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'Duplex gage' provides a means to simultaneously measure both temperature and strain by using two strain gages that are temperature compensated. Transducer uses the phenomenon that when a gage is installed on a material with a different thermal coefficient of expansion the apparent strain versus temperature curve rotates about the reference temperature. The test specimens are subjected to only temperature changes and no extemal loads are applied.
'Duplex gage' provides a means to simultaneously measure both temperature and strain by using two strain gages that are temperature compensated. Transducer uses the phenomenon that when a gage is installed on a material with a different thermal coefficient of expansion the apparent strain versus temperature curve rotates about the reference temperature. The test specimens are subjected to only temperature changes and no extemal loads are applied.
'Duplex gage' provides a means to simultaneously measure both temperature and strain by using two strain gages that are temperature compensated. Transducer uses the phenomenon that when a gage is installed on a material with a different thermal coefficient of expansion the apparent strain versus temperature curve rotates about the reference temperature. The test specimens are subjected to only temperature changes and no extemal loads are applied.
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Using Strain Gages to Measure Both
Strain and Temperature by P. Cappa, G. De Rita, K.G. McConnell and L.W. Zachary ABSTRACT -A transducer is proposed that measures both temperature and strain by using two different strain gages. The theoretical basis for designing such a transducer is developed. Experimental results indicate that the temperature signal can be measured satisfactorily. lntroduction Electrical-resistance strain gages are affected by both systematic and random errors. Depending upon the accuracy and precision required to meet the test objectives, these systematic and random errors may bave to be pursued aggressively. O ne of the significant an d well known causes of systematic error is the effect of tempera- ture variation on the apparent strain. The most common procedure employed to correct the temperature-induced apparent strain and the gage-factor variation is to use the temperature as measured by a separate sensor. A proposed transducer, called the 'duplex gage' provides a means to simultaneously measure both tem- perature and strain by using two strain gages that are temperature compensated for use on materials with different coefficients of linear expansion. The transducer uses the phenomenon that when a gage is installed on a material with a different thermal coefficient of expansion the apparent strain versus temperature curve rotates about the reference temperature (T. = 24C}. This phenomenon has been used by Poore and Kesterson 1
2 to determine the coefficient of thermal expansion of solids. This paper discusses the prelirninary validation of the new transducer. The test specimens are subjected to only temperature changes and no extemal loads are applied. P. Cappa (SEM Member) is Assistant Projessor, and G. De Rita is Graduate Student, Universityof Rome "La Sapienza': Department oj Mechanics and Aeronautics, Via Eudossiana 18, 00184 Roma, ltaly. K.G. McConnell (SEM Fellow) and L. W. Zachary (SEM Member) are Projessors, lowa State University, Department of Aerospace Engineering and Engineering Mechanics, Ames, lA 50011. Paper was presented at the 1991 SEM Spring Conference on Experimental Mechanics held in Mi/waukee, Wl on lune 10-13. 230 September 1992 The temperature measured by the duplex gage is compared to the temperature measured by a thermocouple. Theoretical Model for Measuring 8oth Strain and Temperature When a strain-gage installation is subjected to tempera- ture changes during the test period, significant thermal effects alter the gages' performance characteristics that are described by the gages' resistance and effective gage- factor variation with temperature. Strain-gage resistance for gth gage can be expressed as w h ere !J.T temperature change from reference temperature T. ,, = resistance thermal coefficient (3... mounting-material thermal-expansion coefficient a, gage-material thermal-expansion coefficient F, gage factor Equation (l) shows that the strain-gage resistance changes with temperature as well as with strain E that is due to extemal loads. The parameters ,,, (3 ... , and a, can be temperature dependent, though ideally they are constants. It is of interest to measure strain E without serious errors due to temperature. The change in gage resistance is obtained from eq (l) as I:J.R, = R,-R,. = R,.('Y,I:J.T+F,e+F,(3 ... !J.T-F,a,!J.T) (2) from which the measured strain becomes E,= [ , , F ~ { J ... -o:,)] I:J.T + (; ) E (3) where a generic gage factor F is used at this point since there are several choices as to the value selected. It is clear from eq (3) that measurement of E requires knowl- edge of the effects of !:!.T. Equation.(3) can be written as (4) w h ere [ 'Y + F,([3 ... - a,) ] Er1 = F !:!.T (5) is the thermal strain. This equation shows that the thermal strain depends on the thermal coefficient of resistance, 'Y the coefficient of expansion of the materia! the gage is mounted on, [3,., the coefficient of expansion of the gage foil (or wire) materia!, a,, the gage factor F, at temperature T, the gage factor F used in either the strain indicator or computer calculation scheme, and the temperature change l:!. T. It is clear that some of these coefficients are tempera- ture dependent as well. A strain gage is designed to work with minimum thermal strain when applied to a specific materia]. N ow, Jet us exarnine how the different factors are obtained by calibration. First, the reference gage factor is determined by calibration at the reference temperature T, by applying a known strain and adjusting the generic gage factor so that eq (4) is satisfied with the thermal strain being zero. This reference gage factor is denoted F*. Second, the thermal-strain characteristic is obtained by setting the gage factor at F* applying no external load so that E is zero, and varying the temperature. This gives a typical thermal-strain calibration curve as shown in Fig. l, where the variations of Er as a function of test temperature of one of the utilized gage in the 'duplex gage' transducer (a strain gage compensated in temperature for steel when it is applied on steel) are shown. Note that this curve is lirnited to using the F* gage factor and the gage is mounted on a given material. It is assumed that a proper bound is obtained between the gage and the mounting materia]. Third, the gage factor is also temperature dependent. The change in gage factor with temperature is obtained by heating the calibration materia! to temperature T, zeroing the bridge, and applying known calibration strains. This allows a second calibration curve of F *l F, to be plotted as shown in Fig. 2. Now, these equations can be applied to measure both temperature change !:!.T and strain. Consider that gage l is designed to work with materia] A. Then eq (3) becomes , = ( ]!:!.T+ 1 1 (6) where Ert is the calibrated gage temperature characteristic. Gage 2 is designed to work with materia! B so that its characteristics become from eq (3) 2 = [ 'Y2+F2(f3s-a2)] !J.T + ( F2 ) = F* F* E 2 2 Tl + ( ;2. ) 2 (7) where Er2 is the gage-temperature characteristics when mounted on materia! B. Now, when gage 2 is mounted on materia! A instead of materia! B for which it is designed, eq (7) becomes = [ 'Y2 + F2([3A- a2)] !:!.T + ( F2 ) F* F* E 2 2 (8) which can be written as (9) It is assumed that both the gages are mounted at the same surface point so that they are subjected to the same strain E. Subtracting strain 1 [from eq (l)] from strain 2 [from eq (9)] gives (10) Equation (10) contains ali of the factors that affect the different readings. It is clear that if the ratios of FdF: and F, are the same, then this strain difference ,........ 500 E .......... E "' l o c o -1 l... .... VJ .... c e o a.. a.. <( Temperature ( C) Fig. 1-Apparent strain versus test temperature for one of the gages utilized in the 'duplex gage' transducer, that is the gage compensated in temperature for steel when it is applied on steel 1;10 1.06 1.00
.......... t.. 0.110 0.111! T, T ( OC) emperature Fig. 2-Gage-factor variation with temperature Experimental Mechanics 231 depends only on temperature since ETl and ET2 are known functions of temperature on their respective design materiais of A and B. The gage factor ratio F,JFi is known and the materiai thermal coefficients of expansion are known. Then, it is possible to determine the surface temperature T since T= T,+!J.T (11) Once T is known, then, the surface strain can be calculated from either eq (6) or eq (9). The objective of the following experiments is to verify that the surface temperature can be obtained by using two strain gages mounted on the same material where one gage is designed to work with the materiai and the other is designed to work with a material with a thermal- expansion coefficient that is considerably different. lt is also clear that the gage-factor ratio should be the same for both gages. In these experiments, the mounting materia! remained unstrained due to external loads throughout the experiments. Experimental Procedure and Results To experimentally verify the proposed method and to evaluate the relative precision and accuracy, three 'duplex gages' are applied to three specimens (100 150 2.5 mm 3 ) of 1018 steel. One of the two gages of each 'duplex gage' is compensated in temperature for the specimen material, the other is compensated for titanium silicate. The second gage was selected to both magnify the E2 - E, contribution, and to simplify eq (11) ({3A = 0). Nickel-chromium-alloy foil-type strain gages, that are generally suggested for high-performance self-temperature- compensated use, fully encapsulated in glass-fiber-rein- forced epoxy-phenolic resin, are chosen for this work. The chosen strain gages (gage length: 3.18 mm; grid width: 3.18 mm; nominai resistance: 350 O) are ali from the same lot. The adhesive used to bond the strain gages is a two-component solvent thinned epoxy phenolic which, for long-term measurements, has a temperature range from -269 to 260C, and is utilized in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations. Gage terminals and high-temperature leadwires are spot welded to connectors that are fixed to specimens by welding anchor clips. A quarter Wheatstone bridge using a three-wire lead system is used. The leadwire has a 0.4-mm diameter and approximately 0.2 m of the 1.0-m wire length is in the temperature chamber. The leadwires are twisted so that each wire sees the same temperature environment. The gages are connected to a digitai strain meter after they are cured and post cured. Three complete tempera- ture cycles of 20-250C (125 percent of the chosen maximum test temperature) are used to check the stage of the adhesive cure. The measurement of the gage-insulation resistance gives a good picture of the mechanicai properties of the adhesive layer. The resistance between the gage grid and the specimen is measured at the beginning and end of each temperature cycle. If the gage installation exhibits a shift in the zero reading larger than 0.2 percent of the measured maximum strain, 3 or if the insulation resistance is :s; 100M n the gage is removed and replaced. When the observed behavior of the 'duplex gage' instailation does not cause reasonable doubts, it is connected to an automatic system illustrated in Fig. 3. The system components, for strain-gage measurements, include: (l) a strain-gage conditioner, linearity: 0.05 percent; (2) an IEEE-488 programmable switch control unit, the mechanicai switches have low thermal offset (:S 4 p. V at the end of their life); (3) an IEEE-488 program- mable digitai voltmeter, accuracy: (0.002 percent + 3 counts); and, finally, an IEEE-488 controller. The locai temperature at the 'duplex gage' location is monitored by a chromel-alumel thermocouple spot- welded to the specimen area examined by the gages. The thermocouple, see Fig. 3, is connected to an ice point and an IEEE-488 programmable digitai voltmeter, accuracy: Ice point strain gage conditioners ~ l = = = = = = = = = = = ~ Controllar ~ l = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ~ 232 September 1992 IEBE 488 BUS Fig. 3-Schematic of the experimental setup (0.02 percent + 40 counts). The temperature data are collected by the controller via an IEEE-488 bus. The program allows for data acquisition, data processing (i.e., the calculation of the local surface temperature of the specimen, T4 ,, evaluated by the 'duplex gage'; the comparison with the value T .. measured by the thermo- couple), data storage and plotting. The specimens are heated in a thermoregulated oven that uses forced convection. The room-temperature condition is taken to obtain the zero for the strain readings. The room temperature varied over a range of about 18-25C. The initial and final test temperatures are 30 and 200C respectively. The tests are carried out in increments of l0C with a heating rate of approximately 0.05 Cjminute. To assure a uniform temperature distribu- tion in the specimen, data are recorded 10 minutes after reaching the selected temperature. The tests are repeated ten times for each specimen and the results are reported as mean standard deviation values (T4 , SD T4 ,). The value of standard deviation 15 '' /'',______________ -- Duplex goge .. ------- Duplex goge J2 /r--' '- ---- Duplex goge 3 10 5 ____ /// , ' ---------------. , ... ""' 2 l-- l "' "O 1---1 ............... _, Fig. 4-Differences between the temperatures measured by duplex gages and thermocouple as a function of the temperature measured by the thermocouple 12 ,-... ()
"'
c o :+:;6 o ;;: Q) 4 "O
o "O -- Duplex goge ------- Duplex goge 2 ---- Duplex goge 3 / i'.......... ,:' l ........................................................ "'... ,,, ................ l ______ ./ l , --, , ...! , .... _________ ,' ', .... ________ ,' ,i' ,' ,:----' ,,--- l' ,
.... 50 (/) Fig. 5-Standard deviation associated with the temperature measured by duplex gages as a function of the temperature measured by the thermocouple TABLE 1-DUPLEX GAGE #2: ZERO-SHIFT VALUES OF THE STRAIN GAGE COMPENSATED FOR TITANIUM SILICATE Test #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7 #8 #9 #10 Zero-shift [percent of maximum strain value] o 1.1 2.8 3.2 4.6 5.9 9.3 9.7 10.6 11.2 is calculated in accordance with the more conservative, i.e., larger definition. The results are summarized in Figs. 4 and 5. In Fig. 4 the differences between the mean temperature values, T4,, obtained by the 'duplex gage' and the values measured by the thermocouple, T,., are indicated. In Fig. 5 the standard deviation as a function of temperature is shown. Examination of these figures shows that 'duplex gage' l and 3 show a similar tendency. The maximum difference between the thermocouple reading and the 'duplex gage' reading lies in the range of 3-5C with the standard deviation being s 5 C. On the contrary, 'duplex gage' 2 shows significant temperature differences ( s 14 o C) and standard deviations ( s 10C}. This unsatisfactory behavior appears to be caused by one of the two gages that exhibits a zero-shift as is shown in Table l. Conclusions The transducer presented can be used to obtain the temperature during the strain measurement without the use of specific temperature systems (thermocouples, etc.). The temperature can be obtained by recording and reduc- ing the contemporary data from two strain gages. One gage has its thermal characteristics matched to the specimen materia]. The second gage has highly mismatched thermal characteristics. A comparative examination of theoretical and experi- mental results shows satisfactory agreement. The per- formances of the transducer can be improved by a deeper knowledge of the behavior of the specimen and gage materials as a function of temperature. This refinement will be introduced in a forthcoming research project that uses a thermoregulated oven capable of assuring a spatial gradient s 0.1 o c. References l. Poore, W.K. and Kesterson, K.F., "Measuring the Thermal Exptzn- sion oj Solids with Strain Gages, " J. Test. and Eva/., ASTM. 6 (2) 98-102 (1978). ' ' Anon.," "Measurement of Thermal Expansion Coefficient Using Stram Gages, Measurements Group Technical Notes (1986). 3. Chalmers, G.P., "Materials, Construction, Performance and Characteristics, " Strain Gage Techno/ogy, App/ied Science Publishers (1983). 4. Dal/y, J. W. and Riley, W.F., Experimental Stress Analysis, McGraw-Hi/1 (1978). Experimental Mechanics 233