Substation Operation and Maintenance

i
Table of Contents
C ONTENTS
1 Substations and Switchyards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Introduction to Substations and Switchyards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Basic Equipment . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Substations: Protective E
quipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Regulation, Monitoring, and Communicatio
n Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 9 Switchyards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 13 Switchyard Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2
Safety in Substations and Switchyards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hazards and Safety Practices
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Safety Practices . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Electrical Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chemical Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . Personal Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . Using Support Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . Dangers and Accidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Safety Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Transformer Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Power Trans
formers, Current Transformers, and Potential Transformers . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . Power Transformer Cooling Systems, Self-Cooled . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Power Trans
formers Cooling Systems, Forced Air/Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21 21 21 22 26 28 29 30 32 33 35 39 43 53 54 55 56 57 57 59 59 60 61 62 64 64 66
67 68 68 69 69 70 70 71 72
3
Power Transformers, Part 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4
Power Transformers, Part 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Visual Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inspec
tion of a Transformer's Exterior Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inspection of a Transformer's Sealing S
ystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . Inspection of a Transformer's Cooling System . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gas and Oil T
esting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Testing for Combustib
le Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Testing for Oxygen . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Testing Oil Insulating Strength . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . Tap Changers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . No-Load Tap Changers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . Load Tap Changers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tap
Changer Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . De-Energizing, Iso
lating, and Grounding a Power Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . Tap Changer Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . Physical Condition of the Tap Changer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mechanical Oper
ation of the Tap Changer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Electrical Operation of the Tap Changer .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . Turns Ratio Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . Calculating the Turns Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Id
entifying Bushing Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Performing the Turns
Ratio Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Insulation Resistance Test . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
iii
Substation Operation and Maintenance
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2 Test Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5
New Power Transformer Inspection and Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . `'On-Car'' Inspections and Tests . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . Moving a New Power Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . `'On-
Site'' Inspections and Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Purpose of Transformer Turns Ratio Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Test Equipment . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Test Connections . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Test Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evaluating Test Results . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
75 75 77 81 87 88 92 93 95
6
Power Transformer Turns Ratio Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
7
Power Transformer Oil Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 The Purpose of Tr
ansformer Oil Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Oil Dielectric Test Set . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Dielectric Breakdown Strength Test . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 101 Oil Sample Taking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . 103 Lab Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 107 Power Transformer Insulation Resistance Testing . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Purpose of Insulati
on Resistance Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Test Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . Test Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . Test Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . Evaluating Test Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Powe
r Transformer Temperature Indicator Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Temperature Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . Temperature Indicator Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Heater Circuit Testing, Part 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Heater Circu
it Testing, Part 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Power Transformer Pressure
Relay Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . Sudden Pressure Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . Fault Pressure Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Testi
ng a Sudden Pressure Relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Testing a Fault Pressur
e Relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Circuit Breaker Operation . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction to Circuit Breakers . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . Air-Magnetic and Air-Blast Circuit Breakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oil and Vacuum Circu
it Breakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gas-Blast and Gas-Puffer Breakers . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . Solenoid and Motor/Spring Operating Mechanisms . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pneumatic and Hyd
raulic Operating Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
113 113 115 118 120 124 127 127 132 134 138 143 143 146 148 152 157 157 160 162
163 166 169
8
9
10
11
12
Circuit Breaker Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 General Circuit Br
eaker Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 Operating Mechanism Maintenance, Part
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 179
iv
Operating Mechanism Maintenance, Part 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Air-Magnetic and Vacuum Br
eaker Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 187 Oil Circuit Breaker Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 192
13
New Circuit Breaker Inspections and Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Receiving . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Installation . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Post-Installation Inspection . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . Proof Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . SF6 Gas Properties and Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P
roperties of SF6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Personal
Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Handling SF6 Gas an
d Its Decomposition Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . Cleanup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . Vacuum Bottle Hi-Pot Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Vacuum Interrupter Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Test Principles
, Precautions, and Preparations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hi-Pot Test Setup and Steps . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . Watching for Signs of Breakdown . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Circuit Breaker Time-Travel Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Purpose and Principles of Time-Tr
avel Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . Circuit Breaker Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Circuit Breaker Time Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Circuit Breaker Tra
vel Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Circuit Breaker Time-Travel Testing . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . Time-Travel Test Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dro
p-Bar Recorder Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Light-Beam Recorder
Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Digital Timer/Analyzer Testing . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . Circuit Breaker Time-Travel Test Analysis . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Time-T
ravel Recordings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Electrical Analysis
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mechanical Analysis . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Contact Resistance Testing . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . The Purpose of Contact Resistance Testing . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tes
t Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Test Connec
tions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Test Procedures and
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Capacitors and Reactors . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . Function of Capacitors and Reactors . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . Clearing Capacitor Banks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Capacitor
Bank Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Capacitor Resistor and Insula
tor Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Capacitor Capacitance Testing . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . .
199 199 203 206 208 213 213 215 218 221 225 225 227 231 234 237 237 239 242 244
249 249 253 259 263 267 267 270 272 275 279 279 280 283 285 289 289 292 297 300
302
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
v
Substation Operation and Maintenance
Shunt Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Ser
ies Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
21
Voltage Regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Voltage Reg
ulator Operation, Part 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Voltage Regulator Operation, Part
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . Voltage Regulator Control, Part I . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . Voltage Regulator Control, Part 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Field Inspe
ction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Field Control Chec
ks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Regulator Replacement . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Introduction to Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overcurrent
Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Directional Overcurr
ent Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reclosing Relays . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Voltage Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Auxiliary Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . Solid-State Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
313 313 315 319 322 325 326 329 333 336 340 343 345 347 348 351 354 359 362 363
366 369 373 376 377 380 382 384 387 391 391 394 398 401 405 405 407 410 415
22
Protective Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
23
Protective Relays, Transmission Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Introduction to Protective Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Differential Relay
s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transfer Tripping . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Distance Relays . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Zoned Protection . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pilot Wire Relaying . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . Breaker Failure Relaying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . .
24
Control Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Control Functions, Modes, and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Voltage Control . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Distribution Feeder Fault Control .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . Transmission and Subtransmission Feeder Fault Control .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Station Fault
Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Source Circuit Fault Con
trol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Routine Checks of Control Equipment . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
25
Substation Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Substation DC
Control System Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cell Components and Electrochemical Actio
n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . Cell and Battery Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Batte
ry Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Substation Bat
tery Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Voltage and Resistance Testing
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Specic Gravity Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . Integrity and Capacity Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Impedance Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
vi
27
Substation Battery Chargers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Charger Functions an
d Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DC Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . Freshening Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . Float and Equalizing Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Charg
er Inspection and Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Substation Battery, Cell and
Charger Replacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . Cell Replacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Replacing Battery Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Battery Re
moval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Auxiliary Battery
and Auxiliary Battery Trailer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Battery Installation . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inspecting New Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . Placing New Cells on the Battery Rack . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Prepar
ing Electrical Contact Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Making Intercell Connection
s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Battery Charger Replacement . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . Taking the Existing Charger Out of Service . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Installing
a New Charger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
419 419 420 421 424 426 429 429 429 432 432 436 436 437 438 439 440 440 441
28
vii
Substations and Switchyards
C HAPTER
1
Substations and Switchyards
Electricity is a necessity of modern life. Transmission and distribution (T&D) s
ystems provide electricity to consumers wherever and whenever it is needed. Two
of the major components of a typical T&D system are substations and switchyards.
This chapter examines the role that substations and switchyards play in a T&D s
ystem and discusses some of the equipment that is commonly used in substations a
nd switchyards. Security and safety precautions associated with substations and
switchyards are also covered when appropriate.
Introduction to Substations and Switchyards
Major Components of a Transmission and Distribution System
The major components of a transmission and distribution system typically include
transmission lines, distribution lines, substations, and switchyards. Transmiss
ion lines carry electricity from the generating plant where it is produced, and
distribution lines carry electricity to the houses, ofces, and industries where i
t is used. The distances between generating plants and consumers are often too g
reat to allow electricity to be carried directly from the plants to the consumer
s. To carry electricity over long distances, Figure 1-1. Substation. transmissio
n and distribution systems need voltage changing substations, which are referred
to in this program as substations. An example of a substation is shown in Figur
e 1-1. At substations, voltage is increased for efcient transmission over long di
stances or decreased for distribution to nearby customers. Besides changing volt
age for transmission or distribution, a transmission and distribution system mus
t also be able to ensure that users will continue to receive electricity even if
part of the system fails. To meet this rquirement, circuits
Figure 1-2. Switchyard.
1
Substations and Switchyards Shunt reactors are used to improve substation efcienc
y by adding inductive load to counterbalance capacitive loads. A shunt reactor,
like the one shown in Figure 1-33, looks like a power transformer, except that t
he bushings on a shunt reactor are connected with the source circuit; there are
no major connections leading out of a shunt reactor (such as the secondary conne
ctions on a power transformer).
Monitoring Equipment
Monitoring equipment is used to provide a means of watching substation equipment a
nd systems for problems so that they can be limited and corrected. Commonly used
types of monitoring equipment include potential transformers, current transform
ers, meters, and relays.
Figure 1-32. Capacitor bank.
Bushings
Source circuit
Potential transformers
Potential transformers are devices that reduce line voltage to a proportionally
lower and safer voltage for metering and relaying. A potential transformer, like
the one shown in Figure 1-34, normally has a large porcelain bushing that insul
ates the higher voltage conductor going into the transformer. The transformer it
self is usually enclosed in a metal housing. The output wires of the transformer
s are enclosed in conduit to protect them. These wires connect to meters or rela
ying equipment in a control house. Potential transformers come in many shapes an
d sizes. They are sometimes difcult to distinguish from other devices such as som
e current transformers and surge arrestors. For this reason, potential transform
ers are often identied in substations by signs like the one shown in Figure 1-35.
Shunt reactor
Figure 1-33. Shunt reactor.
Bushing
Transformer housing
Current Transformers
Conduit In contrast to potential transformers, which reduce line voltage, curren
t transformers reduce Figure 1-34. Potential transformer. line current to a prop
ortionally lower current for metering or relaying. Current transformers can look
like potential transformers or surge arrestors. One identifying feature on the
current transformer shown in Figure 1-36 is a large canister on top of the bushi
ng with a conductor
11
Power Transformers, Part 1 are not always forced-oil/forced-air cooled. Power tr
ansformers with other kinds of cooling systems can also be gas sealed. Figure 3-
36 shows a gas-sealed, self-cooled/forced-air-cooled power transformer. The cool
ing system is recognizable by the combination of the radiator and the fan.
Guage
Regulators
Regardless of the type of cooling system that a gas-sealed power transformer has
, the gas seal system works in basically the same way. The simpliGas cylinder ed
illustration in Figure 3-37 represents the sealing system of a gas-sealed power
transformer. Figure 3-35. Gas cylinder, regulators, gauges, The components of th
e sealing system are a gas and pressure relief device. cylinder, two pressure re
gulators, two gauges, and a pressure relief device. The windings in a gas-sealed
power transformer are completely covered by oil. The rest of the enclosure is ll
ed with gas, which is supplied through tubing from the cylinder. The regulators
ensure that gas is supplied at a pressure slightly above atmospheric pressure. T
his slight positive pressure keeps air and moisture from leaking into the enclos
ure. When the transformer is operating, the windings heat the oil, causing it to
expand. As the expanding oil compresses the gas, the pressure inside the enclos
ure increases. If the pressure rises enough to exceed a predetermined high value
, the relief device releases gas from the transformer enclosure to atmosphere. T
he release of gas continues until pressure returns to an acceptable value.
Guage
Radiators
Gas cylinder
Figure 3-36. Gas-sealed power transformer, Example 2.
Tubing
Guage Oil
Windings When the transformer becomes cooler, for Regulators example, during a p
eriod of reduced load, the oil also becomes cooler, and it contracts. As the oil
contracts, the pressure inside the transformer Gas cylinder enclosure drops. If
the pressure falls below a predetermined low value, a regulator adds gas from t
he Pressure relief device cylinder to the enclosure until the pressure returns F
igure 3-37. Simplied representation of a to an acceptable value.
gas-sealed power transformer.
The regulators and the relief device in a gas-sealed power transformer regulate
gas ow. The gauges indicate pressure. For example, the gauge shown in Figure 3-38
indicates the pressure inside the gas cylinder. As gas in the cylinder is used,
the cylinder pressure drops. A low pressure reading means that the gas is runni
ng out, and the cylinder may need to be replaced.
49
Power Transformers, Part 2 Next, both selector switch A and selector switch B ar
e rotated clockwise, so that selector switch B slides over to tap 2, and selecto
r switch A slides across tap N to the opposite end of the tap. (Selector switch
A remains on tap N.) Since current is not owing through selector switch B, there
is no arcing as the switch changes taps. Then, transfer switch B is closed, so t
hat current ows across the reversing switch and the raise tap, labeled R, from le
ft to right through a portion of the tapped winding, across tap 2 and selector s
witch B, across transfer switch B, and out lead X0. Current continues to ow acros
s the neutral tap, across selector switch A, across transfer switch A, and out l
ead X0. Transfer switch A is then opened to interrupt current ow through selector
switch A. Both selector switch A and selector switch B are rotated clockwise, s
o that selector switch A slides over to tap 2, and selector switch B slides acro
ss tap 2 to the opposite end of the tap. Once selector switch A is on tap 2, tra
nsfer switch A is closed, so that current again ows across selector switch A and
transfer switch A and out lead X0. This completes the tap change. The new tap po
sition is shown in Figure 4-18. With the reversing switch in the Raise position
and the selector switches on tap 2, a portion of the tapped winding is added to
the secondary winding. This changes the ratio of secondary turns to primary turn
s and effectively raises the secondary voltage. The rst tap position that adds tu
rns to the secondary winding is called one-raise. As the selector switches are m
oved clockwise to the other taps, turns are added to the secondary to raise the
secondary voltage. When all of the tapped windings are added, the tap changer is
at the fullraise position. Figure 4-19 shows the tap changer at full-raise. To
lower the secondary voltage, the selector switches are rotated counterclockwise
back to the neutral tap. Then, the reversing switch slides from the Raise positi
on (R) to the Lower position (L), and the selector switches rotate counterclockw
ise from tap N to tap 4. Figure 4-20 shows the new tap position called: on-lower
.
Figure 4-19. Tap changer at full-raise position.
Figure 4-18. Tap changer at one-raise position.
When the reversing switch is in the Lower position, and the selector switches ar
e on tap 4, current ows from left to right across the secondary winding, across t
he reversing switch and the Lower tap, from right to left through part of the ta
pped winding, across tap 4 and the selector switches, across the transfer switch
es, and out lead X0.
65
Power Transformer Insulation Resistance Testing between the high voltage winding
and ground to be tested. Although the low voltage winding is not included in th
is test, current leakage to the low voltage winding could affect the resistance
measurement. To avoid this problem, a lead is connected to the guard (G) termina
l of the megohmmeter and the low voltage (X) terminal of the transformer. The gu
ard diverts current that leaks to the low voltage windings so that this leakage
current is not included in the test measurement.
Connections for Testing the Resistance Between the Low Voltage Winding and Groun
d
The connections for testing the insulation resistance between the low voltage wi
nding and ground are illustrated in Figure 8-18. One test lead is connected to t
he earth (-) terminal of the megohmmeter and to a transformer case ground. Anoth
er test lead is connected to the line (+) terminal of the megohmmeter and to the
low voltage (X) terminal of the transformer. A lead is also connected between t
he guard (G) terminal of the megohmmeter and the high voltage (H) terminal of th
e transformer to divert current that leaks to the high voltage winding so that t
his leakage current is not measured.
Figure 8-18. Connections for testing insulation resistance between the low volta
ge winding and ground.
Connections for Testing the Resistance Between the Low Voltage Winding and the H
igh Voltage Winding
The connections for testing the resistance between the low voltage winding and t
he high voltage winding are illustrated in Figure 8-19. One test lead is connect
ed to the earth (-) terminal of the megohmmeter and to the high voltage (H) term
inal of the transformer. Another test lead is connected to the line (+) terminal
of the megohmmeter and to the low voltage (X) terminal of the Figure 8-19. Conn
ections for testing insulation transformer. A lead is also connected between the
resistance between the low voltage winding guard (G) terminal of the megohmmete
r and a and the high voltage winding. transformer case ground to divert current
that leaks to ground so that this leakage current is not measured. Core ground
Connections for Testing the Insulation Resistance Between the Transformer Core a
nd Ground
A transformer core to ground test is a type of insulation resistance test that i
s typically performed after a transformer has been moved or after any work has b
een done inside a transformer. As illustrated in Figure 8-20, a core ground conn
ects the core that the windings are wound around to the
Core
Tank, or case ground
Figure 8-20. Transformer core and core ground.
121
Circuit Breaker Operation is no current ow. Circuit breakers are designed to take
advantage of these momentary absences of current ow to help extinguish arcs.
Classication of Circuit Breakers
Circuit breakers are generally classied according to the dielectric mediums they
use to help extinguish arcs. Four mediums that are commonly used for this purpos
e are air, oil, vacuum and gas. Figures 11-4 and 11-5 show two types of breakers
that use air as a dielectric medium. The air-magnetic breaker (Figure 11-4) use
s air and a magnetic eld to help extinguish arcs. The air-blast breaker (Figure 1
1-5) uses a highpressure blast of air. Figure 11-6 shows an oil breaker. In an o
il breaker, the contacts are submerged in insulating oil, which helps extinguish
the arc. Figure 11-7 shows a vacuum breaker. A vacuum breaker encloses its cont
acts in a vacuum, which
Figure 11-5. Air-blast breaker. Figure 11-4. Air-magnetic breaker.
Figure 11-6. Oil breaker.
Figure 11-7. Vacuum breaker.
Figure 11-8. Gas-blast breaker.
Figure 11-9. Gas-puffer breaker.
161
Circuit Breaker Operation As illustrated in Figure 11-21, a gas-puffer breaker i
nterruptor is enclosed in a pipe-like tank, which is lled with low-pressure SF6 g
as. The Bushings interruptor is an insulated tube that houses the breaker's interr
upting mechanisms and insulates Interruptor them from the outer tank. The interr
uptor's main features (Figure 11-22) include a stationary contact assembly, a movi
ng contact assembly with a non-conducting nozzle, and a chamber where gas is com
pressed during the operation of the breaker. Each of the contact assemblies incl
udes main contact ngers and arcing contact ngers. When the circuit breaker is clos
ed, the current path is through the stationary contact assembly, the main contac
t ngers and the moving contact assembly. When the breaker trips (Figure 11-23), t
he moving contact assembly moves away from the stationary assembly and the main
contact ngers separate. Arcing does not occur, however, because the circuit is st
ill complete through the arcing contacts. As the moving contact assembly moves a
way from the stationary assembly, the SF6 gas in the compression chamber is comp
ressed. Compressing the gas increases its dielectric strength. Eventually, the m
oving contact assembly moves so far that the arcing contact ngers separate, and a
n arc forms (Figure 11-24). When the arcing ngers separate, the compression chamb
er opens, and thehigh-pressure gas ows through the arc to the low pressure areas
of the interruptor. The dielectric strength of the high-pressure gas weakens the
arc. As the gas ows through the arc, the arc is lengthened and cooled, until it
eventually extinguishes at a current zero.
Low pressure SF6 gas Tank
Figure 11-21. Gas-puffer breaker.
Nozzle Main contact ngers
Stationary contact assembly Arcing contact ngers
Moving contact assembly
Compression chamber
Figure 11-22. Gas-puffer breaker interruptor closed.
Main contacts separate Gas comnpressing in chamber
Arcing contacts still meet
Figure 11-23. Gas-puffer breaker interruptor main contacts open.
Arc
Figure 11-24. Gas-puffer breaker interruptor arcing contacts open.
167
New Circuit Breaker Inspections and Tests rod travel velocity, and a variety of
other circuit breaker operating characteristics. Figure 13-27 is an illustration
of typical time-travel traces. The time-travel test is typically performed for
several types of breaker operations. The traces for Timing rod each operation ca
n be analyzed to determine how the breaker is performing in comparison with the
manufacturer's specications. If the breaker's Transducer performance does not fall wi
thin acceptable ranges, the breaker must be properly adjusted before it can be p
ut in service. Figure 13-26. Transducer and timing rod on an oil
Contact Resistance Test
Resistance in the closed contacts of a circuit breaker can have a number of caus
es, including arcing deposits, a loose or incomplete connection, or pitting from
repetitive arcing. Contact resistance creates heat that can reduce the life of
the contacts and possibly even lead to breaker failure. The purpose of contact r
esistance testing is to detect unacceptably high contact resistance levels befor
e failure occurs. In principle, the test is performed by passing a direct curren
t through the closed contacts of the breaker and measuring the voltage drop acro
ss the contacts (Figure 13-28). The test instrument uses the current and voltage
values to calculate and display the contact resistance.
circuit breaker.
Figure 13-27. Time-travel traces.
If the contact resistance exceeds an acceptable limit, the contacts may have to
be cleaned or replaced. Figure 13-28. Performing a contact resistance
Insulation Resistance Test
When a circuit breaker's contacts are open, the breaker's insulation should provide
a high resistance to prevent current from owing. The purpose of insulation resist
ance testing is to detect unacceptably low levels of insulation resistance befor
e poor or weakened insulation results in failure. In principle, the test is perf
ormed by applying a high DC voltage to one of the breaker's bushing terminals with
the breaker's contacts open (Figure 13-29). Then, leakage current is measured eit
her to
test.
Figure 13-29. Performing an insulation resistance test.
211
Substation Operation and Maintenance the power factor in this case by using capa
citor banks, such as the one shown in Figure 20-8. The capacitor banks offset th
e excessive demand for inductive power, and thus bring the power factor closer t
o unity. Excessive demand for non-working capacitive power also results in a low
er power factor than desirable. In this case, instead of increasing power output
to meet the demand for capacitive power, the utility can improve the power fact
or by using shunt reactors. The shunt reactors offset the excessive demand for c
apacitive power. Figure 20-9 shows an example of a typical shunt reactor.
Figure 20-8. Capacitor bank.
Clearing Capacitor Banks
The main steps for safely clearing a capacitor bank for maintenance are similar
to the steps taken to clear any other device in a substation. These steps includ
e de-energizing, isolating, testing for dead, and grounding. However, a capacito
r bank is different from other devices in a substation in that it stores an elec
trical charge even after the bank has been separated from its source of energy.
Because of this ability to store a charge, some special safety Figure 20-9. Shun
t reactor. precautions are required when clearing a capacitor bank.
De-Energizing and Isolating a Capacitor Bank
A capacitor bank is de-energized by electrically separating the bank from its so
urce of energy. Figure 20-10 is a simplied illustration of a section of a substat
ion that includes an energized threephase bus, a three-phase circuit breaker, th
ree single-phase disconnect switches, and a three-phase capacitor bank. In this
example, the capacitor bank is de-energized by opening the circuit breaker.
Capacitor bank Disconnect switches
A capacitor bank is isolated by physically Circuit separating the bank from its
source of energy. As breaker illustrated in Figure 20-11, the capacitor bank in
this example is isolated by opening the three single- Figure 20-10. Substation c
apacitor bank. phase disconnect switches. Opening these switches provides a visi
ble break between the source of energy and the capacitor bank. The actual switch
ing devices that are operated and the sequence in which they are operated vary w
ith the design of the substation. In general, a capacitor bank is switched out o
nly after 294
Voltage Regulators
Isolating the Regulator
After the bypass switch is closed, the regulator can be isolated from the circui
t. This is done by opening the regulator source and load disconnect switches. Th
e disconnect switch that is opened rst depends on the design of the system and on
company procedures. The specic procedure for switching a regulator out of servic
e may vary. For example, the type of switch shown in Figures 22-47 and 22-48 ena
bles the regulator to be both bypassed and isolated in one switch operation. The
switch in this example is made up of two bars. When the switch is closed, one b
ar connects the source circuit to the source lead of the regulator. The other ba
r connects the load lead of the regulator to the load circuit. The two bars are
separated by insulators.
Bypass switch
Source disconnect switch
Load disconnect switch
Figure 21-46. Regulator bypass switch closed.
Source circuit Bars separated by insulators
Load circuit
By opening the switch, three switching operations are completed in one action. T
he rst operation Regulator Regulator load lead source lead is bypassing the regul
ator. When the switch is opened, a spring operated plate (Figure 21-48) Figure 2
1-47. Disconnect switch. moves into the space where the switch was. The plate co
nnects the source circuit to the load circuit, Load circuit and the regulator is
bypassed. contact For the second operation, the regulator is isolated from the
source circuit. When the switch is opened, there is a visible separation between
the source circuit and the regulator source lead. For the third operation, the
regulator is isolated from the load circuit. When the switch is opened, there is
a visible separation between the regulator load lead and the load circuit.
Source circuit contact Plate
Figure 21-48. Disconnect switch opened.
Physically Disconnecting the Regulator
Generally, single-phase regulators in a substation are grouped in three-phase ba
nks, as shown in Figure 21-49. To remove one of the regulators, all three units
must be taken out of service. After the regulators have been switched out of ser
vice, they are tagged, tested for dead, and grounded according to company proced
ures. To remove the regulator, its conductors are disconnected from the regulato
r terminals. In Figure 21-50, one of the conductors has been marked
Figure 21-49. Three single-phase regulators.
333
Protective Relays, Transmission Systems The specic voltage-to-current ratio setti
ng for a distance relay is affected by several considerations. For example, a di
stance relay in substation A can be set for a voltage-to-current ratio that woul
d cause the relay to operate for a fault anywhere on the section of line between
substations A and B. With this setting, however, the relay might trip for a fau
lt near substation B but between substations B and Figure 23-37. Fault between s
ubstations B and C. C (Figure 23-37). This type of relay operation is undesirabl
e, because the basic approach to transmission line protection is to isolate only
the section of line in which a fault occurs. For a fault between substations B
and C, a relay in substation B should open a breaker in substation B, and, possi
bly by transfer tripping, also open a breaker in substation C to isolate the fau
lt. If a distance relay in substation A operates, it would isolate the section o
f line between substations A and B, even though that section of line does not ha
ve to be isolated to remove the fault from the system.
Zoned Protection
To prevent undesirable operations, a distance relay is generally set to protect
approximately 90% of a line section. This protected section is typically referre
d to as Zone 1 (Figure 23-38). To protect line sections between substations, add
itional Zone 1 sections can be set up (Figure 23-39). However, with this type of
protection, approximately 10% of each line section is left unprotected. A commo
n way to provide complete protection for line sections is to use a distance rela
y in each substation that provides Zone 1 protection in the opposite direction (
Figure 23-40). This arrangement provides overlapping protection for each line se
ction between substations. In addition to Zone 1 protection, a distance relay ma
y also provide Zone 2 and Zone 3 protection. For example, as illustrated in Figu
re 23-41, Zone 2 protection from substation A covers the line section between su
bstations A and B, as well as part of the line section between substations B and
C. Zone 3 protection from substation A covers the line sections between substat
ions A and B, substations B and C, and part of the line section beyond substatio
n C.
Figure 23-38. Zone 1 protection.
Unprotected line sections
Figure 23-39. Multiple Zone 1 protection.
= Overlapping protection
Figure 23-40. Overlapping Zone 1 protection.
Figure 23-41. Zone 2 and Zone 3 protection from substation A.
365
Substation Operation and Maintenance
Sensing Equipment
Sensing equipment is equipment that changes a condition such as voltage or curre
nt to a value or signal that can be measured. For example, potential transformer
s (Figure 24-1) change, or transform, line voltage to a proportionally lower vol
tage for measurement. Another example of sensing equipment is a current transfor
mer. Current transformers (Figure 24-2) transform line current to a proportional
ly lower current for measurement.
Figure 24-1. Potential transformer.
Figure 24-2. Current transformer.
Measuring Equipment
The signals from sensing equipment are typically sent to measuring equipment and
controlling equipment. Measuring equipment measures the signal provided by sens
ing equipment and indicates the value of the condition being sensed. For example
, a meter such as the ammeter shown in Figure 24-3 indicates the value of curren
t it receives from a current transformer. Another example of measuring equipment
is a recording meter, such as the one shown in Figure 24-4. A recording meter m
easures signals from sensing equipment and records the values of the signals ove
r a period of time.
Figure 24-3. Ammeter.
Figure 24-4. Recording meter.
Controlling Equipment
Controlling equipment detects the signals it gets from sensing equipment, and, i
f a signal is different from a preset value, provides a signal that operates var
ious other equipment. An example of controlling equipment is an overcurrent rela
y, such as the one shown in Figure 24-5. An over current relay detects current t
hat it receives from a current transformer. If the current 376
Substation Operation and Maintenance If alternating current to the charger is in
terrupted for any reason, the battery will instantly provide direct current to t
he steady, continuous loads and, as required, to the intermittent loads. It will
continue to supply the loads until alternating current is restored or until the
battery is fully discharged.
Cell Components and Electrochemical Action
Substation battery maintenance and testing are more likely to be performed prope
rly when the worker knows the construction of the battery cells, how the cells w
ork, and what can go wrong with the cells and why. This section describes the co
mponents and electrochemical action of a typical lead-acid substation battery ce
ll.
Components of a Lead-Acid Cell
Battery cells used in substations are typically lead-acid cells. The external co
mponents of a typical lead-acid cell (Figure 25-10) include a container, which i
s often called a jar, positive and negative terminal posts, and a vent with a ame
arrestor. The ame arrestor shields explosive gases at the vent from external spa
rks or ames. The internal components include a liquid called an electrolyte, cond
uctive lead-based plates, and non-conductive separators. The electrolyte is comp
osed of sulfuric acid and water.
Figure 25-10. Components of a lead-acid cell.
Figure 25-11 shows a cell that has been disassembled so that the plates and sepa
rators can be seen. The plates are arranged so that the negative plates and the
positive plates alternate. A cell always has one more negative plate than positi
ve, and the plates at each end of the cell are negative. This is because each po
sitive plate needs a negative plate on each side of it in order to function efcie
ntly. All the positive plates are mechanically and electrically linked together
by a bus bar and connected to Figure 25-11. Disassembled lead-acid cell. one of
the terminal posts. The negative plates are also linked together, and they are c
onnected to the other terminal post. The non-conductive separators insulate the
negative and positive plates from each other. The most widely used cell plate de
sign is a type called the pasted plate, although there is a variety of other des
igns. The pasted plate uses porous lead compounds for the chemically active port
ions of the plate. This material is too soft to hold together by itself, so it i
s typically pasted onto a metal grid (Figure 25-12). 396
Figure 25-12. Plate grid and lead.
Substation Operation and Maintenance terminal of cell 7 is connected to the posi
tive terminal of cell 8.
Negative terminals Positive terminals
To begin the cell replacement procedure, the jumpers are connected to cells 6 an
d 8 and to the new cell (Figure 28-3). One end of a jumper Bad cell is connected
to the negative terminal of cell 6, and the other end of the jumper is connecte
d to the positive terminal of the new cell. One end of a second jumper is connec
ted to the positive Figure 28-2. Typical cell arrangement - one bad terminal of
cell 8, and the other end of that jumper cell. is connected to the negative term
inal of the new cell. The jumpers are connected to the terminal so Positive Nega
tive that they will not interfere with the removal and reinstallation of the int
ercell connecting straps. With the jumpers in place, the bad cell is then discon
nected from the battery by removing the intercell connecting straps between cell
s 6 and 7 and between cells 7 and 8. Because the new cell is connected in parall
el, no arcing occurs when the intercell connecting straps are disconnected from
the bad cell. Next, the bad cell is removed from the battery rack, and the new c
ell is put in its place (Figure 28-4).
New cell
Figure 28-3. Jumper connections to bypass bad cell.
Once the new cell is in place, it is connected to the adjacent cells in the batt
ery. The intercell connecting straps are reinstalled, connecting the negative te
rminal of cell 6 to the positive terminal of the new cell, and the positive term
inal of cell 8 to the negative terminal of the new cell. Then, both jumper cable
s are removed. Connecting a new cell in parallel with the old cell makes it poss
ible to remove and replace a bad cell on a battery that is Figure 28-4. New cell
installed between cells 6 and 8 with temporary jumper connections only. still i
n service.
Bypassing a Cell Using a Diode and Jumpers
New cell Combustible gas detector Jumber with diode Diode Ohmmeter
As shown in Figure 28-5, the equipment required for bypassing a cell using a dio
de and jumpers includes a jumper with a diode that is connected in line with the
jumper, and two jumpers without diodes. Also shown in Figure 28-5 are a combust
ible gas detector, an ohmmeter, and the new cell to be installed in place of the
bad cell. Some companies require that a combustible gas detector be used whenev
er work is performed on 432
Jumpers without diodes
Figure 28-5. Equipment for bypassing a cell using a diode and jumpers.