 10 10
0.05 9.48 10.52 10
0.1 8.96 11.04 10
0.15 8.46 11.52 10
0.2 7.92 12.08 10
Table A1 CBR at 85 per cent Confdence Levels
Table 7 Proposed Confdence Level and Coeffcient of
Var iation
Road Classifcation
Confdence Level
for CBR
Maximum Coef-
fcient of Variation
Expressway 97.5-99.99 0.05
National Highway/
State Highway
95.0-97.5 0.10
Ordinary District
Road/Major District
Road
85-90 0.15
PMGSY/Rural Road 80-85 0.20
7 CONCLUSIONS
Based on present research work, following conclusions may
be drawn:
CBR at reliability level should be an important criterion
for the evaluation. Cumulative distribution method may
be used to determine CBR at different reliability levels.
Lower and upper limit of CBR at different reliability levels
are to be determined using proposed method. Regression
equation may be developed for different confdence limits
varying standard deviation / mean ratio to determine CBR
at various reliability levels.
Expected CBR may be determined using Monte Carlo
Simulation Method. Following equations developed in this
present studies may be used directly to determine CBR at
different reliability levels from known base CBR value of a
project at various values of /:
CBR at Reliability 1.
99.99
=Base CBR(1-3.73 /)
(99.99 % confdence level)
97.5
=Base CBR(1-1.95 /)
(97.5% confdence level
95
=Base CBR (1-1.64 /)
(95% confdence level)
90
=Base CBR(1-1.31 /)
85
=Base CBR(1-1.04 /)
80
=Base CBR(1-0.84 /)
For other confdence levels, similar equations may be 7.
developed.
Expected CBR value can be obtained using Monte 8.
Carlo Simulation Technique considering upper, lower
and base CBR.
The proposed method may be useful for the 9.
Government /Consultants to determine expected
CBR at various reliability levels.
REFERENCES
IRC:37-2001, 2012. Guideline for Flexible Pavement Design," 1.
Government of India
Austroads 2010, "Guide to Pavement Technology: Part 2: Pavement 2.
Structural Design", AGPT02-12, Austroads, Sydney, NSW.
Austroads 2008, "Guide to Pavement Technology: Part 2: Pavement 3.
Structural Design", AGPT02-12, Austroads, Sydney, NSW.
National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) "Six Lane of 4.
Krishanganj Upiapur Schiemset NH8, 76, 79A and 79 Project",
Government in India
Road Traffc Authority, RTA (2012), "Austroads Guide 5.
Supplements 2012",
VicRoads 2004, "Assignment of CBR (Strength) and Percent Swell 6.
to Earthworks Fill and Pavement Materials", Code of Practice RC/
MTD 500.20, VicRoads, Kew, Vic.
VicRoads 2005, "Code of Practice for Selection and Design of 7.
Pavements and Surfacing", Code of Practice, RC/MTD 500.22,
VicRoads, Kew, Vic.
79
Z X F(X) F(X) F(X) 1-
-4 2 6.69E-05 3.17E-05 0.999968
-3.92 2.16 9.19E-05 4.43E-05 0.999956
-3.84 2.32 0.000125 6.15E-05 0.999938
-3.76 2.48 0.00017 8.5E-05 0.999915
-3.68 2.64 0.000229 0.000117 0.999883
-3.6 2.8 0.000306 0.000159 0.999841
-3.52 2.96 0.000407 0.000216 0.999784
-3.44 3.12 0.000537 0.000291 0.999709
-3.36 3.28 0.000705 0.00039 0.999610
-3.28 3.44 0.00092 0.000519 0.999481
-3.2 3.6 0.001192 0.000687 0.999313
-3.12 3.76 0.001535 0.000904 0.999096
-3.04 3.92 0.001964 0.001183 0.998817
-2.96 4.08 0.002496 0.001538 0.998462
-2.88 4.24 0.003153 0.001988 0.998012
-2.8 4.4 0.003958 0.002555 0.997445
-2.72 4.56 0.004936 0.003264 0.996736
-2.64 4.72 0.006116 0.004145 0.995855
-2.56 4.88 0.00753 0.005234 0.994766
-2.48 5.04 0.009212 0.006569 0.993431
-2.4 5.2 0.011197 0.008198 0.991802
-2.32 5.36 0.013524 0.01017 0.98983
-2.24 5.52 0.01623 0.012545 0.987455
-2.16 5.68 0.019353 0.015386 0.984614
-2.08 5.84 0.022931 0.018763 0.981237
-2 6 0.026995 0.02275 0.97725
Z X F(X) F(X) F(X) 1-
-1.92 6.16 0.031578 0.027429 0.972571
-1.84 6.32 0.036703 0.032884 0.967116
-1.76 6.48 0.042388 0.039204 0.960796
-1.68 6.64 0.048641 0.046479 0.953521
-1.6 6.8 0.05546 0.054799 0.945201
-1.52 6.96 0.062832 0.064255 0.935745
-1.44 7.12 0.07073 0.074934 0.925066
-1.36 7.28 0.079112 0.086915 0.913085
-1.28 7.44 0.087924 0.100273 0.899727
-1.2 7.6 0.097093 0.11507 0.88493
-1.12 7.76 0.106535 0.131357 0.868643
-1.04 7.92 0.116149 0.14917 0.85083
-0.96 8.08 0.125822 0.168528 0.831472
-0.88 8.24 0.135432 0.18943 0.81057
-0.8 8.4 0.144846 0.211855 0.788145
-0.72 8.56 0.153926 0.235762 0.764238
-0.64 8.72 0.162531 0.261086 0.738914
-0.56 8.88 0.170523 0.28774 0.71226
-0.48 9.04 0.177766 0.315614 0.684386
-0.4 9.2 0.184135 0.344578 0.655422
-0.32 9.36 0.189515 0.374484 0.625516
-0.24 9.52 0.193808 0.405165 0.594835
-0.16 9.68 0.196934 0.436441 0.563559
-0.08 9.84 0.198834 0.468119 0.531881
2.47E-15 10 0.199471 0.5 0.5
0.08 10.16 0.198834 0.531881 0.468119
0.16 10.32 0.196934 0.563559 0.436441
0.24 10.48 0.193808 0.594835 0.405165
0.32 10.64 0.189515 0.625516 0.374484
0.4 10.8 0.184135 0.655422 0.344578
0.48 10.96 0.177766 0.684386 0.315614
0.56 11.12 0.170523 0.71226 0.28774
0.64 11.28 0.162531 0.738914 0.261086
0.72 11.44 0.153926 0.764238 0.235762
0.8 11.6 0.144846 0.788145 0.211855
0.88 11.76 0.135432 0.81057 0.18943
0.96 11.92 0.125822 0.831472 0.168528
1.04 12.08 0.116149 0.85083 0.14917
1.12 12.24 0.106535 0.868643 0.131357
1.2 12.4 0.097093 0.88493 0.11507
Z X F(X) F(X) F(X) 1-
1.28 12.56 0.087924 0.899727 0.100273
1.36 12.72 0.079112 0.913085 0.086915
1.44 12.88 0.07073 0.925066 0.074934
1.52 13.04 0.062832 0.935745 0.064255
1.6 13.2 0.05546 0.945201 0.054799
1.68 13.36 0.048641 0.953521 0.046479
1.76 13.52 0.042388 0.960796 0.039204
1.84 13.68 0.036703 0.967116 0.032884
1.92 13.84 0.031578 0.972571 0.027429
2 14 0.026995 0.97725 0.02275
2.08 14.16 0.022931 0.981237 0.018763
2.16 14.32 0.019353 0.984614 0.015386
2.24 14.48 0.01623 0.987455 0.012545
2.32 14.64 0.013524 0.98983 0.01017
2.4 14.8 0.011197 0.991802 0.008198
2.48 14.96 0.009212 0.993431 0.006569
2.56 15.12 0.00753 0.994766 0.005234
2.64 15.28 0.006116 0.995855 0.004145
2.72 15.44 0.004936 0.996736 0.003264
2.8 15.6 0.003958 0.997445 0.002555
2.88 15.76 0.003153 0.998012 0.001988
2.96 15.92 0.002496 0.998462 0.001538
3.04 16.08 0.001964 0.998817 0.001183
3.12 16.24 0.001535 0.999096 0.000904
3.2 16.4 0.001192 0.999313 0.000687
3.28 16.56 0.00092 0.999481 0.000519
3.36 16.72 0.000705 0.99961 0.00039
3.44 16.88 0.000537 0.999709 0.000291
3.52 17.04 0.000407 0.999784 0.000216
3.6 17.2 0.000306 0.999841 0.000159
3.68 17.36 0.000229 0.999883 0.000117
3.76 17.52 0.00017 0.999915 8.5E-05
3.84 17.68 0.000125 0.999938 6.15E-05
3.92 17.84 9.19E-05 0.999956 4.43E-05
4 18 6.69E-05 0.999968 3.17E-05
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JULY DECEMBER 2013 35 35
CHARACTERIZATION OF JAROFIX WASTE MATERIAL FOR THE
CONSTRUCTION OF ROAD
A.K. SINHA*, V.G. HAVANAGI*, V. K. ARORA**, A. RANJAN* & S. MATHUR *
ABSTRACT
J arosite is a waste material produced during extraction of zinc ore concentrate by hydrometallurgy operation. When it is mixed with 2 per cent lime and
10 per cent cement by weight, the resulting stable material is called Jarofx. The annual production of Jarofx material is about 5 lacs metric tons from
Hindustan Zinc Ltd., Chittorgarh, Rajasthan state, India. The unutilized accumulated material is about 15 lacs metric tons. The material was collected
from the disposal area and laboratory investigations were carried out to study its feasibility for use in the construction of embankment and sub grade
layers of road pavement. Apart from studying the material individually, it was also mixed with local soil and bottom ash in the range of 25-75 per cent
and their geotechnical characteristics were evaluated. This Paper presents the results of physical, chemical and geotechnical characteristics of Jarofx,
Jarofx-soil and Jarofx-bottom ash mixes. Technical specifcations have been developed for the utilization of Jarofx material in the construction of
embankment and sub grade layers of road pavement with or without mechanical stabilization with bottom ash/soil.Stability analysis of embankment
is also presented along with a typical design cross section of pavement. From the X-ray diffraction, it was concluded that jarofx mainly contents
compound of Plumbojarosite, Calcite, Hematite and Zinc oxide. It is observed as polycrystalline, multi phase in nature and having non uniform shape
and size of particles.It was also concluded that Jarofx (100 per cent), Jarofx-soil mixes (50-75 per cent) and Jarofx- bottom ash mixes (50-75%) have
the potential for the construction of road embankment while the Jarofx-soil and Jarofx-bottom ash mixes (50-75 per cent) may be used for construction
of sub grade layer of road pavement.
* Scientists, GTE Division, Central Road Research Institute, Delhi-Mathura Road, New Delhi, India
** Professor, National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra, India.
Email sinha.crri@nic.in, vasant.crri@nic.in, arora_vk1@rediffmail.cm, ranjan.crri@nic.in, sudhirmathur.crri@nic.in
1 INTRODUCTION
Large quantities of industrial waste by-products are
produced in India by different type of industries viz. J arosite,
Jarofx, Tin slag, Copper slag, Zinc slag, Red mud, Steel
slag and Coal ash, etc. For many years these materials were
considered as waste and were dumped haphazardly near the
producing plants. Efforts are being carried out by research
studies to utilize these materials in embankment, sub base
and base layers of road construction. J arosite material
is produced during extraction of zinc ore concentrate by
hydrometallurgy operation. When zinc ore concentrate
is roasted at 900
0
C and subjected to leaching, J arosite is
formed as a waste material. The Jarosite material is mixed
with 2 per cent lime and 10 per cent cement and transported
to the disposal area as a Jarofx material. Chen and Dutrizac
(2000) stabilized Jarosite material with Portland cement for
safe disposal. Seyer et al. (2001) studied the mineralogical
behavior of Jarosite material mixed with lime and Portland
cement. The resulting mix was observed to be more stable
material as compared to J arosite. Vsevolod et al. (2005) has
advocated the potential application of J arosite mixed with
small percentage of cement or lime to increase its strength
for different applications viz. road sub-base and base layers,
air feld pavement, dams, replacement of natural crushed
stones/gravel/sand for the production of tiles, bricks, etc.
Pappu et al. (2000) concluded from their studies that Jarosite
has suitable geotechnical properties and has potential for use
in building materials. Figueiredo and Silva (2011) advocated
that Jarosite acts as an effcient remover and immobilizer
of lead metal. Sinha et al. (2011) studied the geotechnical
feasibility of Jarofx in the construction of road.
Presently, the utilization of dumped Jarofx is much more
crucial and concern in India due to large amounts of Jarofx
produced without having any application. At present, the
accumulated Jarofx is about 15 lacs metric tons while the
annual production is about 5 lacs metric tons (CRRI report,
2010). The material is occupying costly agricultural land
and has become environmental hazard. Fig. 1 shows the
close pictorial view of the typical Jarofx mound stabilized
with or without vetiever grass disposed near the plant area at
Hindustan Zinc Ltd., Chittorgarh, Rajasthan, India. Limited
literature is available regarding the utility of Jarofx material
for different civil engineering applications. So, to study
the potential of Jarofx as an embankment and sub grade
material, detailed investigations were carried out in the
laboratory. To improve its strength property, it was mixed
SINHA,

HAVANAGI,

ARORA, RANJAN & MATHUR ON
CHARACTERIZATION OF JAROFIX WASTE MATERIAL FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROAD
with soil and bottom ash in the range of 25-75 per cent and
their geotechnical characteristics were evaluated.
The Paper presents the result of physical, chemical and
geotechnical characteristics of Jarofx material, technical
specifcations for the utilization of Jarofx, Jarofx-soil-
bottom mixes for the construction of embankment and sub
grade layers of road pavement.
2 MATERIAL
Different materials were collected for the research study is
Jarofx, bottom ash and local soil. Jarofx waste material was
collected from the dump yard near the plant area. The material
is observed to be fne grained, light weight and resembles
Fig. 1 View of Jarofx Mound and Stabilized Slope with Vetiever Grass
conventional soil. Bottom ash was collected from a nearby
captive thermal power plant. The material is observed to be
grey in color, light weight and similar to coarse sand. Local
soil was collected from the proposed site where the Jarofx
would be used for construction of road embankment and
subgrade. It is observed to be a coarse grained material.
3 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL
CHARACTERIZATION OF JAROFIX
Physical and chemical characteristics of Jarofx samples were
carried out as per standard procedures. Jarofx is brownish
yellow in color and having fne size particles.
3.1 Specifc Gravity, Ph, Loss on Ignition and Natural
Moisture Content Test
Specifc gravity, pH, loss on ignition and natural moisture
contenttest were carried out and results are reported in the
Table 1.
Table 1 Physical characteristic of Jarofx and bottom ash
Physical Properties Jarofx Bottom ash
Specifc gravity 2.4 2.3
pH 9.08 --
Loss on ignition, % 7.94 11.8
Natural Moisture content, % 37 DRY
3.2 X- ray Diffraction Test
To know the contents, phase and crystallinity of Jarofx,
X-Ray diffraction test was carried out. As Jarofx is in fne
powdered form, sample of raw Jarofx was loaded in the
perspex holder, which is specially designed for the XRD
measurement. The Powder X-ray diffraction pattern was
recorded by using Bruker D-8 advance X-ray diffractometer
with the scan speed of 0.2 s, Power of 40 kV and 35 mA
as shown in the Fig. 2. Phase identifcation was carried out
by diffraction pattern with comparing data base of Powder
Diffraction File (PDF). From the Powder Diffraction File,
it was observed that Jarofx contents mainly compound of
Plumbojarosite [Pb(Al
3
(OH)
6
(SO
4
)
2
)
2
], Calcite[Ca(CO
3
)],
Hematite [Fe
2
O
3
] and Zinc oxide [ZnO
2
]. From the diffraction
pattern, it was observed that the sample is polycrystalline in
nature and multi phase mixture. The maximum intensity of
peak was observed to be 500 (Lin, Counts). (The diffraction
is working in the principle of Braggs law (2 dsin=n).
SINHA,

HAVANAGI,

Where, d is the interplanar atomic spacing between the atoms
of crystal, is diffraction angle, n is the order of diffraction,
and is the wavelength.)
Fig. 2 XRD Pattern of Jarofx Waste
3.2 Chemical characterization
Chemical analysis was carried out of Jarofx waste materials.
Result of chemical analysis is given in Table 2. It was
observed that Jarofx has mainly iron oxide content of 25
per cent and SO
3
content of 31 per cent. Fig. 3 shows the
EDS spectrum of Jarofx waste material. This is also evident
by X- Diffraction test.
Table 2 Chemical composition of Jarofx by EDS test.
Fig. 3 EDS Spectrum of Jarofx
3.4 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
To know the morphology and surface texture of Jaofx
particles, SEM test was carried out. The scanning electron
microscopy with feld emission dispersive spectrometer
(EDS) was employed to provide detailed imaging information
about the morphology and surface texture of individual
particles of the Jarofx samples. It is evident from the
results that the Jarofx is non-uniform in structure and shape
(Pappu, 2000). Figs. 4 & 5 show the general morphology of
the particles by SEM spectrum of Jarofx.
Fig.4 SEM Photograph of Jarofx at Mag = 10 KX
Fig. 5 SEM Photograph of Jarofx at Mag = 20 KX
Element Weight Atomic Compound Formula
(%) (%) (%)
C K 4.08 8.33 14.96 CO
2
NaK 2.64 2.82 3.56 Na
2
O
AI K 1.02 0.93 1.93 AI
2
O
3
SI K 2.44 2.13 5.22 SIO
2
S K 10.06 7.69 25.11 SO3
Ca K 2.65 1.62 3.70 CaO
Mn K 1.12 0.50 1.44 MnO
Fe K 25.38 11.14 32.66 FeO
Zn K 4.80 1.80 5.98 ZnO
Pb M 5. 04 0.60 5.43 PbO
O 40.76 62.45
SINHA,

HAVANAGI,

4 GEOTECHNICAL CHARACTERIZATION
OF JAROFIX, BOTTOM ASH AND SOIL
To study the geotechnical characteristics of Jarofx,
bottom ash and local soil, different laboratory experiments
were carried out which include: (a) Grain size analysis
(b) Atterberg limit tests (c) Free swelling index test
(d) Specifc gravity test (e) Proctor compaction test (f)
California Bearing Ratio test (g) Unconfned compressive
strength test (h) Direct shear test, and (i) Consolidation
test. The results have been discussed in sections 4.1
to 4.9.
4.1 Grain Size Analysis
Jarofx is a fne grained material with 75 per cent of its
particles passing the 75 micron sieve. Jarofx contents 5
Per cent gravel, 20 per cent sand, 60 per cent silt and
15 per cent clay. Bottom ash is observed to be a coarse
grained material with 70 Per cent of its particles retained
on 75 micron sieve. Bottom ash 70 per cent sand and
30 per cent silt. Bottom ash is observed to be a coarse
grained material with 70 per cent of its particles retained
on 75 micron sieve. Local soil is a coarse grained material
with 52 per cent of its particles retained on 75 micron
sieve. Soil contents 8 per cent gravel, 44 per cent sand,
33 per cent silt and 15 Per cent clay. Results indicate that
both bottom ash and soil are poorly graded materials as
both sand size materials do not meet the specifcations
viz. coeffcient of uniformity, Cu> 6 and coeffcient of
curvature, Cc = 1 to 3.
4.2 Atterberg Limit Test
The plasticity characteristics of Jarofx, bottom ash and
soil were determined as per IS: 2720 (Part5) (1985). The
Liquid Limit (LL) and Plastic Limit (PL) of the Jarofx was
determined as 59 Per cent and 43 Per cent respectively.
The plasticity index of the Jarofxis calculated as 16
Per cent. According to Indian Standard classifcation
(IS 1498, 1970), Jarofx is classifed as MH i.e. inorganic
silts of high compressibility. Bottom ash is observed to
be non-plastic in nature and classifed as SP i.e. poorly
graded sand. The Liquid Limit and Plastic Limit of the
local soil are determined as 34 per cent and 16 per cent
respectively. The plasticity index of the soil is calculated
as 18 per cent and classifed as SC i.e. sand with clay
content.
4.3 Free Swelling Index Test
To check the possible swelling characteristics of Jarofx
and soil, Free Swelling Index (FSI) test was carried out as
per IS 2720 (part 40,1977). The average values of FSI are
determined as 10, 0 and 7, respectively for Jarofx, bottom
ash and soil. It is concluded that all materials exhibit non-
swelling behaviour.
4.4 Specifc Gravity Test (G)
Specifc gravity test was carried out as per IS 2720 (part 3,
1980). The values of specifc gravity were obtained as 2.40,
2.3 and 2.67 for Jarofx, bottom ash and soil, respectively.
Jarofx and bottom ash have low specifc gravity as compared
to soil.
4.5 Proctor Compaction Test
Modifed Proctor compaction test was carried out as per IS
2720 (part 8, 1980). Compaction curves for Jarofx, bottom
ash and soil were shown in Fig. 6. The Maximum Dry
Density (MDD) and Optimum Moisture Content (OMC)
are observed to be16 kN/m
3
and 22%, 12 kN/m
3
and 30 per
centage, 20 kN/m
3
and 9 percentage respectively for Jarofx,
bottom ash and soil. It is observed that MDD (16 kN/m
3
) of
Jarofx material is slightly lower than conventional soil. This
may be due to low specifc gravity of Jarofx as compared
to soil. The compaction curves are in general fat for Jarofx
and bottom ash materials indicating in-sensitiveness of dry
density with moisture content.
Fig. 6 Proctor Compaction Curves for Jarofx, Bottom Ash and Soil
SINHA,

HAVANAGI,

4.6 California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test
California Bearing Ratio Test was carried out as per IS
2720 (Part 16, 1979) for Jarofx, bottom ash and soil. Three
specimens for each material were prepared at 97 per cent of
MDD and OMC in the CBR moulds. The specimens were
then soaked for 4 days in potable water before testing. The
specimens are then sheared at the rate of 1.25 mm/min.
The average values of CBR of Jarofx, bottom ash and soil
are determined as 6 per cent, 22 per cent and 12 per cent
respectively. Low CBR value of Jarofx material is may
be due to low dry density and its susceptibility to lose its
strength under saturated conditions.
4.7 Unconfned Compressive Strength Test
Unconfned Compressive Strength Test was carried out as per
IS 2720 (part 10, 1973) for Jarofx and soil. Three specimens
of size 50x100 mm were prepared at 97 per cent of MDD
and OMC. The specimens were sheared at the rate of 1.25
mm/min. The average maximum unconfned compressive
strength and strain at failure is obtained as 677kN/m
2
and
2.2 per cent respectively for Jarofx.The average maximum
unconfned compressive strength and strain at failure for soil
is obtained 828 kN/m
2
and 4.0 per cent respectively. This
test was not carried out for bottom ash as it has no strength
in unconfned state.
4.8 Direct Shear Test
Direct Shear Test was carried out on Jarofx, bottom ash and
soil samples as per IS 2720 (Part 39, 1977). The materials
were oven dried and passed through 4.75 mm sieve. Three
specimens of size 60 x 60 x 25 mm were prepared at
97 per cent of MDD and OMC. The specimens were saturated
and sheared at the rate of 1.25 mm/min. The cohesion (c)
and angle of internal friction () are obtained as 14 kN/m
2

and 22
0
for Jarofx, 0 kN/m
2
and 32
0
for bottom ash and 6 kN/
m
2
and 30
0
for soil respectively. The results indicate that
Jarofx and soil are c- soil and has good shear strength
while bottom ash is frictional soil.
4.9 Consolidation Test
Consolidation test was carried out as per IS 2720 (Part
10, 1973) on samples of Jarofx, bottom ash and soil. The
value of coeffcient of consolidation C
v
is obtained as
5.5610
-9
m
2
/s for Jarofx and 11.310
-9
m
2
/s for bottom
ash, respectively. The value of Compression index (C
i
) is
obtained as 0.06 for Jarofx, 0.04 for bottom ashand 0.05 for
soil respectively. The value of C
i
of Jarofx indicates that it is
low compressibility material.
5 GEOTECHNICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
JAROFIX, BOTTOM ASH, SOIL AND THEIR
MIXTURES
Jarofx is comparatively light weight material. It is mixed
with bottom ash and soil in the proportion 25 to 75 per
cent to study the possible improvement in its geotechnical
properties. Important geotechnical characteristics namely;
plasticity, compaction, CBR, unconfned compressive
strength and shear strength were investigated for all the
mixes. Different laboratory tests that were conducted on
various mixes have been discussed below.
Plasticity characteristics of different mixes were determined
by carrying out liquid limit and plastic limit tests. Jarofx
and bottom ash mixes were observed to be non plastic in
nature. Jarofx and soil mixes have liquid limit in the range
of 35 to 47 per cent, and plasticity index in the range of
17 to 18 per cent. The values indicate that the mixes are
low plastic in nature and have the potential for construction
of embankment and sub grade. As per Ministry of Road
Transport and Highways Specifcations for Road and Bridge
Works (MORTH, 2001), the liquid limit and plasticity
index values should be less than 70 per cent and 45
per cent respectively for use in embankment and sub grade
applications.
Proctor compaction tests were carried out on Jarofx-
bottom ash-soil mixes. The MDD and OMC of different
mixes along with other geotechnical characteristics have
been summarized in Table 4. It is observed that maximum
dry density of Jarofx-soil mixes decreases with the
corresponding increase in OMC with the increase in Jarofx
content while the variation is vice versa in the case of Jarofx-
bottom ash mixes. The variation of OMC and MDD for both
Jarofx-bottom ash and Jarofx-soil mixes are signifcant
when the Jarofx content in the mix is ranging from 25 to 75
per cent. The increase or decrease of MDD and OMC is not
predominant beyond 75 per cent for the Jarofx content.
SINHA,

HAVANAGI,

5.3 California Bearing Ratio Test
California Bearing Ratio test was conducted as per Indian
Standard on different Jarofx-bottom ash-soil mixes. The
preparation of samples and testing procedure are similar
to that explained in the section in 4.6. It is observed that
CBR increases with Jarofx content for the Jarofx-bottom
ash mixes while it decreases for Jarofx-soil mixes. It is
observed that the increase or decrease is predominant upto
only 75 per cent Jarofx content. The increase or decrease of
CBR with Jarofx content for Jarofx-soil-bottom ash mixes
corresponds to increase or decrease of MDD with Jarofx
content.
6 DESIGN SPECIFICATION OF JAROFIX
(EMBANKMENT AND SUB GRADE)
Based on the results of geotechnical characteristics evaluated
in the laboratory, technical specifcations of Jarofx and
Jarofx-bottom ash-soil mixes for embankment and sub
grade construction has been developed as below.
6.1 Embankment
Jarofx material exhibits low plastic and swelling
characteristics (PI = 16 Per cent, FSI=10 per cent),
this indicates that low settlement is expected when
used for embankment construction. Jarofx waste
material has both cohesion (c= 14 kN/m
2)
and angle
of internal friction ( = 22
0
) indicate good shear
strength characteristics.
Jarofx-bottom ash mixes are non-plastic in nature
and having good shear strength characteristics. This
is indicated by the value of cohesion (0 6 kN/m
2
)
and angle of internal friction (28 - 31
0
). The values
indicate that these mixes have the potential for use in
the embankment construction.
Jarofx-soil mixes also exhibited low plastic
(PI=18 per cent) and good dry density characteristics
(17-20 kN/m
3
). These mixes are also observed to be
c- soil which would improve the stability when
used in the embankment construction.
6.2 Sub Grade
Jarofx waste material exhibits low dry density and
CBR characteristics. The material may deform under
high wheel load stresses, when used as subgrade
material. Also, low CBR of subgrade, under
prevailing traffc intensity, results in high pavement
thickness, which may not be economically feasible
Table 4 Geotechnical Characteristics of Jarofx, Bottom Ash, Soil and Their Mixes
Type
of
mix
MDD
(KN/M
3
)
OMC
(%)
LL
(%)
PL
(%)
PI
(%)
CBR
(%)
UCS
(KN/
2
)
C
(kN/m
2
)

(Degrees)
J 16.0 22 59 43 16 6 677 14 22
BA 12 30 NA NA NP 22 NA 0 32
J1BA 13 26 NA NA NP 20 NA 0 30
J2BA 14 25 NA NA NP 15 NA 6 28
J3BA 16 24 NA NA NP 7 420 10 24
S 20 9 34 16 18 12 828 6 30
J1S 20 9 35 17 18 11 805 8 27
J2S 17.6 15 39 21 18 9 763 10 24
J3S 16 20 47 30 17 7 689 12 22
NP Non plastic, NA Not applicable
*J 100 % Jarofx, S 100 % soil, J1S- 25 Jarofx + 75 % soil, J2S- 50 Jarofx + 50 % soil , J3S- 75 Jarofx +
25 % soil, BA 100 % bottom ash, J1BA- 25 Jarofx + 75 % bottom ash, J2BA- 50 Jarofx + 50 % bottom ash,
J3BA- 75 Jarofx + 25 % bottom ash
SINHA,

HAVANAGI,

for subgrade construction. Hence, the material is not
recommended for use in sub grade construction.
Jarofx-soil mixes and Jarofx-bottom mixes exhibited
good CBR characteristics indicating improved
modulus values as compared to Jarofx. The material
can withstand high wheel load stresses when used as
a sub grade material.
7 STABILITY AND SETTLEMENT ANALYSIS
OF EMBANKMENT
Design of different embankment cross sections of height
(5 m) were carried out using different embankment fll
materials viz. Jarofx, Jarofx-bottom ash (50:50) and Jarofx-
soil mixes (50:50). The values of geotechnical parameters of
embankment fll materials and sub-soil which were used in
the stability analysis are given in Table 5. Stability analysis
was carried out with different embankment fll materials
under different saturation conditions. The surcharge weight
on the embankment is considered 24 kN/m
2
(dead load of
pavement crust + traffc load). The horizontal and vertical
acceleration factors due to earthquake were considered in
the design as 0.05 and 0.025; respectively (IRC 6 : 2000).
The results of stability analysis are given in Table 6.
Table 5 Parameters of Embankment Fills and Subsoil
Materials
S.NO. Parameters Embankment Subsoil
Jarofx
Jarofx:
bottom ash
Jarofx:
soil
1. Dry density, kN/m
3
16 14 17.6 20
2. Cohesion, kN/m
2
14 6 10 6
3.
Angle of internal
friction, degree
22 28 24 30
4.
Height of embank-
ment, m
5
5.
Slope of embank-
ment
1V:2H
6. Surcharge, kN/m
2
24
Table 6 Results of stability analysis
S.NO Condition Jarofx
Jarofx:
bottom ash
Jarofx:
soil
1 Partial saturation 1.75 1.61 1.61
2. Fully saturation 1.94 1.69 1.74
3 Sudden draw down 1.31 1.16 1.25
Factor of safety was determined of Jarofx embankment of
varying heights from 1 m to 10 m and side slope varying
from 1V:1H to 1V:3H. Graph is plotted between heights
of embankment versus factor of safety for different slope
angle under partially saturated condition with or without
earthquake factor as shown in the Fig. 7. It was observed
that factor of safety decreases as the height of embankment
increases. Similarly, factor of safety decreases as side slope
angle is increases from 1:3H to 1:1H.
H
e
i
g
h
t

o
f

e
m
b
a
n
k
m
e
n
t
m
H
e
i
g
h
t

o
f

e
m
b
a
n
k
m
e
n
t
m
Fig.7 Height of Embankment ~ Factor of Safety (Partially Saturated)
1:V :1H
1:V :1.5H
1:V :2H.
1:V :2.5H
+ 1:V :3H
1:V :1H
1:V :1.5H
1:V :2H.
1:V :2.5H
+ 1:V :3H
Factor of safety Without seismic factor
Factor of safety With seismic factor
Determination of ultimate settlement was carried out using
equation 1 for 5 m high embankment constructed using
Jarofx, Jarofx-bottom ash and Jarofx-soil under surcharge
loading of 24 kN/m
2
due to pavement layers and traffc.

eqn. 1
SINHA,

HAVANAGI,

The maximum ultimate settlement of embankment is
expected 5.3 cm using Jarofx material. The settlement
reduces as the percentage of Jarofx content in the both
mixes is decreases.
8 DESIGN OF PAVEMENT CRUST THICKNESS
The two lane State Highway from Chittorgarh to Udaipur,
Rajasthan, India is being widened to four lanes. Jarofx/
Jarofx-soil/Jarofx-bottom ash mixes are used as an
embankment and sub grade materials for the construction
of 500 m length of experimental test track. The cumulative
traffc on the existing road was estimated as 61 msa (million
standard axles). The design of pavement layers was carried
out (IRC 37: 2001) considering the CBR value of 9 per cent
for the Jarofx-soil (50:50) mix as a sub grade material. A
typical pavement cross section is shown in Fig. 8
Fig.8 Typical Pavement Cross Section for Use of Jarofx
Soil mix as a Sub Grade Material
where, BC- Bituminous concrete ; DBM- Dense Bituminous
Macadam ; WMM- Wet Mix Macadam
9 CONCLUSIONS
Different materials viz. Jarofx, bottom ash, local soil,
Jarofx-bottom ash mixes (25-75 per cent) and Jarofx-soil
mixes (25-75 per cent) were evaluated for their chemical and
geotechnical characteristics. Different laboratory tests were
carried out includes: Grain size analysis, Atterberg limit test,
Proctor compaction test, CBR test, UCS test, Consolidation
test and Direct shear test. Stability analysis of embankment
is carried out considering the different saturation, surcharge
and earthquake conditions. Design of pavement crust was
also carried out when Jarofx-soil mix was used as a sub
grade material. Brief conclusions have been summarized
below:
i. It was observed that the sample is polycrystalline in
nature and multi phase mixture. It was also observed
that it has mainly iron oxide content of 25 per cent and
SO
3
content of 31 per cent. It was evident from the
results that it is non-uniform in structure and shape.
ii. Jarofx is fne grained material. Bottom ash and
soil are poorly graded coarse grained materials.
Jarofx, bottom ash and soil exhibited non-swelling
behaviour.
iii. Jarofx and bottom ash have low specifc gravity
as compared to soil. The compaction curves are in
general fat for both of these materials indicating in-
sensitiveness of dry density with moisture content.
iv. Low CBR value of Jarofx material is due to low
dry density and its susceptibility to decrease in its
strength under saturated conditions.
v. Jarofx material exhibited both cohesion and
frictional behavior indicating good shear strength
characteristics.
vi. The low values of compression index for both
Jarofx (0.06) and bottom ash (0.04) indicated low
compressible nature and low expected settlements
when used as embankment material.
vii The variation of OMC and MDD for both Jarofx-
bottom ash and Jarofx-soil mixes are signifcant
when the Jarofx content in the mix is in the range
from 25 to 75 per cent. The increase or decrease
of MDD and OMC is not predominant beyond
75 per cent for the Jarofx content.
viii. It was observed that CBR increases with Jarofx
content for the Jarofx-bottom ash mixes while it
decreases for Jarofx-soil mixes. It was observed
that the increase or decrease is predominant upto
only 75 per cent Jarofx content.
ix. Jarofx (100 per cent), Jarofx-soil mixes (50-75
per cent) and Jarofx- bottom ash mixes (50-75
per cent) have the potential for the construction of
road embankment.
x. The low value of CBR, under prevailing traffc
intensity, results in high pavement thickness, and
1
SINHA,

HAVANAGI,

thus Jarofx material may not be economically
feasible for sub grade construction. Jarofx-soil
and Jarofx-bottom ash mixes (50-75 per cent) may
be used for construction of sub grade layer road
pavement.
xi. Stability analysis of embankment with Jarofx
soil-bottom ash mixes under different saturation,
surcharge and earthquake conditions indicated
factor of safety values in the range 1.16 to 1.75.
10 NEED FOR FURTHER STUDY
The widened portion of two lane State Highway at
Chittorgarh, Rajasthan, would be constructed using Jarofx/
Jarofx-soil/Jarofx-bottom ash mixes. The constructed
experimental test track would be monitored for a period
of 2 years. Field data which is planned to be collected
quarterly includes (a) Visual condition of pavement (b)
Benkelman beam defection (c) Surface roughness (e)
Modulus of elasticity values by Plate load test and falling
weight defectometer. The data would be compared with the
conventional road pavement. Specifcation and construction
methodology would be developed for the utilization of
Jarofx/Jarofx-soil/Jarofx-bottom ash mixes for large scale
feld applications.
ACKNOwLEDGEMENT
The authors are thankful to the Director, CSIR Central Road
Research Institute, New Delhi, India for giving permission
to publish this Paper. The research project is fnanced by
Hindustan Zinc Ltd. (HZL), Chittorgarh, Rajasthan, India.
The authors acknowledge Sh. B K Singh, Hindustan Zinc
Limited for his support and fruitful suggestions. The
authors express their gratitude to the laboratory staffs of
the Geotechnical Engineering Division of Central Road
Research Institute, New Delhi.
REFERENCES
Chen, T. T., and Dutrizac, J. E.,2000. A Mineralogical Study of 1.
Jarofx Products for the Stabilization of Jarosite Residues for
Disposal. TMS; 917933.
CRRI Report, 2010. Feasibility Study of Jarofx Waste Material 2.
for Embankment and Sub Grade. Published by Central Road
Research Institute under Council of Scientifc and Industrial
Research (CSIR), New Delhi, India.
Figueiredo, Maria-Ondina and Silva, Teresa Pereira da., 2011. The 3.
Positive Environmental Contribution of Jarosite by Retaining Lead
in Acid Mine Drainage Areas. Journal of Environmental Research
and Health, Vol. 8, pp 1575-1582.
Ministry of Shipping, Road Transport & Highways, Specifcations 4.
for Road and Bridge Works, 4
th
Revision, Published by Indian
Roads Congress, New Delhi, India
Pappu, A., Saxena, M., and Asolekar, S.R., 2000. Jarosite 5.
Characteristics and Uts Utilisation Potentials. J. of Total
Environment, Vol. 359, 1-3.
Seyer, S., Chen, T. T., and Tutrizec, J. E., 2001. Jarofx: Addressing 6.
Iron Disposal in the Zinc Industry. J. of Mineralogy, Vol. 53(22),
32-35.
Sinha, A.K., Havanagi,V.G., Arora,V.K., Ranjan, A. and Mathur, 7.
S., 2011. Feasibility Study of Jarofx Waste Material for Road
Construction. Published in Indian Geotechnical Conference,
Kochi, pp 685-688.
Vsevolod, A. M., Haroldo, A. P., and Patricio, R. I., 2005. Potential 8.
Application of Acid Jarosite Wastes as the Main Component of
Construction Materials. J. of Construction and Building Materials,
Vol. 19,141-146.
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JULY - DECEMBER JUNE 2013 44
PROBABLE CAUSES AND CORRECTIVE MEASURES OF LANDSLIDES ON
AIZwAL-LUNGLEI ROAD (NH - 54), MIZORAM
PANKAJ GUPTA*, A. K. SINHA *, VASANT G. HAVANGI * & SUDHIR MATHUR*
ABSTRACT
Landslide is the main cause of massive damage in tectonically active hilly terrain of the Himalayan region including the state of Mizoram.
It may be disastrous causing destruction to life and property. This leads to large-scale landscape transformations. Aizwal-Lunglei (NH-
54) road is an important highway connecting the people of south Mizoram to other parts of the country. This highway got damaged due
to landslide at chainage 173.5 km near Hnathial town of about 100 m long. Due to this, one lane of the two lane highway washed away
resulting hindrance of smooth traffc fow. In order to restore, a systematic geological and geotechnical studies were carried out to identify
the causative factors responsible for the failure. For this, feld and laboratory investigations were carried out. Stability analysis was also
carried out of the existing slope under saturated and seismic conditions. This Paper presents the geotechnical characterization of slope
materials, results of slope stability analysis and proposed suitable remedial measures. It was observed that natural and anthropological
factors were responsible for the landslide. Factor of safety of existing slope was observed to be critical and close to unity. Remedial
measures were proposed to the uphill slopes like construction of new culverts, drains, shotcreting on the exposed rocks etc. Similarly,
construction of gabion and reinforced retaining walls were proposed on the downhill slope. Stability analysis was again carried out after
proposed remedial measures and observed to be safe.
* Scientists, Geotechnical Engineering Division, CSIR- Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi - 110 025.
E-mail: parix22@gmail.com
1 INTRODUCTION
Road communication system is the major means of transport
for the people residing in the North-Eastern Himalayan
terrain of India. These hill roads play a vital role in the
economic and socio-economic development of the region.
Landslide hazard is one of the most widely spread hazard,
which causes frequent damages to these roads. Break down
of a public utility system due to such events, causes hardship
to the public.
Fig. 1 Location Map; (a) Mizoram State, (b) Hnathial Town, (c) Landslide
Landslides have an effect on the normal activities of the
area with all the accompanying ill effects on economic
activity (Ayyar, 1975). It also causes the non-repairable
environmental loss by destroying the forest cover and losing
enormous quantum of fertile soil cover from the slopes
(Gupta et al. 2004). Aizwal-Lunglei road (NH-54) is the
only lifeline connecting people of south Mizoram with other
parts of the country. The landslide occurred at 173.5 km on
NH-54 near Hnathial town of the Surchip District, Mizoram
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JULY - DECEMBER 2013 45
GUPTA, SINHA, HAVANGI, MATHUR ON
PROBABLE CAUSES AND CORRECTIVE MEASURES OF LANDSLIDES ON AIZWAL-LUNGLEI ROAD (NH - 54), MIZORAM
is shown in the Fig.1. A landslide hazard zonation map is
very useful for carrying out quicker and safer mitigation
programmes (Lallianthanga et al., 2013).
During rainy season in 1998, about 100 m of road section
at chainage 173.50 km started sinking and posed great
hindrance to the traffc. Due to this, road width of 5.85 m
on the valley slope was washed out leaving the culvert in
hanging position. In order to restore the road, a series of
retaining walls were constructed on the downstream slope
is shown in the Fig. 2. These structures were also damaged
partially / completely because of mass movement and
subsidence. The problem was further aggravated during
the rains in November 2003. CSIR- Central Road Research
Institute, New Delhi carried out thorough investigation to
assess the causes of landslide. The research paper presents
the feld and laboratory investigations, stability analysis,
causes of slope failures and remedial measures.
2 HISTORY OF LANDSLIDE
During the feld investigation, it was learnt from the local
people that the slide area was never affected by landslide in
such a magnitude and dimension before 1997. However, in
1997 when the National Higway-54 construction work was
under progress near Hnathial, the pre-existing road (Aizawl-
Lunglei road) was widened by cutting the hillside slope 2 m
to 3 m inside the hill slope. This made the uphill slope steep.
As a result, overburden materials on uphill slope (soil/shale)
are moving down every year. In 2000, whole area suffered
serious damages including buildings as well as roads. Aizawl-
Lunglei area experienced torrential rains from frst week of
July 2003 to second week of July 2003. The unprecedented
heavy rainfall caused numerous landslides and damages
to road formation and other structures such as breaching
of road formation at 173.35 km. Rain in the last week of
September 2003, damage was further aggravated. Even after,
the formation width was adequate for safe plying of traffc.
Safety barriers were erected on the road to ensure safety of
the road users and traffc movement continued till end of
October 2003. During the frst week of November 2003, the
damage was further aggravated and road communication
was disrupted. Accordingly, minimum inescapable work
was carried out from November 2003 to March 2004.
3 FIELD INVESTIGATION
During the feld investigation, study area was inspected
critically by walking. Map was prepared at a scale of
1:500 with 1m contour interval and various features were
marked. Field investigation includes assessment of actual
site condition, data collection in terms of the recording
topographic features, lithology or slope forming material,
geological structures, discontinuities, groundwater
conditions, natural & man made drainages and pavement
condition etc. It also includes identifying the causative factors
and anthropological factors, which are mainly responsible
for the instability of the slope. In addition to that, feld tests
were conducted for estimating the engineering properties of
the slope materials. Soil samples, from unstable slopes were
also collected for the further analysis and laboratory tests.
Field tests were carried out like physical examination and
insitu density test of slope materials.
i) Physical Examination : Soil samples were collected
from both the left and right fanks from the slide for
physical examination and laboratory investigations.
The soil on the right fank was observed to be brown
in colour having a mixture of gravel, sand and silt.
Similarly, Soil on the left fank portion is grey in
colour having a mixture of gravel and sand. Grey
colour indicates that soil is carbonaceous shale. Soil
was saturated near the bottom of the downhill slope.
ii) Insitu Density Test : Insitu density test was carried
out by core cutter method to determine the insitu
density and natural moisture content at different
locations on the left as well as on right fanks of the
landslide area. Results are tabulated in the Table 1.
The location of the in situ density tests were also
indicated in this Table.
Table 1 Insitu Density at Right and Left Flanks
Right Flank Left Flank
Sample
(R F)
Dry Density
(kN/m
3
)
Moisture
Content
(%)
Sample
(L F)
Dry
Density
(kN/m
3
)
Moisture
Content
(%)
1 16.10 13 1 18.98 7
2 17.51 10 2 18.89 8
Fig. 2 Affected Portion of the Landslide on NH-54
4 LABORATORY INVESTIGATION
Laboratory investigations were carried out to characterize
the soil collected from both the fanks.
4.1 Grain Size Analysis
Grain size analysis was carried out as per IS: 2720 (Part 4)
1985 of collected soils. Right fank soil consist of gravel
38 per cent, sand - 32 per cent, silt 25 per cent and clay
5 per cent and left fank soil consist of gravel 32 per cent,
sand - 45 per cent, silt 30 per cent and clay 5 per cent.
Percentage of fnes in both fank soils is around 30 per cent
(fner than 75 ).
Atterberg limit tests were carried out on both left and right
fanks soils as per IS: 2720 (Part 5) - 1985. The liquid limit
of both fanks soils was observed to be 27 per cent and 37 per
cent respectively. The plasticity index values were evaluated
as 14 per cent and 21 per cent respectively. Both soils were
having medium plasticity in nature. Based on the grain size
analysis and plasticity characteristics, right and left fank
soils are classifed as GC and SC respectively according to
IS 1498-1970.
Proctor compaction test (modifed) was carried out as per
IS: 2720 (Part 8) -1983. The Maximum Dry Density (MDD)
and Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) of left fank soil
was found to be 22.1 kN/m
3
and 5.3 per cent respectively.
For the right fank soil, these values were found to be 21.0
kN/m
3
and 7.5 per cent respectively.
4.4 Direct Shear Test
Direct shear test was carried out on remoulded samples of
size 6 cm x 6 cm x 2.5 cm as per IS: 2720 (Part13) -1986.
Samples were prepared at its insitu density/natural moisture
content. The samples were tested under the saturated
condition. Consolidated Drained (CD) test was carried out at
0.02 mm/min to dissipate the pore water pressure simulating
the feld condition. The normal stress was applied on the
samples in the range of 50 to 150 kN/m
2
. The samples
were sheared at the rate of 0.625 mm/min. The shear
strength parameters of right and left fanks soil were found
to be c = 9.5 kN/m
2
& = 24
o
and 15 kN/m
2
&
26
o
respectively.
4.5 Permeability Test:
Permeability test was also carried out on compacted soil as
per IS: 2720 (Part 17) -1986. The coeffcient of permeability
of both left fank and right fanks soil was determined by
falling head method as 2.4 x 10-8 m/sec and 9 x 10-8 m/sec.
respectively. This value of the permeability indicates poor
drainage character of soils.
5 STABILITY ANALYSIS OF EXISTING SLOPE
To carry out stability analysis, a contour map of landslide
affected area on 1:500 scale with 1 m contour interval was
prepared and is shown in the Fig. 3. Stability analysis of
the existing slope was carried out on three selected sections
viz. CX, CY and CZ. These sections were chosen judicially
so that they should represent the complete area of landslide.
Stability analysis was carried out using computer software
under the traffc loading of 12 kN/m
2
, saturation and seismic
conditions. During the analysis, horizontal and vertical
earthquake coeffcient 0.05 and 0.025 were considered
respectively. It was found that the value of factor of safety of
existing slope is either less than one or marginally more as
given in Table 2. This indicates that the slopes are critical and
needs proper remedial measures (Havanagi et al., 2011).
Location of Tests
Fig. 3 Contourt Map of the Study Area and Judicially Chosen Sections
Table 2 Results of Factor of Safety
Sections
Strength parameters of
slope materials
Factor of safety
CX Right fank C = 9.5 kN/m
2
= 24
o
FOS = 0.72
CZ Left fank C = 15 kN/m
2
= 26
o
FOS = 1.08
CY- Centre C = 9.5 kN/m
2
= 24
o
FOS = 1.06
6 CAUSES OF LANDSLIDE
The equilibrium of hill slope mainly depends upon
the interaction of causative factors, natural as well as
anthropological. The geological, hydrological, tectonic
activities play dominant role in mass movements. Their
resultant due to the interaction among causative factors plays
an important role in the slope instability. These causative
factors are discussed below:
6.1 Natural Causes
6.1.1 Geology : Hnathial town is covered with sedimentary
rock of Surma Group (Middle Bhuban Formation). its lithology
mainly includes different types of shales (carbonaceous,
crumbled, silty), which are highly vulnerable to weathering
(CRRI Report, 2007). The detailed examination of the slope
revealed that rocks are folded, faulted, foliated and highly
jointed as shown in the Figs. 4, 5, 6 & 7, respectively. This
results prone to erosion.
Fig. 4 Foliated Carbonaceous Shale with Kink Bends
Fig. 5 Hihgly Jointed and Weathered Rock
Fig. 6 Folds in Brown Shale
6.1.2 High Rainfall : Southwest monsoon arrives early in
the region sometimes in May and bring copious rains. The
average rainfall is around 254 cm per annum. The highest
rainfall was of the order of 350 cm which recorded in the
Lunglei district. Moreover, rains come with thunder in this
region, which brings heavy downpour for a very short period
and is enough to trigger a landslide.
6.1.3 Weathering : Rocks exposed in the problematic site
was observed to be highly shattered and weathered (Figs. 8
& 9). Due to occurrence of number of set of joints, surface
water percolates easily into the rocks and increases the
weathering effect. This leads to decrease the shear strength
which is more vulnerable to weathering. After weathering, it
may easily erode by the surface water.
6.1.4 Steep slopes : Slope angle is an important causative
factor, which also contributes towards the instability. Slopes
are steep just above and below the National Highway at
problematic spot. The angle of the slope is almost 3 times
greater than the thresholds of slope angle for shale (Geology
& Mining Wing, 2000).
6.2 Anthropology Factors
Man made factors are also important which contributes
signifcantly in the slope instability. In the present study,
some of the anthropological factors observed were discussed
below:
It was observed that Construction & demolition
(C & D) wastes and other waste materials were dumped
near the slide area, which destroy the vegetation cover
and do not allow the vegetation to grow as shown in
the Fig. 10. This activity also choked the roadside
drains and culverts close to the dumping area. As a
result, water fows directly to the slopes.
Fig. 7 Ohthogonal Joints in Charbonaceous Shale
Fig. 8 Highly Shattered Shale
Fig. 9 Pencil Sturcture in Bronw Shale
Fig. 10 C&D Dumped Materials Near the Slide
Improper camber and lack of maintenance of roads
leads the water fow over the road surface and
unpaved shoulders.
Local people fre the bamboo forest to get the land
for agriculture or other purposes (Fig.11). It was
observed that removal of the natural anchor from the
adjacent steep slopes and recharge of the ground with
water for irrigation purpose, slope material loses its
strength. Moreover, water irrigation on steep slopes
aggravates the erosion.
During the site investigation, it was found that
roadside drains are not of adequate capacity and were
poorly maintained. As a result, water seeps into the
slope through the damaged portion of drainage and
overfow to the road surface as shown in the Fig.12.
Unlined, culverts and chutes also allow the water
seep and erode the slope on which it is fowing. This
leads to potholes, slope surface erosion, add to the
pore water pressure and reduces the shear strength of
the slope forming material too.
Conditions of these were analysed considering the
parameters like type of wearing surface, potholes,
cracks, existence of camber, road gradient, roadside
drains, culvers, chutes etc. These parameters indicate
that main surface water is fowing towards the slide
area either by infltration or surface runoff.
7 REMEDIAL MEASURES
After the investigation, a set of remedial measures was
proposed for the stability of unsafe slope as well as
restoration of road width. The followings are the proposed
remedial measures at uphill and downhill slope:
7.1 Uphill Slope
Following remedial measures were proposed to the uphill
slope :
(i) Improvement of camber of market roads was
suggested to ensure the water fow from road
side drains only.
(ii) New culverts were proposed at places according
to the topography and need.
(iii) Surface cum trench drains were also proposed
to lay all along the NH-54 in the problematic
zone.
(iv) Shotcreting of the exposed rocks above the NH-
54 was proposed for safety of the vehicles.
7.2 Downhill Slope
7.2.1 Gabion Retaining Wall : In order to stabilize the
slope of left & right fanks intermittent gabion walls were
proposed along the slopes (CX and CZ sections). These
gabions would resist the shearing stresses and the movement.
The movement of the slope between the gabions may be
further arrested by the growth of vegetation. The vegetation
may be accelerated by using jute geo-textile/asphalt
mulch system or by readily available synthetic nets with
biodegradable mulch material. Three number of 5 m high
gabion retaining walls were proposed at intervals of 10 m
along the slopes as shown in the Fig. 13. A suitable design
and construction specifcations were also suggested of gabion
wall and overall stability was checked using standard Geo
5 software under saturated and seismic conditions. Factor
of Safety (FOS) of gabion wall was found to be 2.10 using
Bishops method (1955) which was safe.
Fig. 12 Incapacity and Damaged Drains
Fig. 11 Agriculture Parctice Near the Slide
It was observed that number of existing roads on the
uphill side of the landslide area were constructed viz.
NH, PWD roads, Market roads and Village roads etc.
Advantages of gabion retaining wall: It provides greater
fexibility and can tolerate differential settlements without
fracture. This property ensures the stability of the structure
especially when it is constructed on unstable ground having
low bearing capacity and where there is a possibility of scour
from water current.
Because of its high permeability, it would
immediately drain out the sub surface and surface
water.
The siltation on the structure over a period of time
promotes natural growth of vegetation, hence
maintains the natural balance and harmony of the
environment.
The gabion walls are generally cheaper than stone
masonry retaining walls.
7.2.2 Reinforced retaining wall : Washed away portioned
of NH-54 requires to be widened to get suffcient carriageway
width for smooth traffc fow of two lanes. As one of the PWD
roads is located on the adjacent uphill slope, National Highway
could not be widened towards uphill slope. Therefore, required
carriageway width was proposed for the construction towards
the downhill slope, which is steep at 60
0
inclination. For this
purpose, a combination of Reinforced retaining wall and
gabion retaining wall was proposed as shown in the Fig.14.
This wall was proposed for the construction in stepped fashion
without disturbing the existing slope. Gabion wall was also
proposed at the toe of reinforced retaining wall which will act
as a platform for the construction of three reinforce retaining
walls of each 5 m high at different Reduce Level (RL). A
suitable design and construction specifcations of reinforced
walls were also suggested. The overall stability along with
suggested remedial measures was rechecked using standard
Geo 5 software under saturated and seismic conditions. FOS
of the structure was obtained 2.15, which was safe.

10

Existing Road Surface (R. L. 995)
J uteGeo-textile Over Loose Soil/Mulch/Seeds
for Vegetation/Synthetic mats
Aggregatesof StandardSize
20 mm Thick P.C.C (1:3:6)
Fig. 14 Remedial measure by gabion retaining walls

Existing Road Surface (R. L. 995)
J uteGeo-textile Over Loose Soil/Mulch/Seeds
for Vegetation/Synthetic mats
Aggregatesof StandardSize
20 mm Thick P.C.C (1:3:6)
1. Improvement of camber of market roads was suggested to ensure the water flow from
road side drains only.
2. New culverts were proposed at places according to the topography and need.
3. Surface cum trench drains were also proposed to lay all along the NH-54 in the
problematic zone.
4. Shotcreting of the exposed rocks above the NH-54 was proposed for safety of the
vehicles.
7.2 Downhill slope:
7.2.1 Gabion retaining wall
In order to stabilize the slope of left & right flanks intermittent gabion walls were proposed
along the slopes (CX and CZ sections). These gabions would resist the shearing stresses and
the movement. The movement of the slope between the gabions may be further arrested by
the growth of vegetation. The vegetation may be accelerated by using jute geo-textile/asphalt
mulch systemor by readily available synthetic nets with biodegradable mulch material. Three
number of 5m high gabion retaining walls were proposed at intervals of 10 malong the
slopes as shown in the Fig. 14. A suitable design and construction specifications were also
suggested of gabion wall and overall stability was checked using standard Geo 5 software
under saturated and seismic conditions. Factor of safety (FOS) of gabion wall was found to
be 2.10 using Bishops method (1955) which was safe.

Fig. 13 Remedial Measure by Gabion Retaining Walls
8 CONCLUSIONS
Aizwal-Lunglei road is an important highway for the people
of South Mizoram and other parts of the country. Continuous
landslide damaged the up & down hill slopes at chainage
173.5 km (NH-54) which result in reduction in carriageway
of NH-54. To stabilize the slopes (up/down), investigation
was carried out and suitable remedial measures were
recommended. Following were the conclusions based on
the result of feld and laboratory investigations with stability
analysis :
Due to poor maintenance of surface water drains on
uphill slope, cambers, culverts and incorrect gradient
etc. of PWD roads, existing retaining structures were
failed.
Modifcation of entire drainage system was suggested
like realignment, cleaning the chocked drains,
construction of new drains etc.
Three number of 5 m high gabion retaining walls
with jute geo textile/mulch materials were proposed
at intervals of 10 m along the slopes. A suitable design
and construction specifcations were also suggested
of gabion wall. Stability analysis of the left & right
slopes (fanks) along with suggested gabion structure
indicates that slope is safe as FOS was obtained 2.10.
In order to retain the required carriageway width, a
combination of reinforced retaining wall and gabion
Fig. 14 Remedial Measure for widening of road by reinforced
retaining walls
retaining wall were proposed. Gabion wall was
proposed to use as platform for the construction of
three reinforced retaining walls of each 5 m high at
different Reduce Level (RL). Factor of safety (FOS)
of the central part along with suggested structure was
obtained 2.15 which was safe.
It was also recommended that landslide awareness
program should be arranged for the local people.
Therefore, people should be aware about the dos
and donts. They should not use the vulnerable slopes
as dumping yard for the garbage or for any other
similar activities. It should also be ensured that the
adjoining slopes of landslide should not be used for
agriculture.
ACKNOwLEDGEMENT
The authors are thankful to the Director, CSIR-CRRI,
New Delhi for giving permission to publish this Paper.
The Research Project was fnanced by Border Roads
Organization, New Delhi.
REFERENCE
Ayyar, D. S. N. (1975). "Landslides, A Hold-Up on the Highway, 1.
Its Impact on the Society." Proceedings of Seminar on Landslides
and Toe Erosion Problems with Special Reference to Himalayan
Region, Gangtok, Sikkim, pp 137-143.
Bishop, A.W. (1955), "The use of the Slip Circle in the Stability 2.
Analysis of Slopes", Journal of Geotechnique, Vol 5(1).
CRRI Report (2007), "Investigation and Recommendations for 3.
Landslide/Subsidence at km173.5 on Aizawl-Lunglei Road (NH-
54), Mizoram, "Report prepared by CRRI and submitted to Border
Roads Organization, New Delhi.
Geology & Mining Wing (2000), "Geo-technical Investigation 4.
Reports on Landslides Affected Area, Hnathial Bazaar Veng,
Aizawl-Lunglei Road," Geology & Mining Wings, Industries
Department, Govt. of Mizoram, Mizoram: Aizawl, pp 1-10.
Gupta, P., Mukherjee, D., Sikdar, P. K., and Kumar, K. (2004), 5.
"Investigation and Control of Narayanbagar Landslide, District
Chamoli, Uttaranchal, India A Case Study," Published in Fifth
International Conference on Case Histories in Geotechnical
Engineering, New York, pp 13-17.
Havanagi, V. G., Sinha, A. K., Gupta, P. and Mathur, S. (2011), 6.
" Investigation and Remedial Measures of Hnathial Landslide,
Mizoram; Journal of National Institute of Disaster Management
Vol 5(2), pp 201-212.
Lallianthanga, R.K., Lalbiakmawia, F. and Lalramchuana, F. 7.
(2013). Landslide Hazard Zonation of Mamit Town, Mizoram,
India using Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques; International
Journal of Geology, Earth and Environmental Sciences, Vol 3 (1),
pp 184-194.
Swapan Kumar Bagni* ON
PROBLEMS OF BRIDGE BEARINGS ON SLOPING SPANS AND AT ABUTMENTS
C. V. KAND*
ABSTRACT
PTFE bearings are extensively provided on fyovers which have generally some spans in gradient of 1 in 25 or fatter. If the movement
of bearings is not stopped during construction, the deck is likely to slide down gradient; similarly Roller rocker bearings and Elastomeric
bearings are provided extensively on the bridges. In case of high Abutments these are likely to defect due to earth pressure. This will affect
not only the bearings on abutments but also on the adjoining pier. These movements can also cause cracks in the deck besides damaging
the bearings. Some case studies highlighting these effects and rectifcation measures carried out are discussed in this Paper. Following fve
case studies are brought out in this Paper:-
1. Narmada Bridge at Hoshangabad
2. Bairma Bridge
3. Chambal Bridge
4. Pipe Bridge at Wanchhoo Point near Indore with gradient 1/4
5. Flyover, gradient 1/25
1 NARMADA BRIDGE AT HOSHANGABAD
(Fig. 1)
The bridge consists of 30 spans of 24.4 m and two end spans
of 12 m. The bridge was opened to traffc in 1967. The
piers are two circular piers connected by diaphragm, cast
steel roller rocker bearing are provided for a superstructure
consisting of prestressed girders with a cast in situ deck
slab on it. The prestressed girders were cast in the yard and
launched on the piers by a steel truss launching girder. The
centering for the slab was fxed to the girder and removal of
the centering was done by a specially made structural frame,
Fig. 1 The two end spans of 12 m have also girder section
similar to prestressed girder but these are RCC girders,
precast and launched in position. The girders are provided
with cut steel circular roller bearing at one end and rocker
bearing at the other end as shown in Fig. 1.
Foundations were open type foundations on rock; the
abutment is located on higher bed level. On the abutment
there are roller bearings, the abutment is of RCC A shaped
two frames one below each girder and of spill through type.
The roller bearings at abutment were observed to have tilted
since 1971 that is 4 years after completion. By 1980 the
expansion gap at abutment closed completely. In 1981 the
end RCC spans showed cracks.
Investigations showed that A Frame of the abutment
gradually tilted since this is founded on rock there is no
possibility of any settlement. On closing of the expansion
gap the deck started moving towards the pier and the
expansion gap on the pier was also closed. Thus the deck
started acting as a fxed beam and cracks were developed
in the girder as shown in the sketch and photograph. The
expansion joints consist of 2 angles and the mild steel plate
above which can slide.
1.1 Rehabilitation
The expansion joint at abutment was removed. The span
was lifted by 50mm. The roller bearings were removed and
replaced by elastomeric bearings on the pedestal, the girders
were lowered. The inner faces of the dirt walls behind the
girders were chipped off to create an expansion gap of
50 mm. the cracks in the girders were injected by epoxy
resins. At abutment a curtain wall upto bed level and a apron
were provided to prevent further tilting of the abutment. This
work was done about 30 years ago and is behaving well.
Fig.1 Cracks in the Girder
* Chief Engineer, Designs, PWD, RDD (Retd.), E-2/136, Mahavir Nagar, Bhopal - 462 016, E-mail: cvkand@yahoo.co.in
C. V. KAND ON
1.2 The Lessons
In respect of high abutments, it is advisable to calculate the
defection due to earth pressure and based on that provide
adequate expansion gap. In the railway bridge on Mumbai-
Delhi Railway line the height of abutment for Betwa Bridge
is about 18 m, the expansion joint provided is more than
300 mm that is why the defection of abutment due to earth
pressure did not affect the bearings and the adjoining spans.
Cast in steel roller bearings are provided for this abutment.
Fig. 1.1 gives the details of the abutment.
2 BAIRMA BRIDGE (Fig. 2)
2.1 Structural Details
The bridge consists of continuous span units of 20-25-20 m
and was completed in 1968. The end span is 15 m simply
supported with 3 m cantilever on one side and a suspended
span of 1.5 m over abutment and tip of cantilever. The deck
is a four girder system RCC deck on mild steel roller and
Fig.2 Tilting of End Pier due to Earth Pressure
Photo 2.1 Defection of Pier due to Settlement of Abutment frame
rocker bearings. The piers are of mass concrete 1:3:6 with
top width of 1.2 m. The abutment was of RCC frame of four
twin columns each 225 x 375 mm as a fully buried abutment,
not designed for earth pressure and founded on soil at a level
6.5 m above the foundation of pier P10 which is provided
with rocker bearings. At P2 roller bearings were provided
for span 1 and 2. The rocker bearing has only one rocker pin
in centre.
C. V. KAND ON
The Fig. 2 shows the extent of excavation pit for pier P1. The
abutment frame was founded on flled up soil. With a view to
allow traffc on the bridge, the earth work around abutment
and end pier was completed before monsoon. Protection
work of earthen bank could not be done before monsoon.
Piers of the bridge are laid on rock foundation. However,
spill through abutment was laid on soil foundations.
2.2 Distresses
Several deformations were observed in this work:
(i) The abutment frame settled by 127 mm during
monsoon (observed in November 1967). By next
January the settlement was 165 mm. Floating span
(1.5 m) was lifted to maintain road level.
(ii) Expansion gap on pier P2 closed and the same at
articulation increased.
(iii) Earth work on river side of P1 was washed off during
oods. On the other side (bank) it was 6 m higher.
(iv) Top and bottom plate of rocker bearings on pier
P1 displaced, maximum displacement was 51 mm
displacements of four bearings were not uniform.
Detailed study of the bridge and these distresses were carried
out. Firstly the abutment frame on flled up soil settled. The
pier P1 being subjected to differential earth pressure of 6m
height and surcharge due to slope, defected towards P2.
Expansion gap on pier P2 was closed. On account of thermal
movement of the Span and continued defection of pier,
and since there was no space for further movement of span
towards P2, this movement was refected at P1 by shearing
of rocker pin and displacement of its top plate from the
bottom one. Simultaneously Span 2 also underwent thermal
movement which pushed span 1 towards bank, rocker pin
having been sheared, no resistance was offered at P1.
2.3 Rectifcations
Since pier P1 defected on account of differential earth
pressure, reverse conditions were created by digging a deep
trench on bank side adjoining the pier and the earth was
placed on the river side. When the trench was 7.5 m deep,
the pier re-defected by 20 mm. This trench was maintained
for 2 months. Expansion gap at P2 was opened up to 43 mm.
however, there was no rectifcation of top and bottom plate of
rocker bearing, indicating that the pin had sheared off and it
acted as a sliding bearing. The earth work around the pier was
made in proper slope, pitched and toe wall were provided.
It was also observed that the RCC abutment frame buckled
and damaged. Crib type abutment and retaining block with
RCC cribs frames flled by boulders was provided. This if
settles additional layer of crib will be added and the road
formation level can be maintained. This work was done in
1968. During seventeen years, the crib wall was observed to
have settled by 150 mm and, thereafter, it is reported to be
stable. The rocker bearings were rectifed as shown in the
Fig. 2.
2.4 Indications
This case study has brought out following important points:
2.4.1 Slopes of earth work around abutment and its
protection work must be designed as carefully as
the design of main structure and completed before
opening the bridge to traffc.
2.4.2 Abutment structure, even if it is buried, must be
designed for earth pressure from bank side since the
earth on river side is vulnerable for being washed
away during foods. In important bridges, abutments
are designed for all around scour conditions. The
latest IRC-78 stipulates this provision.
2.4.3 The foundation of non-load bearing abutment should
have been kept at level higher than the foundation
level of pier but the level should have been such that
the founding soil of abutment is not erodible and not
disturbed due to excavation for pier foundations.
2.4.4 Based on these observations two design criteria have
been evolved:
(a) If the piers are provided on well foundations, the
foundations level of non-load bearing abutment
shall not be higher than the level of the bottom of
well cap of adjoining pier. Open excavation for
well foundation is usually done upto the bottom
of well cap. If the span is cantilevered beyond
Photo 2.2 Displacement of bottom plate from top and shearing of Pin
rocker bearing
C. V. KAND ON
the well and a suspended span is provided on
the cantilever, the foundation of the abutment is
kept a little below the bottom of well cap.
(b) In open foundations, the difference of
foundations level of the abutment and the
adjoining pier shall not be more than the safe
slope provided for earthen embankment. If the
slope is steeper the foundation at higher level
may settle.
h = 1 L for every hard soil like murum.
= L / 1.5 for Medium type of soils.
= L / 2 for soft soil.
Where, h = difference of level between the
foundation levels of abutment and
adjoining pier.
L = clear horizontal distance between the
footing of pier and abutment.
2.4.5 Wider expansion gap should be casted for on
abutments which are likely to settle and defect due to
earth pressure. 50 mm or larger gap in place of usual
25 mm gap is recommended. It is also advisable to
complete the earthwork behind abutment for a length
of about 30 m before casting the end span supported
on abutment. This stipulation is also given in tender
conditions. With this provision, a large part of
defection of abutment will take place before the span
is laid on abutment. The expansion gap is calculated
for the span for the temperature range given in the
code and somewhat more gap is provided.
2.4.6 It is suggested to provide roller bearings at abutment
or end pier.
2.4.7 Each rocker bearing must be provided with a
minimum of 2 pins.
2.4.8 Before opening a bridge to traffc, it must be observed
that all expansion gaps are free and the bearings are
free to slide or permit angular movement of deck.
3. CHAMBAL BRIDGE (Fig. 3)
3.1 Details of the Bridge
The bridge is provided with continuous RCC trough slab
with span arrangement 15 18.75 15 m. Depth of slab
is 1.1 m. RCC roller bearings are provided on end piers
and one intermediate pier and RCC rocker at one pier in
the unit.
3.2 Details of Construction
The Fig. 3 giving details of centering will show that
the bed level in the centre of river is nearly 12 m below
the bed level at abutment. These levels were disturbed
during open foundation for piers and the abutment. The
bed levels were made up by providing embankment in
steps between piers and centering was erected on flled
up soil between spans 1, 2 and 3, respectively. The width
of bank along river was 10m and side slopes of 1.5 to 1.
It was reported to have been properly consolidated. The
centering was of cut timber sections 10 x 15 cm and these
were laid on wooden sleepers.
Fig. 3 Failure of Centering by not Clamping Bearings during Concreting.
3.3 The Accident
Concreting of the deck was being done in layers continuously.
First layer of 45 cm was laid in entire length of 48.75 m in
24 hours. Second layer of 45 cm was done in one end span
and 1.5 m length of central span. At this stage the carpenters
attending to centering heard a cracking sound and they jumped
out from the location. Suddenly a loud cracking sound was
heard and the whole unfnished structure came down. The
end span which was concreted to 90 cm depth, collapsed and
the green concrete was reduced to pieces. Other end spans
C. V. KAND ON
was pulled out from the abutment support and it came down.
The middle span sagged down, the forms were broken and
the green concrete collapsed. The reinforcement cage of
central span was hanging in a centenary shape between P1-
P2 over crushed timber centering; which however, did not
collapse fully.
3.4 Causes of Failures
Investigations showed that the earthen embankment,
supporting staging settled. The pier which was subjected
to differential earth pressure with surcharge of centering
load appears to have tilted. Normally bearings are clamped
during concreting of deck. These bearings were not clamped
at abutment and piers.
Due to settlement of props in Span 3, the shuttering
with steel cages and concrete inside slipped off from the
unclamped roller bearings over P3 and it came down
forcibly due to heavy load of 90 cm deep green concrete.
The centering of Span 3 damaged almost completely, and
the reinforcement cage hung along the face of P2 and was
pulled in towards span 2 over the unclamped roller bearing
of P2. The collapse of span 3 induced horizontal forces
on continuous decking. Span 2 tried to move towards P1.
Since rocker bearing is provided on P1, span 2 sagged
down. Upper stage of centering in Span 2 crumbled. The
sag is nearly 3 m. The pull damaged rocker bearing on
P1. The anchor bars in the bearing were pulled out from
RCC pier cap. Span 1 was pulled towards P1. The end of
Span 1 at abutment slipped and came down, forcibly,
damaging the centering and the shuttering.
3.5 Indications
This case study has brought out the following points:-
(a) Earthen banks should not be allowed for erection
of staging of bridges. If the river bed is slopping,
it should be cut in steps and props erected on cut
portion. It is advisable that wooden piles are provided
below props, if the bed contains soil or sand.
(b) Piers of bridges should not be subjected to one side
earth pressure if these are not designed for such a
condition.
(c) Bearings must be clamped before concreting of deck.
(d) Centering of continuous deck must be absolutely free
from settlement. If soft soil exist in the river bed, it is
advisable to rest the verticals of centering on sleeper
which is supported on timber or concrete piles.
Photo 3.1 Failure of Centering
4 PIPE BRIDGE AT wANCHOO POINT NEAR
INDORE: (Figs. 4.1, 4.2, 4.3 and 4.4)
4.1 Details of the Bridge:
Narmada water supply scheme for Indore town was
taken up in 1972. The pipe line passes through Vindhyan
Mountain ranges. Water of Narmada River is lifted by
about 242 m. Five pumping stations are established to lift
water by 242 m. Thereafter, water is supplied by gravity
to Indore and Mhow town. The pipe is 1200 mm dia. steel
pipe 8 mm thick. A pipe bridge is provided in a valley with
3 spans of 22 m c/c and 2 Spans of 20 m c/c, two RCC
girders, each span having 5 saddles on which 1200 mm
dia. pipe line is supported. The bridge is in gradient of 1/4.
Therefore, in order to have level support at pier triangular
brackets are provided at each end with fat level base below
which bearings are placed on pier below. Steel plates are
fxed to pipe and to saddle and greased so that expansion and
contraction of pipe can take place. There is one expansion joint
of the pipe line in Span n 5 in the bridge length. Wanchhoo
point is the top most point in the pipe line. The bridge is 1.4 km from
Wanchhoo point. Bridge piers consist of RCC columns 2 nos.
300 x 1000 mm size connected by braces. Mild steel plate
bearings are provided directly on each column. There is no
connecting pier cap. Foundations are laid on soft rock. The
bridge was completed in 1973.
C. V. KAND ON
4.2 Distress and Causes
Main distresses developed in the bridge and detected in
1994 were:
(a) Each girder has developed 20 to 40 honeycombs at
sofft. Some honeycombs are so large that a palm
Fig.4.1 Wanchoo Point Pipe Bridge in Gradient of 1 in 4
Fig. 4.2 Wanchoo Point Bridge with Pedestals
could be inserted inside. Steel started corroding.
These honeycombs must have appeared initially on
concreting and were repaired but due to impact of
force the fller material released. There is congestion of
steel. The gap being small concrete could not fnd way
down through closely spaced main reinforcement.
(b) Span 2 with one end resting on pier P1 settled by
150mm and RCC bracket at end of span crushed. The
deck also slid by 200 mm towards hill side. Drawing
of rocker bearing does not show any central pin. Thus
at rocker end on P1, the girders were free to slide.
The bearings were distorted. The triangular concrete
brackets at inclined beams above bearings have
cracked in all spans. Investigations showed that there
Fig. 4.3 Wanchoo Point Bridge
C. V. KAND ON
is no reinforcement in bracket. Thus due to crushing
of bracket at pier 1 the girders settled and in that
gradual process deck slid towards hill side. The pier
P1 also tilted on that account. Since the pipe line is
continuous on all spans, uneven supports on saddles
caused due to horizontal and vertical moment of deck
of Span 2 appear to have caused some lateral sag in
pipe line and the bridge deck also.
rectifed by grouting mixture of cement mortar and
15 per cent polymer.
(b) Strengthening of piers and replacement of bearings:
Piers were strengthened by encasing these in RCC
column. A pier cap with steel structural grillage
reinforcement was laid as shown in the Fig. 4.2 and
Fig. 4.3 at a level where about 400 mm minimum
vertical space is available to place hydraulic jacks. It
was designed to take point loads of jacks. The girders
of Span 3, 4, 5 were supported on jacks and raised
by 3 mm. The existing bearings and part of old pier
projecting above was dismantled. Then steel plate
pedestals were flled in concrete and elastomeric
bearing of size 250 x 250 x 52 mm was placed on
it. The sofft of existing girder where brackets were
provided was dismantled and new steel connectors
were welded with main steel in girders. Thus, the
triangular bracket was adequately reinforced. A fat
steel plate was fxed to bracket and it was concreted
and grouted. The pedestal with bearings was laid in
position so that it touched the steel plate of bracket.
The jacks were lowered by 3 mm and full contact
was established between bracket and bearings. Two
100 Ton capacity jacks were used to lift deck.
(c) Pier No. 1: At pier No.1 both vertical jack 100 Ton
capacity and horizontal jack (10 Ton capacity) with
transverse movement were provided. The arrangement
is seen in photograph No 4.3. Lifting was done in fve
stages. Vertically 30 mm and horizontally 40 mm in
each stage. This lifting presented lot of diffculties and
obstructions. These had to be removed. The pressure
developed at vertical jack was 25 tons before lifting
and horizontal jack was 5 tons before sliding. When
pressure was increased, it was noticed that this can
happen due to some obstructions in the movement.
When obstructions were removed, the movement
was smooth.
4.4 Further Problems
It was expected that the large un-uniform gap between the
pipeline and saddle will be fully closed on restoring span
and at pier 1 end. But this has not happened at two sockets
in Span 2, three sockets in Span 3, one socket in Span 4 and
two in Span 5 (there are 5 sockets in each Span). Thus out of
5 x 5 = 25 sockets, support at 8 sockets are not even. The gap
is from 8 mm to 30mm. Contact surface on circular saddle
is 1800 mm. Out of this at present contact is only in half of
Fig. 4.4 Wanchoo Point Bridge
(c) Pier number one has tilted by 5 mm towards hill side
and this caused lateral defection of deck in gradient.
The pipe line is also likely to have developed similar
effects.
(d) At saddles in Span 2, large gaps developed between
the socket and the pipe at the one end. Thus pipe is
partially supported on socket in Span 2.
4.3 Rectifcation
Following procedure and sequence has been adopted for
rectifcation of defects.
(a) Repair of concrete: The honeycombs in girders were
C. V. KAND ON
length at above points where uneven gap exists. The gaps
are on downhill side in span 2, 3 and 4 and uphill side in
Span 5. This could happen if the centre line of pipe and the
same of saddle i.e. the bridge are not in one vertical plane.
It appears that in span 2, 3 and 4 the pipe line has sagged
towards hill side in lateral plane upto expansion joint and the
Span 5 i.e. beyond expansion joint the lateral sag is towards
downhill side. Movement due to thermal variations must
be allowed in pipe line. Therefore, it is proposed to provide
Neoprene pads in the annular gap (one or two pads) and
provide Polysulphide in the remaining gap, so that proper
contact of pipe line and saddle is established in a circular
contact line of 1.8 m.
Pipe Bridge is not a road bridge. It is a pipe plus foot bridge.
Yet the types of distress which have occurred in this bridge
have also occurred in many road bridges and therefore this
case is brought out in the Paper. The thickness of pipe is
8 mm and design calculations show that it can safely stand
a span upto 30 m. Therefore, the uneven partial support at
saddles had not damaged the pipe line. Uneven supports
may develop strains in the pipe and therefore, restoration is
necessary.
5. A FLYOVER wITH SPANS IN GRADIENT
(Figs. 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 5.7 and 5.8)
5.1 Structural Details
Length 190 m Width 10 m
Photo 4.1 Support on the Pipe on Twisted Socket
Photo 4.2 Large Honeycombs at Bottomof Girders
Photo 4.3 Hydraulic J acks for Vertical Lift and Horizontal Movement
Photo 4.4 Socket for Level Support Over Bearings
C. V. KAND ON
Span Arrangement: - 5 spans of 25 m and 2 spans of 20 m.
Foundations: - Open foundations approximately 4.0 m below
ground level and laid in rock.
Piers: - single circular RCC piers 2.5 m dia. with cantilevered
pier cap.
Deck Structures:- prestressed concrete box with cantilever
deck slab on both sides. 7.5 m wide 2 lane road way and
1.5 m footpath on one side. The box is single cell with
inclined ribs. Deck is continuous over three spans or two
spans. Central 2 spans of 20 m has voided RCC slab over
the existing road and is level. 25 m spans are in gradient of
1/25.
Bearings:- POT PTFE bearings.
Fig 5.1 gives General Arrangement Drawing and the cross
section of the deck.
Fig.5.2 gives the layout of the bearings.
Fig.5.1 Bridge with Sloping Deck. Continuous Spans
Fig.5.2. Bearing Arrangement of a Bridge in Gradient.
5.2 Mishap
PSC box girder between P3-P4 slid down in traffc direction.
The bearing pins of the top plate sheared off. There is no
displacement of the box girder in transverse direction. No
cracks were observed in the box structure.
5.3 Causes of Distress
It appears that the deck would slide if the pins provided at the
4 corners of PTFE bearing to prevent displacement of the top
plate from the bottom plate during construction are broken.
It is customary to provide such pins to avoid movement of
deck during construction. In this case the movement could be
along the slope. The box structure was designed as a simply
supported structure with the deck slab. The continuity was to
be given in the deck slab; however, on completing the box
structure continuity of the slab was not provided at P2 and P3
and that is why the deck could slide. Sliding was 454 mm in
span P3-P4 towards P3.
5.4 Rehabilitation
The centering of the spans P1 to P4 was not removed. A
detailed procedure for carrying out the rehabilitation
consisted of the following operations:
5.4.1 To provide wooden blocks at the supports on P3 and
P4 so that the span does not slide further and ensure
that the existing centering is strong enough.
5.4.2 To provide continuity of deck slab on P2 so that during
the operation of re-sliding the jack force will be on
spans P1-P2 and P2-P3. This was done, however, the
gap on P3 is reduced by 454 mm therefore it was not
possible to complete this gap slab.
5.4.3 To lift the deck at P4 and P3 by about 150 mm by
vertical jacks and retain it in that position by timber
blocks. The weight of the deck is about 450 Tons.
Therefore, 4 jacks of 150 Tons capacity are required
to lift the deck.
5.4.4 To slide back the deck on P3 and P4 by horizontal
jacks. 2 such jacks with a capacity of 40 Tons operated
by a combined manifold were used. It took nearly
half a day in making preparations, actual pushing
took about half an hour. For sliding back long steel
plate was specially manufactured and was kept on
jack position below the deck.
5.4.5 Before the pushing the top plate of PTFE bearing at
both ends were removed. Then the bottom plate was
also removed. The bolts of the plate were unscrewed
C. V. KAND ON
Fig.5.3 Rehabilitation of Sloping Bridge Stage-1
from the pedestal. Holes of the bolt were flled up by
epoxy mortar.
5.4.6 It was earlier proposed to provide PTFE bearing of
earlier design at this location but this would involve
manufacturing of the bearing and fxing the top
plate to the deck and bottom plate to the pedestal.
The manufacturers informed that manufacturing
of similar four bearing would require 8 weeks
time. Considering the risk in keeping the disturbed
deck for a long time is likely to create more
disturbances such as, slipping of temporary wooden
blocks, disturbances of centering,etc. therefore
investigations were carried out to ascertain
whether Neoprene bearings can be provided, these
investigations showed that if Neoprene bearings
are provided, the section of foundations may not
be safe and therefore it was decided to strengthen
the section of footing by providing additional
concrete block of 1.2 m over the existing footing so
that reaction of the foundation is reduced and the
Fig.5.4 Rehabilitation of Kloping Bridge Stage-2
C. V. KAND ON
reinforcement provided in the foundation is also safe.
Neoprene bearings induce more forces on the pier
and footing, when compared with roller rocker and
PTFE bearings. That is why the reaction for design of
foundation was reduced by increasing self weight of
the footing with increase in the depth of footing. The
reinforcement in the pier was also checked and found
to be safe. Details giving strengthening of footing is
shown in Fig.5.7. Neoprene Bearings manufacturer
assured that he can manufacture and supply the
bearings within one week.
5.4.7 The designs of neoprene bearings were also checked.
It was noticed that the bearings are not safe for
minimum load condition. It was also noticed, if
continuity of deck slab is to be given on pier P3 it
will have effect on elastomeric bearings on P3 and
P4. This will induce movement of 20 mm at P4 and
10 mm at P3. If movement of 20 mm is considered the
elastomeric bearings cannot be designed for minimum
load conditions. Therefore elastomeric bearings on
P3 and P4 have been designed by considering free
support at P3 and P4. It is therefore not possible to
give continuity at P3, accordingly expansion joint
will be provided on pier P3. The continuity was
given in the deck slab and continues reinforcement
was provided, the continuous slab reinforcement was
cut at the centre of pier cap and a expansion joint
was provided. This has to be provided since different
types of bearings are used on span P3 and P4. Thus
change of PTFE bearing to elastomeric bearing has
caused 2 modifcations (a) Strengthening of footing
and (b) No continuity at P3.
5.4.8 The bottom of the deck structure over the location of
bearing has to be leveled. If it is not level, steel plates
with different thicknesses at the ends have to be
provided so that the top will match with the bottom
of sloping deck and the bottom of the plate will be
level on the bearing. It was observed that the top of
the pedestal is level. A sketch showing these plates is
also enclosed.
5.4.9 The deck was slid and brought correctly over the
locations of pedestals by horizontal jacks. It was
checked and rechecked to ascertain the correct
location longitudinally and laterally.
5.4.10 The entire deck was supported on jacks at both ends
and the temporary timber blocks were removed. The
elastomeric bearings were placed at correct position
with the bottom fxed to the pedestal by epoxy.
The end of the deck on P3 was lowered down and
centrally spaced over the bearings by placing the top
steel plate with different thicknesses at both ends
and making the bottom of the plate on elastomeric
bearing level.
5.4.11 The same operation was carried out on P4. Top plate
was extended on gap side (on pier) to check the
level and ensure that it is perfectly horizontal. On
completing this operation of lowering and placing
the deck on the bearings and ensuring that it is level,
several checks were carried out to ensure the level.
An insignifcant difference of 1mm was noticed.
5.4.12 A question was raised whether it is correct to provide
different type of bearings in the same bridge. This
has been done in Hasdeo Bridge at Chappa which
was rehabilitated in 1970 since the foundations of the
bridge gave way during foods. In the rehabilitation
work 5 different types of bearings were provided and
the case reported in Paper No. 395 (1989). During last
40 years the structure is behaving well. Therefore,
there is nothing wrong in adopting different types of
the bearings in the same bridge during rehabilitation
work. Photo graphs and sketches of various operations
are given below.
5.5 Adjoining spans of the bridge are under construction.
On completing these spans the bridge will be opened
to traffc.
5.6 Following Equipments were employed at site to
accomplish the rehabilitation:
(a) Hydraulic Jacks to lift the deck
4 x 150 T = 600 T
(b) Hydraulic Jacks to slide the deck
2 x 40 T = 80 T
(c) Long sliding steel plate to slide deck.
(d) Two steel plates at each bearing with varying
thickness to make contact level on bearings.
(e) Manifold for operating two jacks together.
5.7 The entire work was completed in four days except
the modifcation of foundations. During this work the
levels of the deck were checked to ensure that the
gradient between this span and the adjoining span is
the same and the levels at the joints are proper. The
levels at the top of new bearings were also checked
for the desired levels and adjustments were made
with the help of vertical jacks. The lifted span was
checked from outside and inside the box and no
cracks or any other distress was visible.
C. V. KAND ON
Fig.5.7 Additional Concrete Block over the Footing.
C. V. KAND ON
Fig.5.8 A Steel Plate with Varying Thickness Fixed to the Deck at Bearings to Make Level Support.
Photo 5.1 Dislodged Span Photo 5.2 Lifting Jack
Photo 5.3 Pushing Jack
Photo 5.4 Placement of Sliding Assembly
C. V. KAND ON
Photo 5.5 Horizontal Movement of Deck
Photo 5.7 Steel plate and Neoprene bearing fxed with Epoxy Mortar.
Photo 5.6 Neoprene BearingwithSteel Plateat Top, at theBearing Location
6 LESSONS FROM THE MISHAPS
Lessons learned from case 1 to 4 above are reported in last
Para of each case. The provisions made in the Specifcations
for Roads and Bridges Works of Ministry of Road Transport
and Highways contained in Para 2002. Similarly, provisions
made in the Standard Specifcations in the Code of Practice in
Section 9 of IRC-83 are seen. These contain the following:
6.1 The bottom of girder to be received on the bearings
is plain at the location of these bearings.
6.2 During concreting of girders the bearings shall be
held in position securely by providing temporary
connection between the top and the bottom plates
and clamps at roller and plate bearings.
6.3 For bridges in gradient the bearing plate shall be
placed in horizontal plane.
64. On completing of the work clamps at bearings must be
removed. If this is not done the structure cracks. We
have observed that in one Yamuna bridge the clamps
provided at the bearings during construction were
not removed for more than 10 years, causing several
cracks in the cross girder. A case of not providing
clamps during concreting, lead to the collapse of
the structure during construction. This was observed
in Chambal Bridge (Case-3) and Ambika Bridge in
1953.
6.5 The design of bearing is done by the manufacturer of
bearings. He should record important instructions as
mentioned above in the drawing (about placing and
removal of clamps).
6.6 In case of sloping spans the pin between top and
bottom plates should be strong enough to prevent
the movement of plates during construction. If the
structure is designed as continuous only in the slab,
the continuity must be established immediately on
completing the deck of individual span.
6.7 Inadequate clamping arrangements of the sliding
bearings during construction is the main cause of
this mishap mentioned in the case of fyover in the
gradient (Para 5).
C. V. KAND ON
7 CONCLUSIONS
7.1. In this Paper the actual feld problems of mishaps of
bearings laid on defectable abutments and laid on
sloping spans are brought out. There appears to be
need to incorporate the fndings listed in (Para 6) in
the Specifcations for Bridges.
7.2. It is absolutely necessary to ascertain the causes of
distresses before taking up the job of restoration.
7.3. In bridge works expansion joints are proprietary
products which have some amount of vulnerability,
since these are directly hit by the moving traffc.
Expansion joint is therefore called the pulse of
the bridge and any trouble in the foundations,
substructure, bearings and superstructure gets
refected in the expansion joint. Similarly, bearings
are also important units and any trouble in the units
can cause mishap as had happened in many bridges.
It is advisable that bearings and expansion joints are
installed by the manufacturers of these products.
7.4. The technology has advanced so much that most of
the structural distresses can be restored.
7.5. The rehabilitation project cannot be successful unless
there is active involvement and cooperation between
the owner/client, the contractor and Rehabilitation
consultant
7.6. There is need to modify the specifcations for design
and construction of bearings and also insist upon
the calculation of defection of abutment and make
suitable provisions in abutment cap size.
7.7. Bearings and expansion joints are sometime to be
replaced during service life of bridges. It is easy to
replace strip seal type of expansion joint, but not
easy to replace old type expansion joints. Designs
of bearings should be such that these can be easily
replaced similar to elastomeric bearings.
REFERENCES
IRC Paper 359 of 1989 by H. D. Matange 1.
IRC Paper Environment & Material Investigations & Problems of 2.
Bridges by C. V. Kand, IRC Journal 1997.
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HIGHWAY RESEARCH
JOURNAL
Highway Research Board
I ndi an R oads C ongr ess
Volume 6 No. 2 July December 2013
Copyright
Regd. No. DELENG/2008/26432 with the Registrar of Newspapers
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