1

Cav03-OS-7-008
Fifth International Symposium on Cavitation (CAV2003)
Osaka, Japan, November 1-4, 2003
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF A
VENTILATED SUPERCAVITATING VEHICLE


Martin Wosnik
St. Anthony Falls Laboratory
University of Minnesota, USA
wosnik@umn.edu

Travis J. Schauer
Goodrich Corporation
Burnsville, MN, USA
travis.schauer@goodrich.com

Roger E.A. Arndt
St. Anthony Falls Laboratory
University of Minnesota, USA
arndt001@umn.edu



ABSTRACT
Supercavitating vehicles need to be supplied with an artificial
cavity through ventilation until they accelerate to conditions at
which a natural supercavity can be sustained. A study has been
carried out in the high-speed water tunnel at St. Anthony Falls
Laboratory to investigate some aspects of the flow physics of
such a supercavitating vehicle. Digital strobe photography
images were taken to qualitatively describe the cavity shape and
wake details. In addition, the amount of ventilation gas required
to sustain an artificial cavity at different velocities was
investigated. It was found that the strut shape critically affects
air demand through cavity-strut wake interaction. The wake of
ventilated cavities was then characterized quantitatively using
Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV). Since two-camera, filtered
PIV was prohibitively costly due to the large amount of
fluorescent particles required to seed the tunnel, a new grayscale
technique was developed to measure the void fraction of gas to
liquid in the wake of the supercavitating body. Further PIV
measurements are currently underway to explore this grayscale
technique in bubbly wakes.

INTRODUCTION
Supercavitation occurs when a submerged, moving body is
enveloped by a large, continuous cavity. It provides a means of
significantly reducing the drag of an underwater body, thus
enabling a dramatic increase in maximum speed. Small
cavitation numbers,
c
=2(p

-p
c
)/U

2
< 0.1, are required for
supercavitation to occur. There are different ways of achieving
this: (1) by increasing the free stream velocity, also referred to
as natural supercavitation (this requires U

>45m/s at sea level,

and increases with submersion depth, or p

), (2) by decreasing
the ambient pressure, p

(only feasible in closed-circuit water

tunnels), or (3) by increasing the cavity pressure, p
c
, through
ventilation of the cavity (artificial or ventilated supercavitation).
Reichardt [1] first showed that it was possible to create and
study supercavitation by artificially ventilating the flow around
a body.
Even for vehicles designed to travel at naturally
supercavitating conditions, drag must be reduced by artificial
supercavitation to enable them to accelerate to conditions at
which a natural supercavity can be sustained. These ventilated
supercavities are the subject of this experimental study.
Fundamental similarity parameters for ventilated
supercavities are the cavitation number,
c
, and the Froude
number, Fr = U

/(gd)
1/2
. When the Froude number is low,
gravitational effects are important relative to other forces acting
on the supercavitating body. One of the main problems has been
to determine the amount of ventilation gas required to sustain a
supercavity, quantified by the dimensionless air entrainment
coefficient, Q = Q/U

d
2
. As found by previous studies, gas loss
from the supercavity occurs by two distinct mechanisms of
cavity closure: when
c
Fr > 1, cavities are characterized by the
shedding of toroidal vortices and the occurrence of non-
stationary re-entrant jets, whereas when
c
Fr < 1, cavities are
dominated by gravity and ventilation gas is lost through two
stationary vortex tubes (Semenenko [2]).
While a large amount of research has been conducted to
determine the air entrainment coefficient in the twin vortex
regime, much less data are available in the case of the re-entrant
jet regime. This flow regime occurs, e.g., when a supercavitating
torpedo is initially launched and accelerating to its final, steady-
state velocity. One of the goals of the current research was to
quantify the air injection coefficient under a variety of different
cavitation and Froude numbers corresponding to the re-entrant
jet regime (
c
Fr > 1). Further, characteristics of the cavity
surface and wake details were examined using digital strobe
photography and Particle Image Velocimetry.
NOMENCLATURE
d diameter of cavitator [m]
Fr = U

/(gd)

, Froude number [-]
g gravitational acceleration [m/s
2
]
k
l
correction factor for light sheet intensity variation [-]
L length of cavity [m]
m& mass flow rate of gas [kg/s]
p pressure [N/m
2
]
p
c
cavity pressure [N/m
2
]
p
v
vapor pressure of liquid [N/m
2
]
p

freestream static pressure [N/m

2
]
2
Q = Q/U

d
2
, air entrainment coefficient [-]
Q volumetric flow rate of gas at cavity pressure [m
3
/s]
r radial coordinate [m]
S Strouhal number [-]
U velocity in wake of test body [m/s]
U
max
maximum velocity downstream of test body [m/s]
U

freestream velocity [m/s]

x streamwise coordinate [m]
u =(U
max
-U), velocity defect in wake [m/s]
void (volume) fraction of gas to liquid [-]
dynamic viscosity of fluid [kg/m s]
fluid density [kg/m
3
]

g
gas density [kg/m
3
]
=2(p

-p
v
)/U

2
, cavitation number based on
vapor pressure [-]

c
=2(p

-p
c
)/U

2
, cavitation number based on
cavity pressure [-]


DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENT
The experiments were carried out in the high-speed water
tunnel at St. Anthony Falls Laboratory (SAFL). This water
tunnel is a recirculating, closed-jet facility with absolute
pressure regulation and is capable of velocities in excess of 20
m/s.
1
The test section measures 0.19m (W) x 0.19m (H) x 1m
(L), and is fitted with observation windows on three sides. A
special design of the tunnel allows for the removal of large
quantities of air during ventilation experiments. A schematic of
the facility is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Schematic of water tunnel.
The ventilated flow study was carried out using a test body
with a sharp edged disk at the nose and special ventilation ports.
It is equipped with static pressure ports and miniature pressure
transducers for measurement of unsteady pressure in the cavity.
It is sting-mounted, and can be fitted with interchangeable disks
and rotated in the pitch plane. Careful consideration was given
to cavitation choking. Compared to the unbounded case, the

1
Unfortunately, for the work reported here water speeds were limited to 10
m/s due to an aging motor and controller. The water tunnel has recently
undergone renovations that included replacement of the old 150HP Direct
Current Motor with a modern 75HP Alternating Current Motor. As of this
writing, more experiments on ventilated supercavitation are under way.
cavity length will increase when a body is mounted in the test
section, which is bounded on all sides (tunnel walls are fixed
streamlines). Eventually, the cavity length will become infinite
at a cavitation number greater than zero, which is known as the
choking condition, c.f. Tulin [3]. Once the flow is choked,
further reductions in cavitation number are not possible. For the
tunnel used in the current research, a 1 cm disk causes choking
to occur at a cavitation number of approximately 0.1. Therefore,
the body was designed so that it would be fully contained within
a cavity generated by a 1 cm disk at cavitation numbers below
approximately 0.14. A drawing of the test body is shown in
Figure 2.


Figure 2: Cross-section of test body. Diameter of sharp-edged
disk cavitator (on left) is 1 cm.
The general setup for the PIV measurements is shown in
Figure 3 (PIV System: TSI, 12-bit dynamic range cameras,
2048x2048 pixel resolution). The test body was mounted to one
of the side windows to facilitate optical access from two planes
at a right angle (front and bottom). For measurements in the
non-cavitating case, 1-3 m diameter titanium dioxide particles
were used for seeding (Stokes number St=0.002).
Typically for a two-phase (cavitating) flow, the system can
be set up as a 2-camera, filtered PIV to obtain the velocity fields
of both the gas and liquid phase. For this setup, the liquid phase
would be seeded with fluorescent particles so that the light
scattered by the gas phase (same wavelength as that of the
incident light of the pulsed YAG laser) and liquid phase (Laser
Induced fluorescence) would be at different wavelengths. PIV
imaging of the flow field of both phases could then be
accomplished with optical filters, c.f. Khalitov and Longmire
[4]. However, due to the size of the water tunnel used in the
current research, fluorescent particles could not be used because
of cost considerations. Therefore, in the cavitating case only the
gas velocity was measured. Details of these measurements will
be discussed below.
Flow
Dual Nd:YAG
lasers and optics
Laser sheet
Image field
Camera

Figure 3: General PIV setup for bubbly wake.
3
QUALITATIVE DESCRIPTION OF CAVITY AND WAKE
Initially, a strut with circular (cylindrical) cross-section was
used, so that its shape and flow disturbance would be the same
for all angles of attack. However, the cylindrical strut had many
negative effects, including vibration at a Strouhal number
typical of bluff-body wakes, which induced a disturbance to the
cavity walls, and increased ventilation demand. Therefore, a
strut with an elliptical cross-section was designed and fitted over
the cylindrical strut to alleviate these problems.
Typical pictures of supercavities with cylindrical and
elliptical struts are shown in Figures 4 and 5, respectively. A
closer examination of the opaque regions (see detail zoom)
reveals that the cavity surface is not smooth in these areas. This
is due to re-entrant jets. As the re-entrant jet surges upstream, it
loses momentum due to friction. Gravity then causes water
from the unsteady re-entrant jet to fall from the test body surface
and impact on the cavity boundaries.
Note that the re-entrant jet in Figure 5 (elliptical strut) has
surged further upstream than in Figure 4 (cylindrical strut). A
possible reason for the difference could be the smaller influence
of the elliptical strut on the cavity boundaries. It appears that
smoother boundaries may delay re-entrant jet breakup compared
to the cylindrical strut case.



Figure 4: Cavity shape and re-entrant jet interaction with
cylindrical strut. Arrow in detail zoom points to re-entrant jet.
VENTILATION GAS REQUIREMENTS
In Figure 6 it can be seen that the strut shape critically
affects air demand through cavity-strut wake interaction. First,
the cylindrical strut caused large distortions to the cavity
boundary. In addition, large amounts of ventilation gas were
entrained behind the cylindrical strut due to the large pressure
drop in the wake of the strut. The amount of gas entrained by
the strut is greatly reduced behind the elliptical strut due to its
more aerodynamic shape. (The pressure in the strut wake is
lower, compared to the elliptical strut shape, causing larger
amounts of injected ventilation air to be entrained.)
Two methods to measure unsteady cavity pressure were
attempted in the current research: miniature Entran pressure
transducers (first two holes downstream of the cavitator in


Figure 5: Cavity shape and re-entrant jet interaction with
elliptical strut. Arrow in detail zoom points to re-entrant jet.
Figure 2) and static pressure ports (last two small
circumferential holes on the right in Figure 2). The miniature
transducers had small thermal mass and self-heated due to
operating power. Changing flow over the transducer changed
the sensors equilibrium temperature, leading to a large error in
the measurement which could not be corrected for. The static
pressure port measurements were affected by the re-entrant jet
and the repeatability was poor. Thus neither pressure
measurement was reliable, and the cavitation number based on
cavity pressure had to be computed in an alternative way.



Figure 6: Distortion of cavity shape due to cylindrical (left) and
elliptical (right) struts. U

and p

are constant. Q increases from

bottom to top, while constant in each row of images.
The cavity half-length was measured from a large number
of digital images and the cavitation number was determined
from en empirical relation for cavity length by Waid [5]. Once
the cavitation number was known, the cavity pressure and the
volumetric flow rate of the injected gas at the cavity pressure of
the injected gas could be obtained. The air entrainment
coefficient versus cavitation number for a 1cm disk with the
4
elliptical strut is shown in Figure 6. Note that below a cavitation
number of about 0.14, the cavity length grows beyond the length
of the test body.
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45
Cavitation Number
A
i
r

E
n
t
r
a
i
n
m
e
n
t

C
o
e
f
f
i
c
e
n
t

Figure 7: Digital images of cavity with 1cm diameter cavitator
disk and elliptical strut.
Next, the calculation of the cavitation number was refined using
numerical results from Brennen [6], which give a correction for
the cavity length in a bounded flow. The data for cavitator disks
of 1cm and 1.5cm diameter, for both the cylindrical and
elliptical struts, are shown in Figure 8. The Froude number for
each set of data ranges from about 20 to 40. Note how the air
entrainment coefficient at small cavitation numbers is
significantly lower for the elliptical strut when compared to the
cylindrical strut data. This plot clearly shows how the location
of the steep increase in the air entrainment coefficient
(ventilation gas requirements) depends on cavitator size.
However, the cavity length where the air entrainment coefficient
increases dramatically is approximately the same for both
cavitator diameters. This length corresponds to the point where
the cavity length approximately equals the length of the test
body. This suggests that once a supercavity extends beyond the
length of the body it is enveloping, a significant increase in
ventilation gas is necessary to further increase the length of the
cavity.
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55
Cavitation Number
A
i
r

E
n
t
r
a
i
n
m
e
n
t

C
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
Cylindrical Strut, 1 cm Disk
Elliptical Strut, 1 cm Disk
Cylindrical Strut, 1.5 cm Disk
Elliptical Strut, 1.5 cm Disk

Figure 8: Air entrainment data for both disks and struts,
cavitation number computations were refined using data of
Brennen [6].
WAKE MEASUREMENTS WITH PIV
Measurements of the near-wake were performed in both
non-cavitating and cavitating (ventilated) regimes. A schematic
of the wake with applicable coordinate system and nomenclature
is shown in Figure 9. The measurements reported here were
performed with a camera and lens setup that resulted in a pixel
resolution of approximately 70m/pixel. An interrogation area
of 32x32 pixels was used, giving a system resolution of about
2.25mm. Standard cross-correlation and post-processing (filter)
techniques were used. Note that all PIV results presented here
were obtained with the cylindrical strut, and should therefore be
considered preliminary pending further measurements currently
being carried out.

U
x
r Umax
u(r)

Figure 9: Schematic of wake behind body.
Velocity data in the wake for the non-cavitating case is
shown in Figure 10, plotted in similarity variables for the
axisymmetric near-wake (high Reynolds number, based on
velocity deficit). The data collapses reasonably well, except for
the upper portion of the wake, which is attributed to flow non-
uniformity in the tunnel. The mean, free-stream flow velocity
was 6.36 m/s. The PIV measurements were taken with a single
camera, and 500 particle image pairs were averaged.

-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
-0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
u/x
-2/3
r
/
x
1
/
3
x = 0.5 cm
x = 3.0 cm
x = 4.5 cm
x = 6.0 cm
x = 7.5 cm
x = 9.0 cm

Figure 10: Power law relationships in non-cavitating wake for
U

= 6.36 m/s, with u=(U

max
-U). Average of 500 vector fields.

For measurements in the ventilated cavitating wake,
fluorescent particles could not be used to distinguish the phases
due to cost considerations, as previously mentioned. Instead, a
new technique was developed to determine void fraction from
PIV measurements of the cavitating flow, where air bubbles
were used as particles.
5
Standard PIV images were recorded from reflections of the
air bubbles. Due to the relatively high void fraction of the gas
phase enough bubbles were present in the interrogation regions
in the bubbly wake to provide a usable signal for cross-
correlation. However, the percentage of validated velocity
vectors was lower for the cavitating case (25% to 70% at the
center of the bubbly wake, decreasing with downstream
distance) than for the seeded, non-cavitating case (90%). This
was due to bubble reflection and refraction and varying bubble
density. The number of validated vectors also dropped off fairly
rapidly moving radially outward from the center of the wake.
Bubble velocity data in the cavitating wake are shown in
Figure 11. The cavitation number for this case was
approximately 0.15. The data were taken at the same free-stream
conditions and for the same field of view as the data in the non-
cavitating regime shown in Figure 10. Again, 500 image pairs
were acquired and used to calculate an average velocity field.
Only the points for interrogation areas which had validated
vectors in at least 15% of the 500 images were plotted.
Therefore, each data point represents, at a minimum, an average
of 75 vectors. Since not as many vectors were averaged in the
cavitating regime, the data are not nearly as smooth as the data
in the non-cavitating regime. However, the data at least show
good qualitative results, if not quantitative, as discussed later.
As can be seen, the data show the velocity in the wake tending
towards the free-stream velocity as the downstream distance
increases.
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7
Bubble Velocity in Wake (m/s)
r

(
c
m
)
x = 0.5 cm
x = 3.0 cm
x = 4.5 cm
x = 6.0 cm
x = 7.5 cm
x = 9.0 cm

Figure 11: Bubble velocity in cavitating wake for U

= 6.36 m/s
and
c
= 0.15.

Since the data in Figure 11 were taken at the same free-
stream conditions as the data in Figure 10, a comparison
between the two data sets can be easily made. Velocity data in
the wake for both the cavitating and non-cavitating regimes are
shown in Figure 12. Note that liquid velocities for the non-
cavitating case and bubble velocities for the cavitating regime
are shown for the same downstream locations. It can be seen
that there is good agreement in the velocity data between the
two regimes. This is true even though a fairly small number of
vectors were validated for the cavitating regime compared to the
non-cavitating regime. The observed agreement between the
liquid and bubble velocities is expected if it is assumed that
there is little to no slip between the liquid and gas phases. The
good agreement between the data at the same free-stream
conditions lends support to the quantitative validity of the PIV
results in the cavitating regime.

-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7
Velocity in Wake (m/s)
r

(
c
m
)
x = 0.5 cm, cavitating
x = 3.0 cm, cavitating
x = 6.0 cm, cavitating
x = 9.0 cm, cavitating
x = 0.5 cm, non-cavitating
x = 3.0 cm, non-cavitating
x = 6.0 cm, non-cavitating
x = 9.0 cm, non-cavitating

Figure 12: Non-dimensional velocity data in non-cavitating
wake for U

= 6.36 m/s. Average of 500 vector fields

The first step in calculating the void fraction in the wake
was to analyze the grayscale levels of the PIV images. The
average grayscale value for each pixel was calculated from a
series of PIV images. Once the average grayscale value for each
pixel was determined, the background noise was subtracted, so
that a grayscale value of zero corresponds to a void fraction of
zero. Next, the assumption was made that the intensity of the
reflected light was proportional to the void fraction. With this
assumption, the general shape of the void fraction distribution
versus radial position was obtained by plotting the grayscale
value for each pixel. Up to this point, the curve is only
qualitatively correct as the magnitude of the void fraction must
still be determined. However, calculating the void fraction is a
simple process since the velocity of the gas phase can be
measured with PIV and the air injection rate can be measured
with a flow meter, in our case a rotameter.
The void fraction of gas to liquid for, , was determined by
solving the equation
dA k U(r) m
l
A g

= & , (1)
where k
l
is a correction factor for light sheet intensity variation
explained below. The density of the gas,
g
, was estimated in the
following manner: First, the pressure of the gas was assumed to
be equal to that of the surrounding fluid, with the pressure being
a constant for a given downstream location. Next, the pressure
was calculated using Bernoullis equation between free-stream
conditions and liquid flow outside the cavity at a given
downstream position with velocity U
max
. Once the pressure was
known, the density of the gas could be calculated from the ideal
gas law. The temperature of the gas was assumed to be equal to
the temperature of the injected air, which was approximately the
same as the water temperature in the tunnel. Finally, since the
shape of the void fraction curve is known from the PIV images,
the magnitude can be determined by numerically integrating
equation (1).

6

The above procedure for determining the void fraction in
the wake will now be illustrated with experimental results. The
same procedure for cross-correlating the PIV images as in the
non-cavitating flow was used in the cavitating flow. In addition,
the same post processing tools were used to eliminate spurious
vectors.
The average grayscale values for six downstream locations
are shown in Figure 13. The data were normalized such that a
value of zero corresponds to black and a value of one
corresponds to pixel saturation (white). Here, the grayscale
levels are seen to be highest for downstream locations greater
than six centimeters. This may seem odd since the void fraction
is highest closest to the body (where the wake has not had a
chance to spread and the velocity is lowest) and it was assumed
that the void fraction is proportional to the grayscale level.
However, the laser was centered at a downstream location of
approximately seven centimeters for these measurements, and
corrections for light sheet intensity variation need to be made.
Since the laser is brightest at the center and decays in intensity
from the centerline of the sheet, the bubble reflections are the
most intense at the center of the sheet. Figure 13 thus only
shows the relative shape of the void fraction curves, and
corrections for the light sheet intensity are needed to determine
the magnitude of each curve. Note also that the curves do not
go to zero outside of the wake due to background noise in the
images.
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16
Normalized Grayscale Level
r

(
c
m
)
x = 0.5 cm
x = 3.0 cm
x = 4.5 cm
x = 6.0 cm
x = 7.5 cm
x = 9.0 cm

Figure 13: Normalized grayscale levels in the wake for U

=
6.36 m/s and
c
= 0.15. Average of 500 images.

Figure 14 shows the grayscale levels at various downstream
locations after the average background noise was removed. Note
how the curves now approach a grayscale level of zero,
indicating a void fraction of zero percent. Still, the curves only
show the general shape of the void fraction variation, not the
absolute magnitude.
The final void fraction results are shown in Figure 15. The
void fraction was calculated by using equation (1) and the
midpoint rule for numerically approximating the integral. The
velocity data used to determine the void fraction were shown in

-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
-0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16
Normalized Grayscale Level
r

(
c
m
)
x = 0.5 cm
x = 3.0 cm
x = 4.5 cm
x = 6.0 cm
x = 7.5 cm
x = 9.0 cm

Figure 14: Normalized grayscale levels after removing
background noise. U

= 6.36 m/s,
c
= 0.15.

Figure 11. Note that the velocity data do not extend to the edge
of the wake since the number of validated vectors there was low.
Therefore, as an approximation the velocity values at the outer
edges of the profiles at each downstream location were extended
radially outward and kept constant so that the void fraction
could be determined. The correction factor for intensity
variation of the light sheet, k
l
, was approximated to be only a
function of downstream position and independent of radial
position r.
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14
Void Fraction,
r

(
c
m
)
x = 0.5
cm
x = 3.0
cm
x = 4.5
cm
x = 6.0
cm

Figure 15: Calculated void fraction in wake for U

= 6.36 m/s
and
c
= 0.15. Average of 500 vector fields and images.

The maximum void fraction is decreasing with downstream
distance in Figure 15, which, at the very least, is the
qualitatively correct result. Continuity for the gas phase is
satisfied - the mass flow rate of the gas is a constant at each
downstream location. Note from Figure 11 that since the
velocity in the wake increases with downstream distance, the
void fraction must decrease. Also, since the velocity data for the
gas phase agreed well with the liquid velocity in the non-
cavitating case, the magnitudes of the void fraction curves are
assumed to be correct.



7

The somewhat surprising result that the void fraction
distribution in this dimensional plot does not spread with
downstream distance needs more investigation. Most likely it is
attributable to simply extending the radially limited gas phase
measurements in the cavitating case outward at constant velocity
values, as discussed above.

SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK
A study was carried out in the high-speed water tunnel at St.
Anthony Falls Laboratory to investigate some aspects of the
flow physics of such a ventilated supercavitating vehicle. Cavity
shape and re-entrant jet interaction were described qualitatively
using digital strobe photography. Ventilation gas requirements to
sustain an artificial cavity were studied at different velocities. It
was found that the strut shape critically affects air demand
through cavity-strut wake interaction. Velocity measurements
were made in the both the non-cavitating and the ventilated
cavitating wake. A new grayscale technique was developed to
measure the void fraction of gas to liquid in the wake. The
technique was found to show promise as an inexpensive means
to measure void fraction in two-phase flows.
Further measurements are currently underway to explore this
grayscale technique in bubbly wakes over a greater range of
flow conditions. Also, alternate methods to directly measure
fluctuating cavity pressure are currently being explored.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge support from the
Office of Naval Research, program manager Dr. Kam Ng.
M. Wosnik gratefully acknowledges support from the
Minnesota Supercomputing Institute (MSI).
REFERENCES
[1] Reichardt, H. The Laws of Cavitation Bubbles at Axially
Symmetrical Bodies in a Flow. Ministry of Aircraft Production
(Great Britain), Reports and Translations No. 766, 1946.
[2] Semenenko, V.N. Artificial Supercavitation. Physics and
Calculation. RTO AVT Lecture Series on Supercavitating
Flows, Brussels, Belgium, 2001.
[3] Tulin, M.P. Supercavitating Flows. In Streeter, V. (ed.),
Handbook of Fluid Dynamics, McGraw-Hill, New York, pp. 12-
24 to 12-46, 1961.
[4] Khalitov, D.A., Longmire, E.K. Simultaneous two-phase
PIV by two-parameter phase discrimination. Experiments in
Fluids, 32, pp. 252-268, 2002.
[5] Waid, R.L. Cavity Shapes for Circular Disks at Angles of
Attack. Cal. Institute of Technology. Report No. E-73.4, 1957.
[6] Brennen, C. A numerical solution of axisymmetric cavity
flows. J. Fluid Mechanics, 37, pp. 671-688, 1969.